EVEREST YOUTH ACADEMY

ENGLISH SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

WITH DETAILED NOTES AND
QUESTIONS

May 2023

Ethiopia
 Table of Contents
Content Page
PART I: VOCABULARY AND READING: WORD AND TEXT ATTACK SKILLS _______1
1.1. Understanding vocabulary in context ___________________________________________1
1.2. Reading comprehension levels ________________________________________________5
1.2.1. Literal comprehension levels ________________________________________________5
1.2.2. Inferential comprehension levels _____________________________________________6
Answer keys _________________________________________________________________10
PART II: GRAMMAR AND USAGE_____________________________________________12
2.1. Subject-verb agreement _____________________________________________________12
2.2. English tenses_____________________________________________________________17
2.3. The active and passive voices ________________________________________________21
2.4. Reported speech___________________________________________________________23
2.5. Conditional sentences ______________________________________________________28
2.6. Expressing regret__________________________________________________________31
2.7. Expressing strong opinions using: it is time/it is high time__________________________32
2.8. Verb and verb patterns______________________________________________________33
2.9. Expressing purpose ________________________________________________________35
2.10. Dealing with problems and finding solutions ___________________________________36
2.11. Phrasal verbs: adjective + preposition_________________________________________37
2.12. Quantifiers ______________________________________________________________38
2.13. Indefinite pronouns _______________________________________________________41
2.14. Discourse markers ________________________________________________________42
2.15. Relative clauses__________________________________________________________49
Answer key__________________________________________________________________51
PART III: COMMUNICATIVE ASPECTS_________________________________________52
3.1. Some common daily communicative English ____________________________________52
3.2. Different types of questions__________________________________________________67
Answer key__________________________________________________________________73
PART IV: WRITING__________________________________________________________74
4.1. Capitalization and punctuation _______________________________________________74
4.2. Order of sentences _________________________________________________________83
4.3. Kinds of sentence__________________________________________________________86
4.3.1. Sentences based on their structures___________________________________________86
4.3.2. Sentences based on their functions___________________________________________87
4.4. Paragraph writing__________________________________________________________89
4.5. Essay writing (writing an essay) _____________________________________________101
4.6. Letter writing: formal and informal letters _____________________________________103
Answer key_________________________________________________________________112
PART I: VOCABULARY AND READING: WORD AND TEXT ATTACK SKILLS
Understanding the contextual meaning of any given word is the most important skill in tackling
difficult vocabulary. Contextual meaning is a value that a word carries when employed in a
specific situation. Hence, the meaning can be guessed from the neighboring words.

1.1. Understanding Vocabulary in Context

Understanding vocabulary in context refers to looking for a word or phrase in a sentence or a
whole paragraph surrounding that unfamiliar word or phrase. Context clues are used to make a
good guess about the meaning of the unfamiliar word or phrase. There are different types of
context clues. The most common ones are:

A. Knowing the part of speech and word formation:

When you want to guess the meaning of a word or a phrase, it helps if you know:
1. what part of speech it is: Is it a noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb?
2. its construction: Does it have any prefixes or suffixes you recognize? Do you recognize its
base? Is it compound? Do you recognize either part?
3. the word's or the phrase's function in a sentence.
Example: Thomas is unscrupulous as he displays immortality.
The word 'unscrupulous' is a negative meaning adjective as it has the prefix 'un-' and the suffix '-
ous' morphologically and also comes after the linking verb 'is' structurally. Contextually if a
person shows immortality the person is 'unprincipled'. Thus, 'unscrupulous' means 'unprincipled'.

B. Guessing the meaning of words or phrases from the sense of the sentence based on:
i. your knowledge of reality just by using your understanding of the world and how things work.
Example: I didn’t sleep well; my neighbor’s dog was yapping all night.

You can guess the meaning of yapping by thinking about your knowledge of dogs and sleeping.
So, yapping is probably some kind of noise, like barking.
ii. the writer’s attitude whether he has used positive, negative, or neutral expressions in the
sentence.
Example: I didn’t find it fascinating. To me, it was rather a bit _______________.
A) boring B) soothing C) bouncing D) compelling
Here when the writer didn’t find it fascinating, it was boring; thus, the writer’s attitude is
negative.
C. Definition/Restatement clues: writers sometimes restate a word or a phrase to define it by
using punctuation marks to give meaning to the word or the phrase like commas, dashes,
parentheses and colons.
Examples:1. When Gonzalez was elected to Congress, many of his Spanish-speaking
 constituents, the voters in his district, felt he would fight for their rights.
Here the word 'constituents' is followed by the phrase the voters in his district in the parenthesis.
Thus, “constituents” means voters in a district.
2. The company is through many transitions- changes to raise its income.
Here since the word “changes” comes after the dash; thus, transitions mean changes.

