Complicating the Role of Relationships in

Reducing Student Absenteeism

Kimberly L. Stokes, Sarah Winchell Lenhoff, and Jeremy Singer

A strong connection between schools and families is vital for student success and well-
being. Previous studies on school–family relationships found that open communication
between parties may aid in supporting students’ needs and ability to attend school. In this

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paper, authors analyze how leveraging relationships to gain an increased understanding of a
family’s attendance barriers is more beneficial than relationships built on accountability.
From interviews with 38 caregivers, 29 students, and 40 staff members in an urban school
district with high rates of chronic absenteeism, authors found that efforts to build
relationships with families focused on accountability and caregiver education about their
children’s attendance and the importance of attending school. Families sometimes
perceived these efforts as superficial and ineffective. Authors discuss how school districts
and key school personnel, such as social workers, can intentionally use the power of
relationships to identify student and family needs and connect them with resources.

KEY WORDS: chronic absenteeism; inequality; school–family relationships; student attendance

C
hronic absenteeism (missing 10 percent or level chronic absenteeism (Lenhoff & Pogodzinski,
more school days) is influenced by multi­ 2018), there is little empirical evidence to support
ple factors such as chronic illness, inade­ causal claims that relationships increase or decrease ab­
quate transportation, and housing insecurity (Balkis senteeism (Hamlin, 2020). Instead, relationships may
et al., 2016; Teasley, 2004). Since the passage of the moderate a school’s ability to remove barriers to at­
Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015, 36 U.S. states tendance. For instance, as students attend school
have incorporated chronic absenteeism into their more, their relationships with teachers and peers may
school accountability and improvement systems as a deepen, creating opportunities for increased support
“nonacademic indicator” of school performance for families (McConnell & Kubina, 2014).
(Jordan & Miller, 2017). With this new accountabil­ This study builds on prior literature exploring the
ity metric, many districts and schools sought new importance of school–family relationships to better
approaches to reducing absenteeism, some of which understand how and in what direction relationships
emphasized the role of school–family relationships are related to absenteeism. We ask, “What role do
in improving school culture and improving condi­ school–family relationships have in the logic of im­
tions for attendance (Sheldon, 2007). proving attendance?” This qualitative study aims to
Traditionally, scholars have noted the parallel roles advance the research on chronic absenteeism by ana­
positive and negative family relationships may have lyzing and contrasting family and staff perceptions of
on student engagement and attendance (Balkis et al., school relationships and attendance, describing the
2016). Researchers and practitioners have theorized mechanisms through which relationships might mat­
that relationships with school staff are directly related ter for attendance in a school district with high levels
to one’s intrinsic motivation—or the internal drive to of chronic absenteeism.
do something without external incentives—to attend
school (e.g., Adıg€uzel & Karadaş, 2013; Balkis et al., SCHOOL–FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS
2016). Positive interpersonal relationships between Research and practice surrounding school–family
home and school may contribute to protective factors interactions are grounded in the logic that strong or
for absenteeism such as social–emotional support weak relationships are directly linked to students’
(Hamlin, 2020; Ryan & Deci, 2000). attendance rates, as they influence family motiva­
Although previous studies have found that strong tion to attend school (McConnell & Kubina,
school–family bonds can be associated with school- 2014). Research to support this notion is seen in

https://doi.org/10.1093/cs/cdae022 © 2024 National Association of Social Workers 245

studies that suggest educators’ connections with teacher, social worker, administrator, aide), they will
families play a key role in reducing student absen­ have a “reason” to attend (van Egmond et al., 2017).
teeism (e.g., van Egmond et al., 2017). The com­ Examples of this theory in the extant literature are
mon thread in this literature is the assumption that seen in psychological frameworks such as the self-
more frequent and substantive communication with determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), which
families will increase attendance rates. Furthermore, posits that personal motivation will lead to goal-
by improving interpersonal relationships, families oriented behavior change. Support of this principle
will theoretically better understand the importance can be found in psychological analyses on the role of
of attending school and have increased motivation intrinsic motivation to reach a goal. Researchers con­

