ACROPOLIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

AND RESEARCH

SESSION:-2023-24
Computer Networks Lab file
CODE=CSIT-501

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Prof. Shruti Prabhat Shukla
Lashkari 0827CI211135
 List of Computer Networks Practical
Sr.no Title Date Remarks
1. Study of Internetworking Devices:
LAN Adapters, Hubs, Switches, Bridges, Routers,
Gateways, CSU/DSU, Wireless access points
(WAPs), Modems, Network interface cards (NICs),
ISDN adapters, Transceivers, Firewalls etc.

2.
Study of Transmission Media and Tools: Co-axial
cable, Twisted Cable,
Fibre optic Cables, Crimping Tool,
Connectors(RJ45,RJ11) etc.

3. Implementation of the cross-wired cable,

Roll over and straight through cable using RJ45 &
clamping tool.

4. Study of different networking models. (OSI,

TCP/IP)

5. Study of Various LAN Topologies & their

Applications.

Study of basic network and network

6.
configuration commands.

Study of Standard Network Simulator: Cisco

7.
Packet Tracer, NS-2, NS-3,OpNet etc

8. Installation and working of Cisco Packet Tracer.

Demonstrate the simple network configuration

9.
using Cisco packet tracer.

10. Case Study of DHCP, DNS protocol etc.

Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 2

 Experiment No: 1

Aim: Study of Internetworking Devices:

LAN Adapters, Hubs, Switches, Bridges, Routers, Gateways, CSU/DSU, Wireless access points
(WAPs), Modems, Network interface cards (NICs), ISDN adapters, Transceivers, Firewalls etc.

Difference between Hub, Switch and Router

Sr. Parameter
No Hub Switch Router

Layer Hub is a physical

Switch is a data link layer Router is a network layer
1. layer device i.e.
device i.e. layer 2. device i.e. layer 3.
layer 1.

Working Basis A Hub works on

Switch works on the basis A router works on the
2. the basis of
of MAC address. basis of IP address.
broadcasting.

Definition A Switch is a tele-

A Hub is a A router reads the header
communication device
multiport repeater of incoming packet and
which receives a message
in which a signal forward it to the port for
from any device
introduced at the which it is intended there
3. connected to it and then
input of any port by determines the route.
transmits the message
appears at the It can also perform
only to the device for
output of the all filtering and
which the message is
available ports. encapsulation.
intended.

Intelligence A route is more

sophisticated and
intelligent device as it can
Hub is not an A Switch is an intelligent read IP address and
intelligent device device as it passes on the direct the packets to
4. that may include message to the selective another network with
amplifier on device by inspecting the specified IP address.
repeater. address. Moreover routers can
built address tables that
helps in routing
decisions.

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 Sr. Parameter
No Hub Switch Router

Minimum At least single

network network is At least single network is Router needs at least two
5.
Required required to required to connect. networks to connect.
connect.

Cost Router is a relatively

Hub is cheaper as
Switch is an expensive much more expensive
6. compared to switch
device than hub. device than hub and
and router.
switch.

speed Maximum speed for

Speed of original
wireless is 1-10 Mbps and
hub 10Mbps and Maximum speed is
7. maximum speed for
modern internet 10Mbps to 100Mbps.
wired connections is 100
hub is 100Mbps.
Mbps.

Application/uses Hubs are used in Routers are used in LANs,

8. Switch is used in LANs.
LANs. MANs and WANs.

Diagram

9.

Data send(Form) A hub sends binary

A switch sends frames of A router sends packets of
bits of data from
10 data from one device to data from one network to
one device to
another. another.
another.

Bridges:

 Bridges are used to connect two sub networks that use interchangeable protocols. It
combines two LANs to form an extended LAN. The main difference between the
bridge and repeater is that the bridge has a penetrating efficiency.

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Gateways:

 A gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two networks operating
with different transmission protocols. The most common type of gateways, the
network gateway operates at layer 3, i.e. network layer of the OSI (open systems
interconnection) model. However, depending upon the functionality, a gateway can
operate at any of the seven layers of OSI model. It acts as the entry – exit point for a
network since all traffic that flows across the networks should pass through the
gateway. Only the internal traffic between the nodes of a LAN does not pass through
the gateway.