D. Addition: to guess the meaning of a word or a phrase we can use the addition markers as a
clue mostly for a synonymous meaning such as in addition, moreover, as well as, and, also,
besides, likewise, etc.
Example: Man is a solitary animal and he may like to go alone for a walk, but he hates to stand
alone in his thoughts.
The additional marker and indicates that man likes to go alone or solitary. Therefore, solitary
means ‘alone.
E. Synonymous context clue: we can recognize synonymous words or phrases to guess their
meanings:
a. as they appear in the same part of speech for the unknown word or phrase in the sentence.
Example: The teenager was ordered to make restitution to the owner of the damaged vehicle. He
quickly made payment for the damaged car that he had hit.
Here the word ‘restitution’ comes after the verb in the first sentence and the word ‘payment’ also
comes after the verb in the second sentence. Thus, ‘restitution’ means ‘payment’.
b. by a word or a phrase like means, called, meaning, that is, that means, that is to say, is/ are
called, in other words, or, and, etc.
Example: The solid sphere of the earth is made up of three layers called the core, the mantle
and the crust.
The word “called” usually indicates a synonymous meaning. Thus, the solid sphere of the earth
is the core, the mantle and the crust.
F. Antonymous context clue: we can also recognize antonymous words or phrases to guess their
meanings:
a. as they appear the opposite of the same part of speech for the unknown words or phrases in the
sentence.
Example: Kebede’s fast new car beats my sluggish car.
Here fast and sluggish have opposite meanings structurally. Thus, the meaning of sluggish
becomes ‘slow.
b. by using concession words or phrases like even though, although, though, but, yet, however,
nevertheless, in contrast, while, whereas, on the other hand, or, etc.
Example: Our team’s uniforms were immaculate before the game; nevertheless, by the end of
the first half they were filthy.
The conjunction ‘nevertheless’ gives the opposite meaning, ‘immaculate’ means ‘neat’, so its
antonym is ‘filthy’.
G. i. Cause and effect clues: to guess the meaning of a word or a phrase we can use the cause
and effect transition markers as a clue such as therefore, consequently, as a result, for this
reason, thus, that, so.... that, so, means, leads to (the fact that), causes, results in, etc.
Example: His salary is equal to his productivity; therefore, he should loathe complaining.
Here ‘loathe’ means ‘dislike it’ as his salary is equal to his productivity, so he becomes reluctant
to complain.
ii. Effect and cause clues: to guess the meaning of a word or a phrase we can use the effect and
cause transition markers a clue such as because, since, as, due to (the fact that), is due to (the
fact that), is caused by, is a result of, etc.
Example: His employer does not complain about his work because he is a hardworking man in
the accomplishment of his duties.
So ‘do not complain’ means ‘are not angry’ the sentence tells us about a man whose employer is
happy since the man has a good performance in his work.
H. Condition: to guess the meaning of a word or a phrase we can use the conditional transition
markers as a clue such as if, as long as, provided (that), in the event that, unless, in case of, in the
event of, only if, even if, etc.
Example: If the lives of his men were endangered by the native conquerors, the officer would
take reprisal action. The reason why the officer would take the reprisal action is that in case the
lives of his men became in violent situations by the native people.
In the above sense, ‘reprisal’ means ‘violent’.
I. Example clues: to guess the meaning of a word or a phrase we also can use illustrative
markers as a clue such as for example, for instance, to illustrate, such as, like, etc.
Example: The scientist was accused of several acts of espionage, such as photographing secret
documents and taping private conversations.
The phrase “such as” indicates some example types of espionage which means exposing a secret.

Exercise 1: Choose the best alternative to complete each item.

1. The teacher was _______________ with the class that was making too much noise.
A) pleased B) annoyed C) arrested D) aligned
2. The food in the new restaurant was so ____________ that I couldn’t stop eating.
A) little B) much C) awful D) delicious
3. Mahlet got ____________ when she realized that her parents returned home safely.
A) relief B) suspicious C) pleasure D) appointment
4. The uncontrolled emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from chemical industries
causes air _________. A) drainage B) pressure C) pollution D) drought
5. We invited many people, but only a __________ appeared.
A) handy B) handful C) friend D) large number
6. The departure is at 10 a.m. but we have to find out the _________ time so that they can pick
you up.
A) arrival B) destination C) driving D) reaching
7. The man was so _______________ to fix my computer, and he really did.
A) confident B) confidential C) confiding D) confidence
8. The law states that anyone who had a criminal record is ____ eligible for election.
A) il- B) im- C) in- D) dis-
9. The meeting is only for childbearing women. In other words, women who _____________ can
come to the meeting.
A) are productive B) can produce children C) carry children D) have little babies
10. If you have been booked by the police, then you might _____________.
A) get a room in the hotel B) be released from jail
C) get publications to read D) be taken to the court
11. University education requires quite a lot of reading in English. So, good English Language
ability is __________ for your success at the university.
A) in accessible B) indispensable C) incredible D) inseparable
12. She felt very _________________ after the death of her husband. She doesn’t even like to go
out on weekends.
A) disfavoured B) condemned C) impressed D) depressed