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(Epstein & Sheldon, 2002). ceptualize intrinsic motivation as something that
More recent studies have shifted from separately “drives a person to do something because it is enjoy­
analyzing attendance risk by individual, school, and able or interesting” (van Egmond et al., 2017, p. 823).
family factors to noting the integrated relationship be­ Van Egmond et al. (2017) found that regardless of per­
tween these levels (e.g., Childs & Lofton, 2021; Gott­ sonal hardship, intrinsic motivation was a predictor of
fried & Gee, 2017). In the context of relationships, school attendance. These findings support the belief
interactions between caregivers and staff are seen as a that if a student has an inviting school environment or
tool to increase involvement and address attendance a singular staff member to connect with, they may
problems. For example, if a teacher or social worker is find a way to attend school, despite adversity.
assigned to build a relationship with a family, the care­
givers may feel more involved in the student’s school Family Involvement and Motivation
experiences. However, Sheldon (2007) notes that in Other researchers in educational psychology look at
addition to a caretaker’s belief about the school, other motivational research through a socioecological lens
barriers such as socioeconomic status and childhood instead of an individual lens, focusing on the effect
experiences should be considered in relationship family and school factors have on an individual’s atti­
building. Overall, the literature on school relationships tude and academic motivation (Whitaker et al.,
overemphasizes the effect on beliefs and motivation 2012). These frameworks suggest that caregiver in­
and underemphasizes the effect of using relationships volvement, which can be cultivated through school–
to understand and address a family’s needs. Newer family relationships, will increase student motivation
empirical studies have found that the relationship be­ to attend school. Suizzo et al. (2016) argue that these
tween family, staff, and attendance is more complex relationships can influence parental academic sociali­
(Hamlin, 2020). The following review focuses on the zation, which will lead them to transfer favorable
potential mechanisms through which school–family messages to their children, increasing their motiva­
relationships might matter for attendance. Researchers tion to attend school.
used the terms “family” and “caregivers” to describe
relationships between the school and students’ home Racialized Relationships
support systems. While some of the data come directly In the focus district, about 80 percent of the students
from students’ “parents,” we use inclusive terms that are Black. Since most of the families interviewed in
speak to adults in students’ broader ecosystems that this study self-identify as Black/African American, it
may include both primary (e.g., parents) and second­ is important to note the unique experiences that
ary (e.g., aunts, uncles, godparents, grandparents, sib­ Black caregivers face in navigating school attendance
lings) relationships. Based on the demographics of this requirements. Across levels of socioeconomic status,
study, it was common that various adults in students’ Black caregivers often volunteer in schools and sup­
home lives, beyond their parents, served as forms of port initiatives financially. Despite their efforts, per­
support or provided resources to be able to attend ceptions of Black caregivers are often deficit-framed,
school. focusing on the absence of their involvement rather
than their presence (Allen & White-Smith, 2018;
Student Motivation Cooper, 2009). Assumptions about Black caregivers
Even if students face adversity in a home setting, a neglect to account for the impact that consequences
common motivation narrative is that, if students have of “time poverty” (Allen & White-Smith, 2018),
a positive relationship with an adult at school (e.g., such as inflexible work schedules and childcare costs,

246 Children & Schools VOLUME 46, NUMBER 4 OCTOBER 2024

have on caregivers’ ability to be present in the school STUDY CONTEXT
setting. Negative assumptions about Black caregivers Detroit has uniquely challenging conditions for stu­
are displayed in school personnel’s exclusionary prac­ dent attendance. In the years preceding the COVID-
tices, which in turn leave caregivers feeling underval­ 19 pandemic, around half of all students in Detroit
ued and unwelcome as partners in their children’s were chronically absent, which is the highest rate
school experiences. Critical scholarship also notes the of absenteeism of any major U.S. city (Singer et al.,
ways Black families must advocate for their children 2021). Detroit’s uniquely high level of absenteeism
in traditional school systems. In addition to tradi­ is associated with the structural inequality that fam­
tional forms of involvement, Black caregivers are ilies face, including the highest levels of poverty,

