MULUNGUSHI UNIVERSITY

CIVIL ENGINEERING V
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

4. LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

November 2024

FAS 1
Introduction
• Retaining structures are some of the most
commonly designed foundational features by civil
engineers.
• A wall may be used to retain soil next to a road,
underground (basement), or to retain water
(storage).
• Sometimes the retaining structure might be
temporary.
FAS 2
Introduction
• Different types of
retaining walls designed.
• Depends on the function
of the wall.
• A gravity retaining wall
will support the soil by
the wall’s mass.

FAS 3
 Introduction
• A flexible retaining wall
will resist movement by
bending.
• They are ideal for regions
where ground
movements are expected.

FAS 4
 Introduction
• A cantilever retaining
wall transfers the
pressure from behind the
vertical wall to its wide
base.
• May be L or T shaped.

FAS 5
Introduction
• An anchored retaining wall is supported by
tendons or cables.
• A sheet pile retaining wall is made up of narrow,
interlocking sheets that are driven into the ground
to retain water or soil.
• A reinforced earth retaining wall is a mechanically
stabilised earth wall reinforced with some material
(often geogrids).
FAS 6
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
• We will study a frictionless wall of height AB to
understand the different soil pressures.
• The soil element is subjected to vertical effective
pressure (σ’o) and horizontal effective pressure
(σ’h).
• If no shear stresses are considered, then the ratio
of effective stresses, K, will be used in analyses.

FAS 7
Active and Passive Earth Pressure

𝜎′ℎ
𝐾=
𝜎′𝑜

There will now be 3 possible scenarios concerning

the retaining wall AB.

FAS 8
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Case 1
• If the wall is static, the soil will be in a state of
equilibrium.
• Here, horizontal effective stress is called at-rest
earth pressure.
𝜎′ℎ
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 =
𝜎′𝑜
where Ko – at-rest earth pressure coefficient.
FAS 9
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Case 2
• If the wall rotates to about the bottom to a
position A’B, then a wedge of soil behind the wall
will fail by sliding downward.
• σ’h = σ’a and is called active pressure
𝜎′ℎ 𝜎′𝑎
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑎 = =
𝜎′𝑜 𝜎′𝑜
where Ka – active pressure coefficient.
FAS 10
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Case 2

FAS 11
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Case 3
• If the wall rotates about its bottom, then the a
wedge of soil will reach a state of plastic
equilibrium and will fail by sliding upwards.
• σ’h = σ’p and is called passive pressure.
𝜎′ℎ 𝜎′𝑝
• 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑝 = =
𝜎′𝑜 𝜎′𝑜
where Ka – passive pressure coefficient.
FAS 12
 Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Case 3
• Typical values of ΔLa/H
and ΔLp/H are plotted to
obtain active and passive
pressure states in different
soil types.

FAS 13
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Earth pressure at-rest
Ko is defined when the wall is static.
∴ 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎′𝑜 = 𝛾𝑧

horizontal stress, 𝜎′ℎ = 𝐾𝑜 𝛾𝑧

For granular soils, Ko can be estimated by Jaky’s
eqn.:
𝑲𝒐 = 𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋′
FAS 14
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
• Jaky’s eqn. is suitable for loose sands.
• For dense compacted sands (backfills) the following
relationship is used:
′
𝜸 𝒅
𝑲𝒐 = 𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 + { − 𝟏} 𝟓. 𝟓
𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏)
• Where the addition account for the
overconsolidation of soil.

FAS 15
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
𝑲𝒐 = (𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋′ )(𝑶𝑪𝑹)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋′

Overconsolidation ratio,
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝜎′𝑐
𝑂𝐶𝑅 =
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝜎′𝑜

FAS 16
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Normally consolidated fine-grained soils will be
estimated by:
𝑃𝐼%
𝐾𝑜 = 0.44 + 0.42
100
Overconsolidated clays will be estimated using the
OCR:
𝑲𝒐(𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅) = 𝑲𝒐 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑶𝑪𝑹

FAS 17
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Po is the total force per unit
length of the wall.
It is equal to the area of the
pressure diagram.