Exercise 2: Read each sentence carefully and guess what the underlined words mean in
each sentence.
1. My father is about 90 now, but he is still robust.
A) agile B) strong C) active D) heavy
2. His hopes of making a fortune were dashed when his factory burned down.
A) forgotten B) destroyed C) sank D) grown
3. Caffeine addicts drink strong coffee because it revives their spirit.
A) reviles B) revitalizes C) reverses D) revalues
4. The junior officers broke ranks with the leadership. They refused to accept orders.
A) made a deal B) shared authority C) wanted negotiations D) expressed disagreements
5. The whole family looked up to my mother as their ideal example.
A) spoke B) told C) took D) respected
6. We heard the news and called off the meeting.
A) cancelled B) held C) postponed D) chaired
7. Actually, she takes after her mother, not her father.
A) remembers B) cares for C) resembles D) follows
8. Everyone knows he is arrogant. That must be why he doesn’t have many friends.
A) ignorant B) immodest C) obliging D) unfriendly
9. Teenagers declare their separateness from their parents by the way they dress and talk.
A) debate B) announce C) say D) denounce
10. I am going to tidy up this house tomorrow morning.
A) paint B) clean C) renew D) change

1.2. Reading Comprehension Levels

Reading comprehension questions test a person’s ability to understand and interpret what he /she
reads. There are different types of reading comprehension levels. Here we will look at the Literal
and Inferential Comprehension levels.

1.2.1. Literal Comprehension Levels

Literal comprehension involves what the author is actually saying. It requires the reader to
locate or identify information explicitly stated in the text by recognizing main ideas, details such
as references, word meanings, sequences, comparisons, cause-effect relationships, character
traits and text organization. Therefore, the following question types should be considered when
we comprehend literally:

1. Choosing a title
Regarding choosing a title, it is good to remind that the title should not be either too broad or too
narrow. In other words, the title should be comprehensive enough to include all the essential
ideas stated in the given paragraphs.

2. Identifying the main idea of the text or the writer’s purpose

To find the writer’s purpose, it is advisable to check an opening and a summary sentence in each
paragraph. The topic sentence of each paragraph could be placed at the beginning, in the middle,
or at the end of the paragraph. These help us identify the main idea of the text.

3. Specific Details
When we deal with specific details in the passage it is often asking about a particular word,
phrase or line. In such cases, we look for the keywords such as adjectives, nouns, verbs and
adverbs in the questions and scan the passage to find them. We can also ask reference questions
by looking back and forth.
4. Determining the meaning of words from context
The purpose of this kind of question is to determine how well you can extract meaning from the
text by looking for the nearest meaning through context clues. In other words, guessing the
meaning of unfamiliar words or words you know the meaning as it is used in the particular
passage contextually using different techniques is important to understand the author’s idea.

5. Describing the passage’s organization

The other aspect of understanding the author’s point is recognizing the author’s method of
organization or technique in a given passage. This can be looking at the relationship either
between sentences or paragraphs in a passage.

1.2.2. Inferential Comprehension Levels

Inferring means that you must read between the lines or think beyond the text and look for those
details that are implied or hinted at. In other words, inferential comprehension deals with what
the author means by what is said and what it means to you. Therefore, the following question
types should be considered when we comprehend for inference:

1. Drawing an inference
Drawing inference, writer’s attitude, predicting opinions and extending outcomes are the most
common types of this comprehension level. Again, the inference is made in the main idea,
supporting details, sequences and cause and effect relationships. It could also involve
interpreting figurative language and inferring character traits.

2. Identifying the author’s attitude, mood, or tone

It is determining the mood or judging the author’s point of view. The author might have a certain
attitude, such as enthusiasm, compassion, defensive, critical, etc. or a neural attitude towards the
subject. You can discern the author’s attitude towards a particular subject through the contents
and words such as successfully, fortunately, etc. indicate a positive attitude, whereas words such
as inadequate, ineffective, etc. indicate a negative attitude.

3. Predicting the opinions

This type of question requires the reader’s ability to predict what may occur in the future. To
answer predicting questions, you should look for those answers that are most consistent with the
information in the reading passage; then recommend your personal opinion about the passage.

4. Extending outcomes
This type of question requires the reader’s ability whether the author would agree or disagree
with a prediction statement. In other words, the reader should put himself or herself in the
writer's position.
Exercise 3: Read the following text and choose the best alternatives after that based on the
above ideas.
There was a center for mentally and physically ill people. I was reluctant to go there on that first
day, and as I waited outside the director's office, my anxiety only increased. My dad, a doctor,
insisted on my volunteering at the residence. He wanted my high school community service
requirement to be filled productively. The previous summer I had gardened and picked up trash,
activities that didn't really seem to make the meaningful difference I thought I wanted to make.
Still, I was scared of imagining what the realities of working at the residence would be.