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called to “empower themselves and their children in unemployment, blight, violent crime, and asthma
educational systems that have historically oppressed among major cities; having one of the coldest aver­
them” (Cooper, 2009, p. 382). If a family’s cultural age monthly temperatures; and having the highest
needs conflict with district initiatives, school ad­ levels of racial segregation (Singer et al., 2021).
vancement often supersedes cultural comfort. Dis­ High levels of school mobility and residential mo­
tricts racialize the school environment through bility are also associated with absenteeism in the
policies and procedures that do not take students’ city (Singer et al., 2021; Welsh, 2018). In addition,
cultural norms into consideration. Detroit also has a challenging context for transpor­
tation, including low rates of car ownership; a
Removing Barriers school-based transportation system that excludes
Scholars agree that involving families is a funda­ many students; and a public bus system that is often
mental component of targeting absenteeism, and perceived as unreliable (Lenhoff et al., 2022).
most districts recognize the integral role caregivers There are about 50 school districts operating tra­
play in attendance. Direct contact with caregivers ditional public and charter schools in Detroit. This
has a significant impact on student attendance study focuses on the traditional public school dis­
(McConnell & Kubina, 2014), but it is not clear trict’s practices to reduce high rates of absenteeism
what mechanism is driving improved attendance. between 2018 and 2020, prior to the onset of the
For instance, family contact or relationship building COVID-19 pandemic. As part of the Every Stu­
could be a way to connect families with resources dent Succeeds Act, Michigan adopted chronic ab­
or create policies that remove barriers to atten­ sence as a nonacademic accountability measure for
dance. Since school staff interact with students on a school ratings, creating new pressure for districts to
daily basis, they play a key role in recognizing the address it (Michigan Department of Education,
students who are struggling with attendance. The 2019). In addition, there was increasing attention
stronger a relationship is, the more likely caregivers on school attendance among community organiza­
of chronically absent students may feel comfortable tions in Detroit (Simmons & Bell, 2019), led by a
sharing barriers they are facing in attending school. community coalition, which set an ambitious goal
Although staff play an important role in connecting to decrease chronic absenteeism drastically by 2027.
with families, they often receive minimal formal In its focus on absenteeism, the district made orga­
training on proactive ways to develop these con­ nizational changes and new investments, including
nections (Sheldon, 2007). Therefore, staff are left hiring personnel who were focused on addressing
to use “trial and error” strategies without unified absenteeism and implementing district attendance
support from the school community (Sheldon, policies (Einhorn & Higgins, 2019). School staff
2007). The more schools use systemic organiza­ worked in attendance teams that included social
tional approaches to connect with families, the workers, counselors, and administrators. Social work­
stronger connections could be to buffer barriers to ers and other mental health professionals played a
attendance. The purpose of this article is to further vital role on attendance teams because of their eco­
extend the research on school–family relationships logical perspective on the role of students’ home
and attendance to better understand why these rela­ environments in their school attendance patterns.
tionships matter, particularly in high-poverty con­ The teams sought to gain a holistic understanding
texts with structural barriers to attendance and high of students’ needs and address barriers to attending
chronic absenteeism rates. school.

