SPH3U1 date: _______________________________

ATOMS AND ISOTOPES

BOHR-RUTHERFORD MODEL OF THE ATOM
• The dense nucleus contains the atom’s protons and neutrons.
• The relatively tiny electrons orbit the nucleus.
• The electrons only occupy certain energy levels.
• Most of the atom consists of empty space.

proton: positively charged particle in the nucleus of an atom

neutron: uncharged particle in the nucleus of an atom
nucleons: particles in the nucleus of an atom; protons and neutrons
electron: a negatively charged particle found in the space surrounding the nucleus
of an atom
ground state: state in which all electrons are at their lowest possible energy levels
excited state: state in which one or more electrons are at higher energy levels than in
the ground state
ATOMIC NUMBER, MASS NUMBER, PERIODIC TABLE
Nuclei of atoms contain positively charged protons and neutral neutrons. Protons
and neutrons have approximately the same mass.

atomic number (Z): # protons

atomic mass (A): #nucleons (#protons + # neutrons)

ISOTOPES
Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons. Some isotopes are naturally occurring others are produced in
laboratories.

3 isotopes of hydrogen

hydrogen deuterium tritium

0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons
RADIOISOTOPES
Unstable isotopes that spontaneously change their nuclear structure and release
energy in the form of radiation. This radiation can be harmful if not properly
controlled.

NUCLEAR MEDICAL IMAGING

Nuclear medical imaging is a diagnostic technique that involves injecting a patient
with a small dose of a radioisotope, such as technetium-99m. These materials,
sometimes called radioactive tracers, emit radiation that can be detected and
converted into an image.

This image is detecting the spread of lung cancer to the skeleton.

MEDICAL TREATMENTS
Radionuclide therapy (RNT) is a rapidly growing medical field in which the properties
of certain radioactive substances are used to treat various ailments. RNT is currently
used to treat certain types of tumours, bone pain, and other conditions. In cancer
treatments, the fundamental idea behind RNT is to bombard rapidly dividing harmful
cells with radiation. These cells tend to absorb the radiation, which prevents them
from dividing further.

EXAMPLE 1
Draw the Borh-Rutherford diagram for silicon-31.
 RADIOACTIVE DECAY
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
The process by which the nucleus of an atom sometimes changes, sometimes
resulting in completely new elements.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
• The process by which a radioactive atom’s nucleus breaks apart and forms
different atoms.
• Some isotopes are unstable because they have too many or too few neutrons.
• In radioactive decay, unstable isotopes release small particles to reach a stable
configuration.

ALPHA DECAY ()

In alpha () decay, a helium nucleus is spontaneously emitted from the parent
nucleus.

An alpha particle is a helium nucleus consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

EXAMPLE 2
When lead-204 undergoes alpha decay, it produces a stable isotope. Determine the
element and its atomic number and mass number. Write the nuclear reaction
equation for this alpha decay.
BETA DECAY ()
Beta () decay is a type of nuclear reaction that involves the emission or capture of a
beta particle (high-energy electron or positron).

BETA-NEGATIVE DECAY
In beta-negative decay a neutron spontaneously decays into a proton and electron;
the electron is ejected from the nucleus.

Beta-Negative Decay of Tritium (H-3)

BETA-POSITIVE DECAY
In beta-positive decay a proton changes into a neutron and a positron and the
positron is emitted.

Beta-Positive Decay of carbon-11

ELECTRON CAPTURE
An electron is absorbed by a nucleus and combines with a proton to form a neutron.

EXAMPLE 3
When bismuth-214 undergoes beta-negative decay, it produces a stable isotope.
Determine the element and its atomic number and mass number. Write the nuclear
reaction equation for this beta decay.

GAMMA DECAY ()

A reaction in which an excited nucleus returns to a lower, more stable energy state,
releasing a very high energy gamma ray in the process. A gamma ray is a photon (a
particle with zero mass and a high level of energy).

EXAMPLE 4
When dysprosium-152 undergoes gamma decay, its nucleus changes from an
excited state to a stable state. Write the nuclear reaction equation for this gamma
decay.
EXAMPLE 5
Fill in the missing information and state the type of decay.

EXAMPLE 6
Fill in the missing information and state the type of decay.

HOMEFUN
7.1 Atoms and Isotopes
read pg318-322 questions pg 322 #1-10

7.2 Radioactive Decay

read pg323-329
questions pg 325 #1,2, pg 327 #1,2
pg328 #1,2 pg 329 #1,2,3,5
 HALF-LIFE
The average length of time it takes radioactive material to decay to half of its original
mass.