𝑷𝒐 = 𝟏ൗ𝟐 𝑲𝒐 𝜸𝑯𝟐

FAS 18
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Earth pressure at-rest for partially submerged
soils
• Consider a wall retaining soil with groundwater level
at H1.
• The height of submerged soil below the water table
is H2.
• When z>H1, the pressure on the wall comes from
soil stress and pore water pressure.
FAS 19
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
When z ≤ H1, the lateral earth pressure at rest:
𝜎′ℎ = 𝐾𝑜 𝛾𝑧

When z ≥ H2, the effective vertical pressure:

𝝈′𝒐 = 𝜸𝑯𝟏 + 𝜸′ 𝒛 − 𝑯𝟏
where
𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤

FAS 20
Active and Passive Earth Pressure

FAS 21
Active and Passive Earth Pressure

FAS 22
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Since,
𝜎′ℎ = 𝐾𝑜 𝜎′𝑜
Then,
𝜎′ℎ = 𝐾𝑜 𝛾𝐻1 + 𝛾 ′ 𝑧 − 𝐻1

At any point, the lateral pore pressure will be:

𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 (𝑧 − 𝐻1 )

FAS 23
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Total lateral earth pressure at any depth z ≥ H1:
𝜎ℎ = 𝜎′ℎ + 𝑢

𝝈𝒉 = 𝑲𝒐 𝜸𝑯𝟏 + 𝜸′ 𝒛 − 𝑯𝟏 + 𝜸𝒘 (𝒛 − 𝑯𝟏 )
The force per unit length of the wall will be:

𝑷𝒐 = 𝟏ൗ𝟐 𝑲𝒐 𝜸𝑯𝟐𝟏 + 𝑲𝒐 𝜸𝑯𝟏 𝑯𝟐 + 𝟏ൗ𝟐 (𝑲𝒐 𝜸′ + 𝜸𝒘 )𝑯𝟐𝟐

FAS 24
Active and Passive Earth Pressure
Example 1
A 4.5m wall retains soil whose properties are shown.
If the wall is restrained from yielding, calculate the
total lateral force per unit length of wall.
What is the location of the resultant force?
Overconsolidation ratio for sand is 1.5

FAS 25
Active and Passive Earth Pressure

FAS 26
Active and Passive Earth Pressure

FAS 27
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Rankine’s theory of active pressure

FAS 28
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
• Plastic equilibrium – a condition in the soil where
failure is imminent at every point in the mass.
• Rankine (1857) developed a theory for earth
pressure by studying the stress conditions at plastic
equilibrium.
• Consider a wall AB with infinite depth.
• At rest state, a Mohr circle shows the stress
conditions.
FAS 29
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure

Frictionless wall moves

distance ΔL away from soil.
FAS 30
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
• The Mohr circle b represents Rankine’s active state.
• The soil is in a state of plastic equilibrium and
failure will occur.
Vertical effective stress becomes, 𝜎′𝑣 = 𝜎′𝑎
If,
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑′ 𝜑 ′
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 45 − ൗ2
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑′

FAS 31
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Then σa can be expressed in terms of z and γ.
𝝋′ 𝝋 ′
𝝈𝒂 = 𝜸𝒛 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝟒𝟓 − − 𝟐𝒄′ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟒𝟓 −
𝟐 𝟐

Rankine’s active earth pressure coefficient

′
𝝈′𝒂 𝝋
𝑲𝒂 = = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝟒𝟓 −
𝝈′𝒐 𝟐
FAS 32
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
• Failure planes in the soil can be at ±θ angle with
the horizontal.
• These are the potential slip planes.
• For total stress parameters,

𝟐
𝝋 ′
𝝋
𝝈𝒂 = 𝜸𝒛 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟒𝟓 − − 𝟐𝒄 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟒𝟓 −
𝟐 𝟐

FAS 33
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure

FAS 34
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Rankine’s theory of passive pressure
• The same frictionless wall AB can be used to
describe passive earth pressure.
• If the wall exerts pressure on the soil mass, σh will
increase.
• At plastic equilibrium, the stress conditions are
shown by Mohr circle b.
FAS 35
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure

Frictionless wall moves

distance ΔL away from soil.
FAS 36
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
• Failure in the soil will occur at Mohr circle b.
• The represents Rankine’s passive state.
• Rankine’s passive earth pressure, σp, is the lateral
earth pressure (major principal stress).
• The variation of passive pressure with depth is
shown and the potential failure planes.