Stokes, Lenhoff, and Singer / Complicating the Role of Relationships in Reducing Student Absenteeism 247
METHOD stronger relationships may not improve student atten­
We conducted semistructured interviews with 38 dance directly, they may improve schools’ under­
caregivers of K–12 students in seven schools and 29 standing of the needs of families who are struggling
high school students from five schools in Detroit. with attendance. So, to the extent that schools effec­
Using a stratified random sampling process, we tively act on what they learn from relationships with
spoke with families and caregivers who had chil­ caregivers and students, and to the extent that they
dren who were not chronically absent, moderately maintain strong and trusting relationships to stay
chronically absent (10 percent–20 percent days abreast of students’ personal and familial circumstan­
missed), and severely chronically absent (more than ces, relationships may be an important lever for im­
20 percent days missed). We also interviewed 40 proving attendance. This study provides increased in­

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school staff in seven schools who were responsible sight to inform districts on how to use relationships to
for improving attendance in the schools where the buffer against barriers to attendance for families.
students were enrolled. All interviews were tran­
scribed and analyzed using Dedoose software. Ini­ Minimal Role of Relationships in Chronic
tial open coding (Salda~ na, 2012) of transcripts was Absenteeism
conducted, then we reviewed the excerpts and Across our interviews with caregivers and students,
identified barriers (inadequate school relationships), the strength and nature of their relationships varied.
resources (school–family relationships), and practi­ Families ranged from having frequent conversa­
ces (family relationships and student relationships/ tions with school staff regarding attendance to only
mentorship) for attendance. Next, we did a round hearing from the school when their child reached
of in vivo coding to highlight families’ experiences the chronically absent level. The range in relation­
with school staff around attendance. In the final ships was also apparent in students’ descriptions of
coding round, we created subcodes to classify how they felt supported or devalued by teachers
themes that emerged. and administrators. Within this context, connec­
tion with staff also varied by staff members. For in­
RESULTS stance, some families had a strong relationship with
Our findings illustrate that relationships matter in their child’s teacher or school social worker while
direct and indirect interactions between school staff simultaneously feeling judged by other attendance
and families. For instance, families we spoke to dis­ team members. These relational levels revealed that
cussed how trusting relationships increased the relationships might influence a student’s attitude
likelihood that they would ask the school for help about school, but, in most cases, they were not a
with resources to go to school (e.g., uniforms, major factor in attendance patterns. When asked
food, gas money). In secondary schools, students about relationships at school and if students ever
shared examples of how school staff made them missed school because of these relationships, one
feel valued, such as teachers attending community student stated that they still went to school but felt
events, inquiring about their mental health, and frustrated when they did not feel teachers were
helping with academics. Overall, families of chron­ helping them: “I raised my hand and yelled, ‘Come
ically absent students largely pointed to other bar­ help me.’ Or whatever, and if I’m not understand­
riers to attendance (e.g., lack of transportation, ing something, it’s like [teachers] catch an attitude:
health issues) and not poor school relationships as ‘OK, well, you figure it out on your own.’ Walk
the primary drivers of absenteeism. While school away or something like that.”
staff conceptualized frequent phone calls and home
visits as “building relationships,” many caregivers Structural Barriers to Attending School
shared how these practices could feel like harass­ In contrast, families consistently identified a set of
ment from school officials about attendance. significant barriers to attendance. Transportation
These findings suggest that while schools’ implicit was the most frequent and pervasive issue for fami­
and explicit ways of building relationships with fami­ lies. This was echoed by attendance team members
lies could play a role in improving students’ atten­ in the district, almost all of whom identified trans­
dance, the current practices related to relationship portation as one of the top three barriers to atten­
building are inadequate and may at times be mis­ dance in a districtwide survey. Importantly, issues
guided, resulting in strained relationships. Although with getting to school were more complex than

248 Children & Schools VOLUME 46, NUMBER 4 OCTOBER 2024

immediate access to transportation. These issues asked what was going on at home. One caregiver
emerged from a combination of factors: unreliable shared their frustration with the lack of support in
or inconsistent availability of personal transporta­ addressing barriers that kept their children from
tion; difficulty affording vehicle repairs, gas, or school and how the staff’s response was accusatory
other transportation services; work schedules that instead of asking what the family needed.
conflicted with school start and end times; weak
social networks that offered unreliable support for The only thing they would do is come to the
primary or back-up transportation; unsafe condi­ house and act like, “Why your kid hasn’t
tions in neighborhoods for walking or waiting been there?” But not try to resolve the issue
for the bus; and major service gaps in school-based to why or ask you what’s going on. I didn’t