The director told me about the need to establish emotional connections with the residents, then
rushed to introduce me to a group of 15, their ages ranging from 8 to 21, that I was asked to
supervise. Some tried to clap but couldn't bring both hands together; some tried to say hello, but
their speech was so impaired that I really only guessed what they said. Most conspicuous among
them was Young-il. He was older than I was, and he was the only one who spoke clearly enough
for me to understand fully. Young-il had the face of a 30-year-old, but he was barely four feet
tall. He took me in charge at first and, stumbling as he walked, showed me around and taught me
the basics of the residents' routine. I was embarrassed when he told me what to do; I felt as if I
were being instructed by a child. Later, thinking back on my condescension toward that kind, I
felt a much deeper embarrassment.

The youngest was Sung-Min. He was eight years old, only three feet tall, and his fingers were all
odd shapes and sizes. A teacher told me that Sung-Min's fingers used to be fused, but he had
recently had an operation. Sung-Min now had five discrete digits on each hand, but their
irregular forms still made it very hard for him to grasp things. Despite his physical struggles,
Sung-Min was the brightest and most energetic person at the residence. On my second day of
work, he was the first to greet me, something I was grateful for since not all of the residents
remembered my face.

Helping at lunch was my most difficult task. It required considerable patience. Some residents
had trouble focusing on eating and would often start shaking their heads violently as I tried to
feed them. But whatever their physical challenges and discomforts were and however
unappealing the food was, none of the residents ever complained. I couldn't help contrasting the
residents' behavior with mine. I was again embarrassed to think about my regular pickiness, my
refusal to eat this or that, and my demands for particular foods; and I began to hope that the road
to wisdom was paved with such small embarrassments.

After my first lunch at the residence, a teacher took over the group. Everyone in the room said
goodbye in his own way, and Sung-Min, the little guy with the mismatched fingers,
accompanied me to the door and hugged my knees. I walked home, my legs much lighter than
they had been that morning. My fears and worries had disappeared; in their place were the
surprising beginnings of an emotional connection that I had thought was beyond me. I was
looking forward to seeing the residents again, helping them and having them help me.
(Slightly adapted from a college essay written by Jun-Min Kim, November 2003)
1. What could be the best title for the passage?
A) My school service B) My community service C) My residences D) My school story
2. The purpose of the writer is to ______________.
A) tell a story B) inform the reader C) argue about the other people D) explain a situation
3. Which one of the following is true according to Paragraph 1?
A) The residents in the rehabilitation center were mostly students.
B) The writer’s father was a doctor.
C) The director of the residence thinks the writer learn sign language.
D) The writer of the text was confident to start from the first day.
4. According to paragraph 2, which one of the following is false?
A) The director was emotional to introduce the writer to the residents.
B) The director showed him the basics of the resident’s routine.
C) The writer became the supervisor of the groups.
D) The writer was welcomed by most of the residents.
5. The institution where the writer worked was _________________.
A) a hospital B) a school C) a job training center D) a rehabilitation center
6. According to the passage, who taught the writer the basic routines of the residence?
A) The director B) Young-il C) Sung-Min D) The writer himself
7. According to paragraph 4, what made the writer’s most difficult daily task?
A) The residents were violent when he gave them food.
B) The residences were always complicated about him.
C) Some residents had a physical problem to eat.
D) The food that was given to them was very limited.
8. ‘Everyone in the room said goodbye in his own way, --- in Paragraph 5 his refers to ____.
A) Sung-Min B) a teacher C) the writer D) the residents
9. According to the passage, which of the following suppositions are true?
I. The writer was not older than all the residents.
II. The director of the residence told the writer the residents' age was 8 to 21.
III. The director needed to establish the writer's emotional connection with the residents.
A) I and III B) I and II C) II and III D) I, II and III
10. ‘Most conspicuous among them was Young-il.’ conspicuous (Paragraph 2) means ____.
A) easily noticeable B) suspicious in matters C) strong D) weak
11. I was again embarrassed to think about my regular pickiness (Para. 4) pickiness means ____.
A) necessary B) willingness C) happiness D) refusal
12. Which of the following best describes the development of this passage?
A) It shows what the writer performs in the center from the beginning to the end.
B) It shows what the writer observes in the center daily.
C) It shows what the residents perform in the center from the beginning to the end.
D) It shows what the teacher performs in the center daily.
13. Which one of the following statements describes the writer’s comparison in paragraph 4?
A) He provides an example of the type of food he eats and rejects his behavior.
B) He considers that the food that the residents eat was insufficient compared to him.
C) He cites that he got the wisdom to eat unappealing food after the residents eat it.
D) He appraises the residents eating unappealing food and refrains from making an appraisal
of himself.
14. Which of the following is true about residences as implied in Paragraph 2?
A) They could communicate easily. C) Most of them didn’t like the writer to lead them.
B) They had problems with their physical structures. D) Most of them are older than the writer.
15. According to paragraph 5, ‘I walked home my legs much lighter than they had been that
morning’. From this, we can infer that the writer ___________.
A) didn’t want to serve the residents C) thought to serve the residents again
B) hated it returning again D) made fare well to the residents
16. What is the tone or attitude of the writer towards the residents?
A) hatred B) frightened C) pity D) anxious
17. What can we predict if the writer did not go to the residents for the service?
A) He would continue his pickiness about his feeding habit.
B) He didn’t know the director’s office.
C) His anxiety and worry were not disappeared.
D) He may not see mentally and physically ill people.
18. With which of the following statements would the author in the passage be likely to
disagree?
A) He complains about the people who are mentally and physically ill people.
B) He encourages the people who serve mentally and physically ill people.
C) He explains the people who serve mentally and physically ill people.
D) He advises those who serve mentally and physically ill people.
ANSWER KEYS
PART I: VOCABULARY AND READING: WORD AND TEXT ATTACK SKILLS
1. Understanding Vocabulary in Context
Exercise 1:1) B 2) D 3) A 4) C 5) C 6) A 7) A 8) C 9)C 10) D 11) B
Exercise 2: 1) B 2) B 3) B 4) D 5) D 6) A 7) C 8) D 9) B 10) B