Network Interface Card (NIC)

 A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer

cannot be connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a computer that
provides a dedicated network connection to the computer. It is also called network
interface controller, network adapter, or LAN adapter.


Modem:

 Modem stands for Modulator and Demodulator. It is a device that modulates signals
to encode digital information for transmission and demodulates signals to decode the
transmitted information. A modem transmits data in bits per Second (bps). It is
necessary for communication between digital devices and Analog devices. Modem is
necessary because it acts as a translator between the devices and rapidly transmits
the information.

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CSU/DSU:

 A CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit) is a hardware device about the
size of a modem. It converts a digital data frame from local area network (LAN)
communication technology into a frame appropriate for a wide area network (WAN)
and vice versa.

 CSU/DSU devices provide a network interface between data terminal equipment

(DTE) and a synchronous network link, such as a T1 channel, fractional T1 channel,
or 56 kilobits per second (Kbps) or 64 Kbps channels. They handle the clocking and
digital signals that synchronous computer networks need, and connect to analog
networks.

 CSU/DSUs have been in use for decades, and they're reasonably priced and easily
adapted to a variety of networking requirements. They can interface
with Ethernet and other network connectors. And routers can function as
CSU/DSUs.

A Wireless Access Point (WAP)

 A Wireless Access Point (WAP) is a networking device that allows connecting the
devices with the wired network. A Wireless Access Point (WAP) is used to create the
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network), it is commonly used in large offices and
buildings which have expanded businesses.
 It is easier and simpler to understand and implant the device. It can be fixed, mobile
or hybrid proliferated in the 21st century. The availability, confidentiality, and
integrity of the communication and network are a responsibility and to be ensured
about that.

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  A wireless AP connects the wired networks to the wireless client. It eases access to
the network for mobile users which increases productivity and reduces the
infrastructure cost.
ISDN Adapters

 ISDN adapters were devices used to connect computers or networks to ISDN lines, a
digital telecommunications standard. They converted digital signals for
transmission over ISDN networks, offering faster and more reliable data transfer
than analog technologies. Available in Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary Rate
Interface (PRI) configurations, ISDN adapters have become largely obsolete due to
the rise of faster broadband technologies.

Transceivers:

 Transceivers are electronic devices that combine both transmitter and receiver
functions. They enable the transmission and reception of data or signals over a
network or communication channel. Common in networking equipment, they
convert electrical signals into a format suitable for transmission and back again,
facilitating communication between devices.

Firewalls:

 Firewalls are security systems that monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on an applied rule set. They act as a barrier between a trusted
internal network and an untrusted external network, preventing unauthorized
access and protecting against cyber threats. Firewalls are crucial for network
security and can be implemented as hardware or software solutions.

Conclusion:

The study of internetworking devices is essential for understanding modern

networking infrastructure. From LAN adapters to firewalls, each component plays a
crucial role in facilitating communication and ensuring data security. A
comprehensive knowledge of these devices is fundamental for designing and
maintaining robust and efficient network systems in today's interconnected world.

Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 7

 Experiment No: 2

Aim: Study of Transmission Media and Tools: Co-axial cable, Twisted Cable, Fibre optic
Cables, Crimping Tool, Connectors (RJ45, RJ11) etc.

Theory:

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between

the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one
place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely
used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type of
cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield
for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Susceptible to external
⇢ Easy to install interference
⇢ High-speed capacity ⇢ Lower capacity and performance
in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due
to attenuation
Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 8
Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield)
to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and
data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold
climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for withstanding
such temperatures or for shielding the interior components.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and
2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial
cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth)
and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and
analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

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Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable television
signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network connections (like
Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas.
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The
core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used
for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
Applications:
• Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
• Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.

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• For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
• Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the
interior and exterior of automobiles.

What is a Crimping Tool?

A crimping tool is a device that is used to make cold weld joints between wires and a
connector through deforming one or both to hold the other. A special connector is used to
join metals together. The weld joint properties (mechanical and
electrical) are strong as the parent materials when the tool works
and offer some result, which is known as crimp. An instance of
crimping is to be affixing a connector to the end of a wire. For
example, a crimping tool is used to create phone cable sand network
cables to combine RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors to both ends of the
phone or Cat 5 cable. The below picture is an example of RJ-11 (6-pin) and RJ-45 (8-pin)
crimping tools.