FAS 37
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure

FAS 38
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Rankine’s passive earth pressure:
′ ′
𝝋 𝝋
𝝈′𝒑 = 𝝈′ 𝒐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝟒𝟓 + + 𝟐𝒄′ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟒𝟓 +
𝟐 𝟐

And,
′ ′
𝟐
𝝋 ′
𝝋
𝝈′𝒑 = 𝜸𝒛 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟒𝟓 + + 𝟐𝒄 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟒𝟓 +
𝟐 𝟐

FAS 39
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
• In the passive state, the planes lie at angles ±(45 –
φ/2).
The coefficient of Rankine’s passive earth pressure:

𝝈′𝒑 𝟐 𝝋 ′
𝑲𝒑 = = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟒𝟓 + ൗ𝟐
𝝈′𝒐

FAS 40
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Active and passive pressure
with sloping backfill
• When a retaining wall supports soil
with backfill material inclined at an
angle α, the resulting earth pressure
will not be horizontal.
• Lateral earth pressure, σa, will be
inclined at angle α with the
horizontal.
FAS 41
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
𝜎′𝑎 = 𝛾𝑧 𝐾𝑎
where,
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑′
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑′

And the active force/length:

1
𝑃𝑎 = ൗ2 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻 2

FAS 42
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Passive force/ length:
𝑃𝑝 = 1ൗ2 𝛾𝐻2 𝐾𝑝

Where Kp is given by:

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑′

𝐾𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑′
FAS 43
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
1. Retaining wall supporting backfill – partially
submerged cohesionless soil with surcharge.
𝜎′𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜎′𝑜
At z = 0
𝜎′𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝑞
At z = H1
𝜎′𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 (𝑞 + 𝛾𝐻1 )

FAS 44
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
At z = H
𝜎′𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 (𝑞 + 𝛾𝐻1 + 𝛾 ′ 𝐻2 )

2. Retaining soil supporting backfill with cohesive

soil.
𝜎′𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑧 − 2 𝐾𝑎 𝑐′
Active pressure becomes 0 at depth zo.

FAS 45
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
2𝑐′
𝑧𝑜 =
𝛾 𝐾𝑎
For undrained soils:
2𝑐𝑢
𝑧𝑜 =
𝛾
Total active force,
2
𝑐′
𝑃𝑎 = 1ൗ2 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻2 − 2 𝐾𝑎 𝑐 ′ 𝐻 + 2
𝛾
FAS 46
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Example 2

FAS 47
Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Example 2
1. Calculate the force/length of the wall for
Rankine’s active state.
2. Determine the location of the resultant force.

FAS 48
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Coulomb’s theory of active pressure
• Coulomb (1776) presented a theory for active and
passive pressure against a retaining wall.
• The failure surface is assumed to be a plane.
• Retaining wall friction is accounted for.
• The formulae are derived by analysing a
cohesionless retained soil.
FAS 49
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
• Consider a soil wedge with a trial failure plane BC.
• The soil surface lies at angle β to the horizontal.
• The soil wedge is in equilibrium with its self-weight
(W), reaction to the force P between the soil and
wall, and the resultant on the failure plane.
• The resultant force is at an angle φ’ below the
normal to the failure plane.
FAS 50
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure

FAS 51
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure

FAS 52
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
A number of trial sections are selected to determine
the maximum P. 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜓 sin 𝜓 − 𝜑′
𝐾𝑎 =
sin 𝜑′ + 𝛿 sin 𝜑′ − 𝛽
sin 𝜓 − 𝛿 +
sin ψ′ − 𝛽

FAS 53
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Where ψ – angle of back of retaining wall to the
horizontal;
δ – angle of wall friction.
Total active force on the wall:
𝑃𝑎 = 1ൗ2 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻2

FAS 54
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
If the soil is cohesive:
𝑷𝒂 = 𝟏ൗ𝟐 𝑲𝒂 𝜸𝑯𝟐 − 𝟐𝑲𝒂𝒄 𝒄′ 𝒉
where
𝝉𝒘
𝑲𝒂𝒄 = 𝟐 𝑲𝒂 (𝟏 + )
𝒄′

FAS 55
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Coulomb’s theory of passive pressure
For the case of passive pressure when there is
wedge failure on a surface: 2
′
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜓 sin 𝜓 − 𝜑
𝐾𝑝 =
sin 𝜑′ + 𝛿 sin 𝜑′ + 𝛽
sin 𝜓 − 𝛿 −
sin ψ′ − 𝛽

FAS 56
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Coulomb’s theory of passive pressure
When the back angle of the retaining wall, ψ = 90°,
δ = 0° and β = 0°, then Kp becomes:

1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑′
𝐾𝑝 =
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑′

FAS 57