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and public transportation. In addition, health issues have the money to buy uniforms. They didn’t
were a significant concern. Beyond the occasional ask, “[Do you] need help?” or [say], “We
cold or the flu, several students had chronic health have services,” and it was like they were
issues that led to multiple absences per month (e.g., coming at me hard. And I’m like, “I’m trying
asthma, allergies, diabetes). Students also missed my best.”
school at times for mental health reasons and if their
caregivers had health issues that disrupted these stu­ In this case and many others, communication with
dents’ normal ways of getting to school. All these families was not used to solidify relationships that
health issues were exacerbated by unreliable access could be leveraged to help families with their child­
to healthcare. ren’s attendance.

Different Views of the Relationships Shifting the Emotional Climate of the

The ambiguity around what creates an authentic School Setting
relationship between home and school is seen in In addition to not assisting with resources, families
the incompatible views that district employees, stu­ shared an unsafe school culture as another barrier
dents, and families held. School staff viewed rela­ to attendance. Some caregivers expressed concerns
tionships as an essential factor for attendance, yet about how their children were emotionally mis­
often approached families from a deficit perspective. treated by school staff. Both caregivers and students
Relationships were seen as a way to inspire and hold described feeling overlooked by some school offi­
families accountable for coming to school. From this cials when students struggled academically. How­
motivation-based lens, some staff believed that, as ever, even in these cases where there was a negative
trust in the school setting increases, so will a stu­ relationship between a family and staff members,
dent’s attendance. Therefore, staff were socialized to the students only cited missing a few school days.
view their ability to connect with students in a posi­ Overall, systemic barriers such as transportation,
tive way as an interpersonal intervention for absen­ housing instability, and financial strain were the
teeism. However, the practices that staff members primary drivers of chronic absenteeism.
used to build relationships were largely transactional. Alternatively, when relationships were positive,
According to interviews with attendance team trust was gained when families saw that staff would
members, they were encouraged to connect with respond to their needs and support them inside and
families through frequent phone calls and home vis­ outside the school setting. The most useful school–
its, primarily for tracking purposes rather than build­ family relationships noted a direct connection to
ing relationships over time that promoted a partner­ resources gained that assisted the family with atten­
ship to improve attendance. dance. For example, school mental health profes­
For caregivers, staff efforts to build relationships sionals, such as social workers, connected families
often felt more like harassment than help. In some with resources and created a safe space to listen to
cases, repercussions for absenteeism instead of resour­ families’ stressors. Subsequently, resource sharing
ces were the only thing shared with caregivers. resulted in a power sharing dynamic between the
Some caregivers felt a sense of shame and lacked school and family and, therefore, more meaningful
support from staff to address barriers. Caregivers felt relationships. The students we spoke with noted
assumptions were made about why their child was how they felt appreciated by staff members who
absent and would have appreciated if school staff went beyond their job duties to support them. A

Stokes, Lenhoff, and Singer / Complicating the Role of Relationships in Reducing Student Absenteeism 249
few students shared that their coaches made them . . . They’ll call me. I talk to them in person.
feel wanted at school because they built a strong re­ She wasn’t making her first hour. And that she
lationship over the years and genuinely cared about was behind. They gave her catch-up work.
their life experiences outside of school. The impor­
tance of relationships with noninstructional staff, Another working caregiver who had to start a shift
such as school social workers and coaches, is often before school hours described how she was able to
underemphasized in research documenting the im­ build a relationship with a school coach who
portance of school–family relationships. would contact her when her child made it to
school safely: “He would call me every morning or
Useful Forms of Support from School Staff I would call him in the mornings, too, to make