RJ45 Connector
RJ45 stands for Registered Jack 45 and is the most commonly used connector in wired
networks. The jacks are mainly used to connect to the Local Area Network (LAN). It was
earlier devised for telephones but is now widely used in Ethernet Networking. The 45 in
RJ45 basically stands for the listing number. The width of RJ45 is usually greater than that
of the telephone cables or other Registered Jacks. Compared to additional jacks the
bandwidth provided by these is high and the range is usually 10 Gbps. Because of speed
and enhanced security, they are used to connect personal computers to
servers, routers etc. These jacks are mostly used in Star Topology.

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 Experiment 3
Aim:
Implementation of the cross-wired cable, Roll-over and straight through cable using RJ45 &
clamping tool.

_ Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to gain hands-on experience in creating three types of Ethernet
cables – Cross-Wired, Roll-Over, and Straight-Through – using RJ45 connectors and a clamping tool.
Understanding these cable configurations is essential for networking professionals as they are
commonly used in various networking scenarios.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Description:
1. RJ45 Connector:
 RJ45 (Registered Jack 45) is a standardized physical connector used for connecting
Ethernet cables to network devices, such as computers, routers, and switches.
 It has eight pins and is designed for twisted pair cables.
 The RJ45 connector uses a modular eight-position, eight-contact (8P8C) design.
 It is the most common connector type for Ethernet cables, supporting data rates up to
10 Gbps.
Application:

RJ45 connectors are used to terminate the ends of twisted pair cables in networking
applications.

________________________________________________________________
2. UTP Cable:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable consists of pairs of insulated copper wires
twisted together.
 It is widely used in networking for Ethernet connections.
 The twisted pairs help reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk,
ensuring better signal quality.
 Different categories (Cat5e, Cat6, etc.) represent varying levels of performance and
bandwidth.
Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 12
Application:

UTP cables are used for a variety of networking applications, including Ethernet
connections and telephone lines.

________________________________________________________________

3. Clamping Tool (Crimping Tool):

 A clamping tool, also known as a crimping tool, is used to attach connectors to the
ends of network cables.
 The tool crimps the connector onto the cable, securing it in place.
 It typically has a built-in cutting mechanism to trim excess wires.
Application:

Clamping tools are essential for creating reliable connections in networking by ensuring
proper termination of cables.

________________________________________________________________

4. Wire Stripper:
 A wire stripper is a tool used to remove the outer insulation from cables.
 It has various sized cutting notches to accommodate different cable thicknesses.
 The tool is designed to strip the outer insulation without damaging the inner
conductors.
Application:

Wire strippers are used to prepare cables for termination by exposing the twisted pairs.

________________________________________________________________

5. Cable Tester:
 A cable tester is a device used to verify the continuity and proper wiring of a cable.
 It sends signals through the cable and checks for proper connectivity between the
pins.
 It can identify issues such as short circuits or open circuits.
Application:

Cable testers are used to ensure the cables are correctly terminated and can reliably
transmit data.

________________________________________________________________
Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 13
6. Marker or Labeling Tool:
 A marker or labeling tool is used to label or mark cables for easy identification.
 Proper labeling helps in quickly identifying the type and purpose of each cable.
 It aids in troubleshooting and maintenance.
Application:

Labels are applied to cables to indicate their type (Cross-Wired, Roll-Over, Straight-
Through) and purpose.

Understanding Cable Types:

1. Cross-Wired Cable:

Description:

 A Cross-Wired Cable, also known as a crossover cable, is a type of Ethernet cable

where the wiring arrangement of the transmit and receive pairs is crossed or
swapped at one end of the cable.
 The purpose of the crossover is to connect similar devices directly without the need
for an intermediary device like a switch or a router.
 The pinout for a Cross-Wired Cable typically involves swapping the connections of
pins 1 and 3, and pins 2 and 6.
Application:

Commonly used to connect two computers or similar devices directly without the need for
a network switch.