2. Reading Comprehension Levels

Exercise 3:
1. The passage discusses that high school students are required to give community service. The
writer is also a high school student that he had insisted by his father to volunteer for mentally and
physically ill people. He told us how it was his community service from the beginning to the end
of the passage. Therefore, the answer is ‘B’.
2. The passage tells us what the writer performs in the residents. He narrates from his anxiety at
the beginning to the emotional connection with residents at the end. Thus, the purpose of the
writer was to narrate what his school community service was at the residence ‘A’.
3. According to paragraph 1, the center was for mentally and physically ill people. The writer’s
father was a doctor. He wanted his son's high school community service requirement to be filled
by volunteering at that residence. But the writer was scared to start working there. Thus, the
answer is ‘B’.
4. According to paragraph 2, the director told the writer to establish an emotional connection
with the residents to supervise them. The residents also welcomed him by clapping and some of
them by saying hello. Among them was Young-il who showed the writer around the basics of the
residents’ routine, not the director. So, the answer is ‘B’.
5. The institution was a center for mentally and physically ill people. It was not a hospital, a
school or a job training center. It was a rehabilitation center. The answer is ‘D’.
6. In Paragraph 2, the writer indicated that among the residents Young-il showed him around the
basics of the residents’ routine. The answer is ‘B’.
7. In paragraph 4 the writer said some residents had the problem of focusing on eating as they
were shaking their heads violently when he tried to feed them. But none of the residents ever
complained about the unappealing food. The answer is ‘C’.
8. The text discusses how the writer gave his service to the residents. After his first lunch service,
a teacher took over the writer in front of the residents in the room to say goodbye to them.
‘Everyone in the room said goodbye in his own way, ---’ refers to the group or the residents.
Therefore the answer is D.
9. According to paragraph 2, the writer indicated that Young-il was older than him. That means
he was not older than all of the residents. Again in this paragraph, the director didn’t introduce
the writer directly to the residents’ age. But he needed the writer to establish an emotional
connection with the residents. Therefore the answer is A.
10. The writer easily noticed Young-il as he was older than him and spoke to him among the
other residents. Thus, conspicuous means easily noticeable. The answer is ‘A’.
11. The writer contrasted his feeding habit with residents’ unappealing food that he refused to eat
or that demanded a particular food maybe when he lived with his family. Therefore, ‘pickiness’
means ‘refusal. Thus, the answer is D.
12. The writer tells us that at the beginning he ‘was reluctant to go to the center for mentally and
physically ill people. Then he was introduced by the director to them. Due to their physical
problems, it was difficult for him to feed them but he learned a lot from their way of life.
Although he was reluctant at the beginning to serve them, he was emotionally connected with the
residents in the end. Thus, the answer is A.’
13. The answer is ‘D’ because he acknowledges that the food that the residents eat was
unappealing when he compared it with him, but the residents in the center never complained
about it.
14. In this paragraph, the writer said ‘some tried to clap but couldn’t bring both hands together;
some tied to say hello, but their speech was so impaired that I really only guessed at what they
said.’ This implies that the residents had a problem with their physical structure. Therefore, the
answer is ‘B’.
15. In Paragraph 1 the writer indicated that he was reluctant to go to the residents at the
beginning; his anxiety increased. But in Paragraph 5 after his first lunch feeding the residents at
the center, he walked home without fears and worries that his legs were much lighter than they
had been that morning. From this, we can infer that the writer thought to serve the residents
again. Thus the answer is ‘C’.
16. At the beginning, of course, he was scared to go there, but at the end, his fears and worries
disappeared and his emotional connection was established. He felt pity for them. Thus, the
answer is ‘C’.
17. In paragraph 4 the writer contrasts his regular pickiness about his interest in food by
comparing it with the unappealing food of the residents, and then he became embarrassed with
his refusal behavior regarding his food choice. From this, we can predict that he would continue
his refusal if he didn’t go there. The answer is ‘A’. But the other choices cannot be answered
because the writer in one way or another can adapt them without going there.
18. According to the passage, the writer was reluctant to go to the center to serve mentally and
physically ill people. After he started his service, he was touched by their living condition.
Although he was reluctant at the beginning to serve them, he was emotionally connected with
residents at the end instead of complaining. Thus, the answer is ‘A’
PART II: GRAMMAR AND USAGE
In this section of the training manual, some issues related to English grammar and usage will be
presented and discussed.