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Multiple students noted how they felt appreciated by sure that [my child] was in school.”
staff members who showed up at their activities out­ Caregivers also described how they felt valued
side of school and how these efforts added to a posi­ when schools would assist in dismantling barriers to
tive relationship created in school. For instance, one attendance. As schools responded with resources to
student shared that they appreciated school staff caring families’ needs, trust was built. A caregiver who
about the outside activities that meant a lot to them: had transportation issues because of a disability
shared that the school’s empathy, along with
I like the teachers. I like all the athletic coach­ resources, helped her children get to school:
ing and stuff. They’re involved with the
school outside of just sports, certain clubs They know that it’s harder for me to find a
with the teachers or how you can be around job [due to her disability], have a bunch of
other teachers and students outside of the kids, things like that, so they have supported
school and stuff. That’s cool. . . . That’s my me with some different resources in that
basketball coach. We talk a lot outside of way to help get the kids to school.
school, a lot of things outside of sports related.
For another caregiver, using attendance calls to
Having an increased understanding of students’ per­ make him aware of his child’s attendance patterns
sonal lives led to staff members having more knowl­ instead of as a scare tactic for truancy consequences
edge about students’ needs. For instance, if teachers helped improve his child’s attendance. He de­
knew students were struggling financially, they would scribed how the attendance team member listened
have the school provide food. Other teachers even to the reason for the student’s absence and brain­
went out of their way to ensure students’ basic needs stormed ways to help the family get to school
were taken care of such as providing home-cooked rather than serving them a court notice:
meals for their students. Another example of using an
authentic relationship to understand a family’s chal­ Well last year, when my son was missing a
lenges was noted by a student who struggled with lot of school . . . I had to sit with her, and
mental health. Her teacher would call home to check we had to do all the days that he had missed
on her state of mind when she was not in school. and a lot of his excuses I had them all on
Caregivers echoed these sentiments of feeling my phone. So, I would go through and list
supported when school personnel would make for her the day that he was excused and we
them aware of their child’s attendance status. A few took care of that together.
caregivers noted that they were able to build a rela­
tionship with a school staff member when a person For caregivers and students, using relationships as
rather than a robocall updated them on their child’s an avenue to understand what families need could
attendance status. One caregiver shared that trust alleviate stress and ease burdens that interfere with
was built and his daughter’s attendance improved attendance.
when school staff called to ensure his daughter was
attending classes after being dropped off on time: DISCUSSION
For improving attendance, relationships have tradi­
I’ll get her up on time and she is there. They’re tionally been seen as useful for boosting motiva­
there by letting me know if she don’t show up . tion, engagement, and self-determination within

250 Children & Schools VOLUME 46, NUMBER 4 OCTOBER 2024

families (McConnell & Kubina, 2014). Yet, in In Detroit, which has the highest chronic absen­
contexts like Detroit, with extremely high levels of tee rate of all major urban districts in the country
chronic absenteeism and structural barriers to atten­ (Singer et al., 2021), relationships certainly matter,
dance, addressing those psychological factors are but to cite them as a sole or primary solution for at­
not enough. Relationships likely matter for a sub­ tendance is insufficient. Structural barriers such as
section of families, but relationships alone cannot transportation, economic disadvantage, and health­
put gas in the car, improve social and environmen­ care are larger obstacles for families (Lenhoff et al.,
tal conditions related to health, or increase neigh­ 2022; Singer et al., 2021). Smythe-Leistico and Page
borhood or school safety. A focus on relationships (2018) studied how resources such as targeted com­
munication may be a more productive way to de­