A mass of radioactive material

Ao initial mass
t time
h half-life

EXAMPLE 7
Neon-19 has a half-life of 17.22s. What mass of neon-19 wll remain from a 100.0mg
initial sample after 30.0s?
RADIOACTIVE DATING: CARBON-14

▪ Carbon molecules are the basis for

life on Earth.
▪ Carbon-14 undergoes beta decay
to form Nitrogen-14.
▪ Carbon-12 is completely stable.
▪ Ratio of C-12 and C-14 is generally
equal in all living things.
▪ When living matter dies, carbon-14
gradually decays.
▪ The C-14 to C-12 ratio is reduced by
half every 5730 yrs (half-life =
5730yrs).
▪ By comparing the portion of
carbon-14 in a bone fragment,
scientist can estimate the age of the
bone.

RADIOACTIVE DATING:
ALUMINUM-26
• Aluminum-26 has been used to measure the ages of interstellar rocks.
• Al-26 decays into magnesium-26 with a half-life of approximately 720 000 years.
• Scientists can approximate the age of a sample by comparing the relative masses
of Al-26 and Mg-26, in a similar way as with carbon dating
NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR
POWER GENERATION
MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE
Mass can be transformed into energy and energy can be transformed into mass.
E = mc2
E - energy in joules (J)
m - mass in kilograms
c - speed of light (3.00x108 m/s)

Nuclear technologies transform mass into energy.

Nuclear reactions can produce very large amounts of energy from very small
amounts of fuel.

ATOMIC MASS UNIT (u)

a unit of mass equal to 1.66 x10-27 kg

The sum of the masses of the nucleons and electrons of an atom is always
slightly greater than the actual atomic mass. The “missing mass” exists in
the form of energy, which is used to hold the nucleus together.

MASS DEFECT
the difference between the calculated mass of an atom, based on the nucleons and
electrons present, and the actual atomic mass

BINDING ENERGY
the energy used to hold a nucleus together

In nuclear physics, the joule is not very convenient unit of measure. We use a much
smaller unit called the mega-electron volt.
1eV =1.602 x10-19 J 1MeV =1.602 x10-13 J

MEGA-ELECTRON VOLT (MeV)

The energy required to accelerate an electron through a potential difference of 1
million volts.
EXAMPLE 8
a) What is the mass-energy equivalent of the mass of a 1500-kg car?

b) How much mass must be converted to energy for a nuclear reaction to release
3.6x106 J (1kWh) of thermal energy?

c) Determine the mass defect and binding energy of a lithium-7 nucleus, given that
its actual atomic mass is 7.01600 u.

d) The mass of a helium-4 atom is 4.002 603 u. Determine the mass defect and
binding energy of a helium-4 atom. [ans: 0.030 378 u, 28 MeV]

HOMEFUN
7.3 Half-Life read pg330-333
questions pg332 #1 pg 333 #1c, 2b, 3, 4, 6, 8

7.4 Nuclear Fission and Power Generation

read pg334-341 questions pg341 #1-5,7-10
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
▪ Fission and fusion are nuclear reactions which release so much energy that the
energy can be harnessed and used as heat to turn a turbine to generate
electricity.
▪ Controlled fission reactions are used in nuclear reactors.
▪ Fusion is the main source of energy production in the Sun.

NUCLEAR FISSION
A heavy nucleus splits into lighter atoms and releases nuclear potential energy.
The process occurs naturally but it can occur more quickly if a neutron is added to
the original nucleus.

NUCLEAR FUSION
Combining of two light nuclei to form a single larger nucleus with a release of energy.
GENERATING NUCLEAR POWER

Canada's nuclear power industry generates about 15 per cent of the electricity used in Canada. It is very
important in Ontario, where it supplies more than half of the province's electricity.

How it works

Nuclear power plants use uranium as fuel to boil water and create steam. This steam spins turbines which are
connected to rotors, which generate electricity.

Nuclear stations operate essentially the same way as do fossil fuel stations, differing in that they use uranium
rather than burning coal, natural gas or oil. A major benefit is that nuclear reactors do not emit the carbon
dioxide that results in global warming, or the gases that cause smog and acid rain. They do however produce
nuclear waste which needs to be handled and stored very carefully.

Background Information

When subatomic particles called NEUTRONS come into contact with

uranium atoms, the atoms split, releasing heat energy. This occurs all the
time in nature, but at a very slow rate. Nuclear reactors are able to greatly
speed up this process by slowing down the neutrons and increasing the
likelihood that they will hit and split the uranium atoms. When uranium atoms
split they also release more neutrons which can then go on and split
additional atoms ensuring a chain reaction of atom splitting. This is called
NUCLEAR FISSION.
One of these half-metre nuclear fuel
At the heart of every nuclear reactor are FUEL PELLETS no bigger than the bundles can provide enough electricity to
tip of your finger. Despite their small size, these fuel pellets hold the potential power 100 homes for a year.
to produce tremendous amounts of energy.

Canada’s nuclear reactors use fuel pellets that are made from naturally occurring uranium that is mined in
Canada. The pellets are inserted into tubes about half-a-metre in length made from zirconium alloy, a special
type of metal that has a high resistance to corrosion. The tubes are welded shut and several are then assembled
together into what is called a FUEL BUNDLE. One of these half-metre fuel bundles can provide enough
electricity to power 100 homes for a year.