2.2.Subject-Verb Agreement
When we write, a verb normally should agree with its subject.

A. Compound subject joined by ‘and’

a. Two or more singular nouns or pronouns refer to the different person or thing joined by ‘and’
take a plural verb form.
Example:1. Kebede and Ali study in this school.
2. He and I have finished our work.
b. When two or more nouns refer to the same person or thing joined by ‘and’ the verb becomes
singular verb form.
Example:1. A renowned politician and administrator has made a speech.
2. A famous singer and actor is directing this film.
But if the articles or adjectives are used for both nouns, the verb should be a plural verb form
because they refer to two different persons or things.
Example: 1. An important politician and an administrator have made a speech.
2. A famous singer and an actor are directing this film.
c. If two nouns together express a single idea, the verb may be in the singular form.
Example: 1. Bread and butter is her main food.
2. Slow and steady wins the race.
d. When the word ‘every’ and ‘each’ comes before a compound subjects joined by ‘and’ each
subject is considered separately and take a singular verb form.
Example: Every man and woman is asked to vote.

B. Different correlation of subjects

a. When compound subjects are joined by ‘either … or’, ‘neither … nor’ and ‘not only … but
also’, the subject closer to the verb determines whether the verb form is singular or plural.
Example: 1. Neither the musicians nor the conductor is on the stage.
2. Not only the teacher but also the students come to the party.
3. Neither he nor I am responsible for this crime.
b. ‘(All) … but’, ‘(all)… except’ and ‘(all) … with the exception of’ are used for expressing
exceptions, the verb should agree with the first subject.
Example:1. All the students but one pass the test.
2. All the information except the first three points is false.
c. When compound subjects are joined by ‘together with’, ‘in addition to’, ‘accompanied by’, ‘as
well as’, ‘with’ and ‘along with’ the verb should agree with the first subject.
Example:1. She as well as you is wrong.
2. A famous actor accompanied by his two guards has gone out of the compound.
d. The number of subjects is not changed by words or phrases that come between the subject
and its verb.
Example: Passengers on a night train were uncomfortable.

C. Indefinite subjects joined by ‘of’

a. When two nouns are joined by ‘of’ the verb agrees with the first subject.
Example:1. The students of this class have arrived on time.
2. A class of students is not clean.
b. Phrases such as ‘each of’, ‘everyone of’, ‘one of’, ‘either of’, ‘neither of’ and ‘many a’ with
plural nouns take a singular verb.
Example: 1. Each of you deserves a prize.
2. One of my fellows lives near my house.
However, some people today use with a plural verb form after ‘either of’ and ‘neither of’ with a
plural noun, but it is not common.
Example: 1. Neither of my sisters have a job.
2. Do either of your sisters have a job?
c. Phrases like ‘all of’, ‘a lot of’, ‘a great deal of’, ‘plenty of’, ‘most of’, ‘any of’, ‘some of’ and
‘none of’ are commonly used with singular verb form when they come with uncountable nouns
and plural verb form when they come with plural countable nouns.
Example:1. A lot of money is needed.
2. A lot of books have been purchased.
But in a formal situation, ‘none of’ with any form of nouns may use a singular form.
Example: ‘None of my friends is here today’ said Abel to the manager.
But the following indefinite pronouns are followed by plural verb forms. These are both of, few
of, several of and many of.
Example: 1. Many of the voters support that candidate.
2. Several of the children have chicken pox.
d. Some nouns with regular plural spelling when they are preceded by ‘a pair of’ take the
singular verb form. But they take plural verb form when they do not follow ‘a pair of’ such as
binoculars pants pajamas scissors tights trousers eyeglasses pliers scale shorts
tongs tweezers
Example: 1. A pair of scissors costs three birr.
2. Scissors cost three birr.
e. When we use ‘the number of’ or ‘the variety of’, we use a singular verb form. When we use
‘a number of’ or ‘a variety of’, we use a plural verb form.
Example: 1. a) The variety of plants is amazing at the garden shop.
b) A variety of plants are for sale at the garden shop.
2. a) The number of students is not enough to start teaching.
b) A number of students are absent today.