2. Roll-Over Cable:

Description:

 A Roll-Over Cable, also known as a Yost cable, is a type of Ethernet cable where the
pinouts at one end of the cable are rolled over or flipped compared to the other end.
 The pinout for a Roll-Over Cable involves connecting pin 1 at one end to pin 8 at the
other end, pin 2 to pin 7, pin 3 to pin 6, and so on.
 It is commonly used for connecting a computer to the console port of a router or a
switch for configuration purposes.

Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 14

Application:

Primarily used for establishing a direct connection between a computer and a network
device's console port for management and configuration.

3. Straight-Through Cable:

Description:

 A Straight-Through Cable is the most common type of Ethernet cable where the wire
connections at both ends are identical.
 The pinout for a Straight-Through Cable involves connecting pin 1 at one end to pin
1 at the other end, pin 2 to pin 2, and so on.
 This type of cable is used to connect different devices, such as a computer to a switch
or a router.
Application:

Widely used for connecting computers to network switches or routers, as it facilitates the
proper transmission of signals between devices.

2. Cable Preparation:

a. Cut the UTP cable to the desired length using the wire stripper.

b. Strip about 1.5 inches of the outer insulation to expose the twisted pairs.

3. Cable Termination:

a. Separate the twisted pairs and arrange them according to the pinout for the specific
cable type.

b. Insert the wires into the RJ45 connector in the correct order.

c. Use the clamping tool to crimp the connector onto the cable securely.

________________________________________________________________

Conclusion:
This experiment provides hands-on experience in creating different types of Ethernet
cables using RJ45 connectors. Understanding cable types and their applications is crucial
for networking professionals, and the skills gained in this experiment are applicable in real-
world networking scenarios.
Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 15
 Experiment No: 04
Title: Study of different networking models. (OSI, TCP/IP)

Theory:

1. Explain OSI model- Diagram, roles of 7 layers, write its practical implementation by
considering and case study.

▪ Diagram:

▪ Roles of 7 layers:
➢ Layer 1 - Physical Layer:
▪ Role/Functions:
• Manages the physical medium, including cables, connectors, and signal transmission.
• Bit synchronization
• Bit rate control
• Physical topologies
• Transmission mode

➢ Layer 2 - Data Link Layer:

➢ Role/Functions:
• Controls the direct communication between devices on a network.
• Framing
• Physical addressing
• Error control
• Flow Control
• Access control
Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 16
 ➢ Layer 3 - Network Layer
▪ Role/Functions:
• Focuses on routing and forwarding data packets between devices.
• Determines the best path for data to travel across a network.
• Logical Addressing

➢ Layer 4 - Transport Layer

▪ Role/Functions:
• Ensures end-to-end communication.
• Manages data segmentation and reassembly.
• Segmentation and Reassembly
• Service Point Addressing

➢ Layer 5 - Session Layer:

▪ Role/Functions:
• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination
• Synchronization
• Dialog Controller

➢ Layer 6 - Presentation Layer:

▪ Role/Functions:
• Handles data translation, encryption, and compression.
• Ensures that data is presented in a format the application layer can understand.
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption
• Compression

➢ Layer 7 - Application Layer:

▪ Role/Functions:
• Provides end-user services such as email, file transfer, and network management.
• Contains network applications for various services.
• Mail Services
• Directory Services

Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 17

 ▪ Practical implementation/ case study:
To understand the practical implementation of the OSI model, let's consider a case
study of a web browsing scenario. When a user opens a web browser and requests a
webpage, the following steps occur:
• The user's web browser (application layer) sends the request to the operating system
(presentation layer).
• The operating system adds necessary headers and passes the request to the transport
layer.
• The transport layer (e.g., TCP) segments the data and adds a transport layer header.
• The network layer (e.g., IP) adds a network layer header, including the source and
destination IP addresses.
• The data link layer (e.g., Ethernet) adds a data link layer header and footer, including
MAC addresses.
• The physical layer transmits the data over the physical medium (e.g., Ethernet cables).
• At the receiving end, the process is reversed, with each layer removing its respective
header and passing the data up to the application layer of the receiving device.

2. Explain TCP/IP model- Diagram, roles of 4 layers, write its practical implementation by
considering and case study.

▪ Diagram:

Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 18

 ▪ Roles of 7 layers:
Introduction:
The TCP/IP model, also known as the Internet Protocol Suite, is a concise, four-layer
networking model that forms the basis for the Internet.