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in these contexts might be better conceptualized as
a tool to identify barriers and connect families and crease absenteeism. They found that, compared
students to the resources and support structures with a similarly structured school, absentee rates
they need to improve attendance. dropped significantly when a school used structured
Also, seeking relationships solely to encourage text messages to provide concrete information on
improved attendance can create unequal power dy­ the school’s schedule, children’s attendance patterns,
namics between school staff and caregivers, making and supportive messages (Smythe-Leistico & Page,
them feel alienated and shamed rather than sup­ 2018). Importantly, caregivers could respond to the
ported. If effort used in the traditional routes of texts, and a staff member was “able to call on part­
building relationships through frequent phone calls nerships with community-based education, social
and unscheduled home visits could instead be used service, and health service providers to refer families
to identify resources that would assist families, the to appropriate supports, as needs arose” (Smythe-
time may be better spent. In addition, the substance Leistico & Page, 2018, p. 144). This short-term in­
tervention was beneficial in a district with a similar
of what is being shared is a key indicator for atten­
structure to the one in the current study, suggesting
dance outcomes because the content of conversa­
that information sharing about absence rates and
tions reveals what a family’s needs may be. As care­
school schedules in conjunction with positive infor­
givers expressed during interviews, they need to
mal check-ins may be more beneficial and empow­
build relationships with school employees, not to
ering for caregivers than accountability checks.
develop friendships, but rather to create genuine
Relationships with caregivers are often conceptu­
partnerships to address barriers. Furthermore, in an
alized as an avenue to build trust between home and
area like Detroit with schools that serve mostly
school. Yet, the caregivers we spoke with clearly
Black students, districts would benefit from re­ stated that, more than a friendly relationship, they
specting and considering culture when creating would like to be respected as a partner in their
relationships and policies for attendance. As noted child’s education. In districts with high levels of ab­
in a study in a Midwestern urban district led by Ed­ senteeism and barriers exacerbated by high poverty
wards et al. (2023), attendance policies are anti- rates and structural racism, focusing on building rela­
Black when they perpetuate the belief that, on an tionships with caregivers should be accompanied by
individual level, Black caregivers and students are informative interventions. The positive impact of
to blame for structural inequities that impact atten­ information sharing was documented in a personal­
dance, such as racial segregation, extreme poverty, ized information intervention that informed care­
and insufficient transportation (Singer et al., 2021). givers about their child’s total absences, relative
The problematic belief that Black families lack mo­ absences compared with their peers, and the impor­
tivation and devalue education can create long- tance of consistent attendance during elementary
lasting psychological distress that impacts students’ school (Robinson et al., 2018). Results showed that
and families’ safety at school. (Edwards et al., students’ chronic absenteeism rates in the experi­
2023). By acknowledging the unwavering educa­ mental group decreased by 14.9 percent (Robinson
tional commitment of Black families despite struc­ et al., 2018). This intervention study, along with
tural inequalities, districts can better support their others (Sheldon, 2007; Stormshak et al., 2002),
unique attendance needs and policies could instead highlights how relationships are nurtured through
create avenues to resources for improved atten­ empowering families with intentional forms of at­
dance (Allen & White-Smith, 2018). tendance communication.

Stokes, Lenhoff, and Singer / Complicating the Role of Relationships in Reducing Student Absenteeism 251
 Prior to a shift in attendance policies, a primary social services. Additionally, social workers have the
tool for discussing absentee rates with caregivers knowledge to assess families’ mental health needs and
was issuing truancy letters (McNeely et al., 2019). decrease stressors that may impact caretakers’ ability
The punitive nature of these letters was often used to get students to school (Reid, 2006).
as a scare tactic to instill fear in caregivers through
legal repercussions. Caregivers shared that when LIMITATIONS AND CONCLUSION
they received these letters, they felt attacked, disre­ While our findings reveal a further step in under­
spected, and unsupported to improve attendance standing the connection between school–family rela­
rates. As noted by Lasky-Fink et al. (2021), truancy tionships and chronic absenteeism in Detroit schools,
letters are more impactful when they state a stu­ there are limitations to note. These findings only rep­