D. Different group of words

a. The following indefinite pronouns are usually singular and take singular verb forms. These
are:
someone anyone no one everyone somebody anybody nobody everybody
something anything nothing everything somewhere anywhere nowhere everywhere
Example: 1. Everything is going to be alright.
2. Somebody stands outside the door.
b. Collective nouns may be singular or plural. The most common collective nouns are: group
class herd army audience public crowd swarm flock committee team faculty
assembly fleet family jury
i. Use a singular verb form with the collective nouns as a subject when that is thought of as a
single unit.
Example:1. The crowd has been kept under control. (Crowd is thought as a single unit.)
2. The committee is planning to hire a guard. (The committee is working as a single unit.)

ii. Use a plural verb form with a collective noun as a subject when the speaker or writer is
referring to the individual parts or members of the group acting separately.
Example:1. The crowd have all purchased tickets. (Crowd is thought as an individual member.)
1. The committee are able to elect their leaders. (The committee members are acting
separately.)
But the following collective nouns take commonly plural verb form. These are: group class
herd army audience public crowd swarm cattle police flock vermin clergy people
poultry Example:1. Cattle were allowed to graze in the cemetery.
2. Vermin destroy wild animals.
c. Some nouns have a plural form but they take singular verb forms such as checkers economics
measles series metropolis chess mathematics molasses statistics physics mumps tennis
means news draughts
Example:1. Mathematics gives some people a challenge.
2. The news was very shocking.
d) When certain adjectives are preceded by ‘the’ used as a plural noun, then they are followed by
a plural verb form sush as poor dead unemployed dumb strong good healthy young rich
deaf bad old sick blind weak displaced
Example: 1. The young are often foolish.
2. The sick become healthy after they eat good diet.
But if the adjectives are preceded by an indefinite article (a/an) and followed by a singular noun
a singular verb form should be used.
Example: A sick man needs medicine.
e. Plural titles of individual books, stories, plays, movies, television programs, musical
compositions and magazines take the singular verb form.
Example: 1 The Arabian Nights has been televisionized.
2. Shakespeare plays is my favorite references.
f. The name of a country or an organization also takes a singular verb form when it refers to an
entire country or group.
Example:1. The United Nations sends peace-keeping forces to Darfur.
2. Iraq is fighting the Americans still now.
g) Nouns of nationality take a plural verb form.
Example:1.The Ethiopian are known for entertaining their guests.
2. The American like eating every time.
Some nouns of nationality that end in -ese, -sh and -ch can mean either language or people such
as English, Chinese, Vietnamese, Spanish, Japanese, Congolese, French, Sudanese and
Portuguese. So, if these nouns refer to language they are not preceded by the definite article
‘the’, then a singular verb form is used.
Example: English is spoken in many countries.
But if these nouns refer to nationality they are preceded by the definite article ‘the’, then plural
verb form is used.
Example: The English like drinking tea.

E. Different groups of agreements

a. When relative pronouns (who, which, that, whom, whose) come next to the antecedent, the
verb must agree with the antecedent.
Example: The boy who is my friend helped me carry this bag.
A plural verb form usually follows with the construction, “… one of those…who …” because the
antecedent of ‘who’ is the plural; that is ‘those’.
Example: Elias is one of those boys who go to school only to play tennis.
b. When sentences begin with ‘there’ or ‘here’ the verb agrees with the real subject that comes
after it.
Example: 1) There is a boy outside.
2) Here are the books for your son.
c. When a gerund is used as a subject, we use a singular verb form.
Example: Swimming is a very important sport.
d. When the subject is both negative and affirmative, the verb agrees with the affirmative part of
the subject.
Example: They, not she, deserve the prize.

6. Words expressing measurements

a. Words that express an amount of time, money, length, distance or weight with a unit
number usually take singular verb form, but when they are without the unit, the verb should
agree according to the subject’s number.
Example: 1. Ten miles is too far to walk.
2. Meters are used to measure length.
b. Fractions and percentages use a singular verb form when the noun is uncountable and a
plural verb form when the noun is plural countable noun.
Example: 1. Half of the members were not present.
2. Fifty percent of the money was lost.
c. Subjects consisting of phrases that involve addition, subtraction, multiplication or division
are usually used a singular verb form.
Example:1. Four and four is eight.
2. Ten divided by five is two.