Hundreds of fuel bundles are inserted into the core of a nuclear reactor where the uranium atoms split giving off
vast amounts of heat. This heat is used to boil water to create steam, which then spins a turbine and generator
producing electricity.
NUCLEAR GENERATING STATION

All CANDU reactors heat water which produces steam in the steam generator.
This steam spins a large turbo generator which produces electricity.

Basic Components of Nuclear Reactors

The basic technology used to harness the energy of nuclear fission is the nuclear reactor. Though there are
many types of nuclear reactors, all have several components in common, such as fuel, moderator, coolant and
control rods. The reactors used in Canada are CANDU reactors. This stands for Canada Deuterium Uranium
reactor.

Fuel - Uranium has two main isotopes: uranium-235 (235U) and uranium-238 (238U). The uranium used in nuclear
power is often made from a combination of these two isotopes. The critical mass is the smallest amount of fuel
needed for a stable and sustained nuclear chain reaction.

Moderator - The fission chain reaction must be stable so there is no increase in the number of free neutrons
within the reactor. A moderator is necessary to slow down the fast neutrons created during fission to increase
their efficiency in causing further fission. The moderator in a CANDU reactor is heavy water, which is formed
with the heavier deuterium isotope of hydrogen.

Coolant - A coolant is necessary to absorb and remove the heat produced by nuclear fission and maintain the
temperature of the fuel. It can then transfer the heat to drive electricity-generating turbines. If water is used as
the coolant, the steam produced can be fed directly to the turbines.

Control rods - Control rods are made of materials that absorb neutrons (example: boron, silver, cadmium) so
the reaction don’t go out of control. The rod can be lowered or lifted into the reactor to regulate the reaction.

Managing used nuclear fuel and wastes

Once nuclear fuel bundles have been in the reactor for a period of time generating the steam that leads to
creating electricity, they must be removed and safely managed. They have high levels of radioactivity.

Used fuel is stored in water for 5-10 years and then placed in large concrete and steel containers at the nuclear
facility.
EXAMPLE 9
a) What is the energy yield of the following fission reaction? Use the given masses
below.

b) What is the energy yield of the following fission reaction? Use the given masses
below. [ans: 0.195 u, 181.35 MeV]
 NUCLEAR FUSION
A nuclear reaction in which the nuclei of two
atoms fuse together to form a larger nucleus.

In order for nuclear fusion to occur, the fusing

nuclei must have enough kinetic energy to
overcome the repulsive electrostatic force
between them. This allows the nuclei to get
close enough to each other for the strong
nuclear force to take effect. This is not an easy
task to achieve in the laboratory, much less in a
power reactor.

Nuclear fission is more likely to occur with very heavy nuclei, while nuclear fusion is
more likely to occur with very light nuclei.
EXAMPLE 10
a) Determine the energy released when a deuterium atom (D) fuses with a tritium
atom (T) to form helium, according to the nuclear reaction equation below. Use
the given masses.

b) Determine the energy released when uranium-235 produces tellurium-140 and

zirconium-94, according to the nuclear fission reaction equation below. Use the
given masses. [ans: 0.26806 u, 249.26 MeV]
STELLAR FUSION
In the cores of stars, temperatures and pressures can build to the high levels
necessary for fusion.

Proton-Proton Chain
• Fusion occurs in stars the size of the Sun and smaller through a process called the
proton-proton chain.
• Four protons eventually fuse to form one helium-4 atom.

Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen Cycle
• Process occurs in stars that are significantly larger, and hotter, than the Sun.
• A carbon-12 nucleus undergoes a number of nuclear reactions involving fusion
and decay.

MODERN ADVANCES IN NUCLEAR FUSION

Magnetic Confinement Fusion

• Deuterium and tritium are placed in the core of the reactor and heated to an
extremely high temperature, comparable to that of the Sun’s core.
• The materials change to the fourth state of matter, called plasma.
• The challenge, however, is how to confine matter that is in such a high thermal
energy state.
• In the Sun, the enormous attractive gravitational forces due to its immense mass
are sufficient to confine the plasma.
• To achieve plasma confinement under laboratory conditions, a superconducting
electromagnet is placed around the core in the shape of a toroid (donut shape).
• When a high current is passed through the coil, a very powerful magnetic field is
produced, which confines the plasma.
THE ITER PROJECT
The ITER project is an international joint effort aimed at developing a functional
nuclear fusion reactor for research purposes. (Iter means ˝the way˝ in Latin.) The ITER
reactor in Cadarache, France, is a type of magnetic confinement fusion reactor
called a Tokamak. This very expensive project has provoked controversy from
skeptics who feel that too much money will be wasted with little return on investment.
Canada, originally a participant, has withdrawn due to lack of funding.
 HOMEFUN

7.5 Nuclear Fusion

read pg342-347
questions pg347 #1-6