➢ Layer 1 - Network Interface Layer:

▪ Role/Functions:
Concerned with hardware-specific functions like MAC addressing.
Manages the physical connection between devices.

➢ Layer 2 - Internet Layer:

▪ Role/Functions:
Focuses on logical addressing and routing data packets.
Determines the best path for data to travel across the Internet.

➢ Layer 3 - Transport Layer:

▪ Role/Functions:

• Ensures reliable end-to-end communication.

• Manages data segmentation and reassembly.

➢ Layer 4 - Application Layer:

▪ Role/Functions:
• Provides network applications and end-user services.
• Contains software for applications like web browsing, email, and multimedia
streaming.

▪ Practical implementation/ case study:

Let's consider a case study of sending an email to understand the practical
implementation of the TCP/IP model:
• The user composes an email using an email client (application layer).
• The email client uses the SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) to send the email to
the email server.

Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 19

 • The email server receives the email and uses the SMTP to forward it to the recipient's
email server.
• The recipient's email server receives the email and stores it.
• The recipient's email client retrieves the email using the POP3 (Post Office Protocol
version 3) or IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol).
• The email client displays the email to the recipient (application layer).

Conclusion:

Characteristics OSI Model TCP/IP

No. of Layers 7 Layers 4 Layers

Main use case Educational and in-depth analysis Internet and modern technology

Prominent protocols Variety of protocols for each layer Primarily relies on IP, TCP, and UDP

Adaptability Not as adaptive as TCP/IP Highly adaptable to different

networks

Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 20

 Experiment No: 05
Aim: Study of various LAN topologies and their application.

Theory: Local Area Network (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a collection of devices connected together in one physical
location, such as a building, office, or home. A LAN can be small or large, ranging from a
home network with one user to an enterprise network with thousands of users and
devices in an office or school.
LANs can be distinguished from other networks because of their short distance. The total
coverage may be from 1 km to 10 kms. The data transmission speed of LANs is much
higher than in other types of networks. When a WANs works at a speed of 1 mbps, LANs
can transmit data at a speed of 1 - 10 mbps.

Examples of Local Area Network (LAN)

Networking in home, office.
Networking in school, laboratory, university campus.
Networking between two computers.
Wi-Fi (When we consider wireless LAN).

Types of Network Topology

The various network topologies are:
• Point to Point Topology
• Mesh Topology • Ring Topology
• Star Topology • Tree Topology
• Bus Topology • Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that

works on the functionality of the sender and receiver.
It is the simplest communication between two nodes,
in which one is the sender and the other one is the receiver.
Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

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Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.
In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol), etc. Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These
channels are known as links.

Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is N-1.

The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).

Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2.

Advantages
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.

Application
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in military
communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

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Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature
i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent
known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used
to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as
CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N.
Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.

Advantages
 So, it is easy to set up.
 It is Robust.
 If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
D
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

Applications
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all computers are
connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where all devices are
connected to a wireless access point.
Prabhat Shukla 0827CI211135 Page 23
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the
backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols
are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topgy

Drawbacks of Bus Topology

Advantages
• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10
Mbps.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
• Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known.
• CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Disadvantages
• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network.
• To avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
• Security is very low.

Application
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a single
coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks.

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Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have
to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in
the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token
Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to another
node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing the
operations.
To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is to
be released for other stations to use.
When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after
transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is
received from the receiver.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.

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Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.

Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.
In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the repeater. This
data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the devices or
from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Advantages of Tree Topology

 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that
is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Drawbacks of Tree Topology

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

Application
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the tree is
the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the company.
Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams (grandchild
nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to their
respective managers and departments.

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Hybrid Topology
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied
above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be
individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen
above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.

Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology

 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and
network devices.

Application
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have a
backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch or
router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms and
offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid
topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings while providing flexibility
and redundancy within each building.

Conclusion:
We can conclude that Topology in computer networks refers to the physical or logical
arrangement of network devices and how data flows between them. There are six commonly
used topologies: bus, star, tree, ring, mesh, and hybrid. Each topology in computer network
has its own strengths and weaknesses.

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