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dent’s attendance rates, clearly highlight the risk of resent information from one district with high rates of
absenteeism, and request support from caregivers to chronic absenteeism and therefore may not be gen­
increase their efficacy. eralizable to districts with lower rates of absence or
In our study, we found contradictions in the logic different structural conditions for attendance. Addi­
that district administrators and attendance team tionally, this study confirms other research that has
members have around relationships. Throughout documented the persistence of common barriers to
the training, team members referred to relationships attendance in Detroit (e.g., transportation, health,
being the key to attendance. Yet, when prompted housing instability). Therefore, we acknowledge
to reflect on what they learned while working with other system barriers families may face. Also, limi­
families on students’ attendance patterns, some staff tations are inherent with qualitative research on a
still cited caregiver motivation as the main barrier to specific group that was studied in depth, and claims
attendance, not accounting for the impact of sys­ should not be generalized to a broader population.
temic factors. This logic regarding caregiver motiva­ Furthermore, the interviews consisted of self-
tion highlights a lack of an authentic relationship reported data, not observational data, on the nature
with families and a disbelief that district staff truly of relationships between home and school. In fu­
want to be “team players” for getting students to ture collaborative research, we will continue to ex­
school. Families we interviewed sought support plore the role of school–family relationships in at­
from school staff as advocates for resources that tendance in multiple contexts.
would help them navigate barriers to attendance In conclusion, continued research is needed on
(e.g., transportation, healthcare). ways to use school–family relationships to inform pol­
An overlooked route for advocacy is the role icy and address systemic attendance barriers for fami­
that social workers could play in building relation­ lies. Coordination and collaboration with districts,
ships with families and providing them with direct schools, and social service agencies will be essential in
and indirect services. Social workers play a key role strengthening and organizing resources for atten­
in attendance intervention by providing families dance. Additionally, addressing staff’s perceptions of
with concrete resources. As noted by Volkmann the purpose of building relationships with families
and Bye (2006), schools have utilized social workers will reveal opportunities for improvement.
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Michigan Department of Education. (2019, December 9).
2018–19 public guide to Michigan school accountability un­ Kimberly L. Stokes, MA, TLLP, is a licensed counseling
der the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). https://www psychologist and a PhD candidate; Sarah Winchell Lenhoff,
.michigan.gov/-/media/Project/Websites/mde/2019/
12/09/Public_Guide_to_Michigan_School_Account PhD, is associate professor; and Jeremy Singer, PhD, is as­
ability.pdf?rev=6a26c1088d4b4719ba1a58367e480725 sistant research professor, College of Education, Wayne State
Reid, K. (2006). The views of education social workers on University, Detroit, MI, USA. Address correspondence to Sa­
the management of truancy and other forms of non-
attendance. Research in Education, 75, 40–57. https:// rah Winchell Lenhoff, College of Education, Wayne State
doi.org/10.7227/rie.75.4 University, 5425 Gullen Mall, 375 Education, Detroit, MI

Stokes, Lenhoff, and Singer / Complicating the Role of Relationships in Reducing Student Absenteeism 253
48202, USA; e-mail: sarah.lenhoff@wayne.edu. This research
was supported by the Spencer Foundation under Grant No.
202000154 and Skillman Foundation under Grant No. 2006-
2018002567 to Wayne State University. Authors also received
funding from Urban Neighborhood Initiatives, Brightmoor Alli­
ance, and Wayne State University. The opinions expressed are
those of the authors and do not represent views of the funders, part­
ners, or collaborators.
Original manuscript received June 9, 2023
Final revision received December 26, 2023
Editorial decision January 28, 2024

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Accepted January 29, 2024
Advance Access Publication September 10, 2024

254 Children & Schools VOLUME 46, NUMBER 4 OCTOBER 2024

© 2024 National Association of Social Workers
Children and Schools, 2024, 46, 245–253
https://doi.org/10.1093/cs/cdae022
Article

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©2019 National Association of Social Workers.