Exercise: Choose the best one in the given alternatives to complete each sentence.
1. I don’t think either of them _______________ the story.
A) know B) knows C) is knowing D) are knowing
2. Neither have they asked anyone nor ____________ the accident themselves.
A) saw B) seen C) witness D) did witness
3. Either of them ____________ to blame. They know the only key we have with them.
A) is B) are C) has D) have
4. Neither your relatives nor you ______ allowed to leave at the moment. Things should clear up.
A) is B) are C) be D) have
5. It has come to my attention that none of them ____________died in the accident.
A) has B) have C) is D) are
6. I understand ________________ of us is responsible. We were out of town when it happened.
A) all B) both C) either D) neither
7. Not all seats in the exam hall _____________ taken yet.
A) has B) are C) were D) have
8._______________ of you is responsible for what had happened. It was this Nigerian guy that
stole everything.
A) Both B) Neither C) One D) Either
9. There are two newspapers on my table. __________ of which has an interesting thing to read.
A) A single B) No one C) Either D) Neither
10. All the participants of the meeting ____________ to express their opinion.
A) allow B) allowed C) were allowed D) was allowed
11. Every one of you___________ expected to contribute to the new enterprise.
A) is B) are C) has D) have
12. The number of cars in Addis Ababa on the road ____________ rapidly.
A) is increasing B) was increasing C) are increasing D) were increasing

2.2. English Tenses

A. The Present Tenses
1. The Present Simple Tense is formed with (Subject + V1); it is used to describe:
a. habitual action. Example: He goes to church every Sunday.
b. facts and universal truth. Example: The sun sets in the west.
c. scheduled future events or actions. Example: The film starts at 3 am.
Note in the present tenses:
a. the verb ‘to be’ becomes : I am; He / She/ It is; We/ You/ They are;
b. in the third person the common verbs add ‘-s’ or ‘-es’: He / She/ It does; and the verb ‘to have’
also becomes ‘has’: He/ She/ It has
We use perception verbs for the actual present tense such as see, hear, understand, know, believe,
etc.
Example: 1. I know what you want.
2. Do you see animals?
2. The Present Continuous Tense is formed with (Subject + am / is/ are+ V-ing); it is used
express:
a. an action that is taking place at the time of speaking using time adverbs like now, at the
moment, etc.
Example: The old man is telling a story.
b. temporary situations like sitting, standing, sleeping, etc.
Example: He is standing near the school gate.
c. the near future arrangement when the speaker may involve others.
Example: He is leaving for Addis tonight.
d. frequently repeated actions that the speaker does not like.
Example: They are always making noisy.
3. The Present Perfect Tense is formed with (Subject + has/ have + V3); it is used to express:
a. an action which has been already completed with the present result.
Example: I have just finished reading this fiction.
b. an action that began in the past and continues up to the present using time expressions since,
for, yet, still, always, lately, etc.
Example: I haven’t finished reading this fiction yet.
c. an action that has occurred in an incomplete period of the time like today, this morning, this
afternoon, this week.
Example: We have started learning English this morning.

4. The Present Perfect Continuous is formed with (Subject + has/ have + been + V-ing)
form; it is used to express:
a. an action that began in the past and still continuing or just completed.
Example: He has been taking this medicine for a long time.
b. a temporary situation or action as compared to the Present Perfect.
Example: 1. We have been living in Addis Ababa. (Temporary situation)
2. We have lived in Addis Ababa. (Permanent situation)
Note we don’t use state verbs like believe, like, love, etc… for continuous tenses.

B. The Past Tenses

1. The Simple Past Tense is formed with (Subject + V2); it is used to express:
a. an action that completed in the past with or without past time expression.
Example: He didn’t come to school yesterday.
b. past habitual action commonly with adverbs of frequency.
Example: He often met me at the crossing road.
c. a discontinued habit using (used to /would + V1).
Example: My father used to run fast when he was young.
But note that ‘would’ cannot replace ‘used to’:
i. when we compare the past habit with the present.
Example: I used to drink tea, but now I like drinking coffee.
ii. in negatives.
Example: He didn’t use to study hard when he was in elementary school.
2. The Past Continuous Tense (Subject + was / were + V-ing); it is used to express:
a. with a specific time but the exact when the action or event was stated and finished was
unknown.
Example: He was eating his breakfast at 8 o’clock.
b. two actions going on at the same time in the past.
Example: While my sister was reading, I was washing my clothes.
c. to show the continuity of an event when another even took place.
Example: She was playing a game when the telephone rang.
3. The Past perfect Tense (Subject + had + V3 or past participle) : it is used:
a. to express the first action or event when two past events happened one after another and the
second action is usually expressed in the Simple Past tense.
Example: When we arrived at the station, the train had already left.
b. to look back from specific point of time in the past to an earlier event by using adverbs like by
now, by the age of forty, by sixty etc.
Example: By sixty he had got all his money.

4. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense (Subject + had been + V-ing)

This tense is used to talk about longer actions or situations that had continued up to the past
moment which we are talking about or just stopped before it.
Example: My mother had been working in a government office until she became at the
retirement age.

C. The Future Tenses

We use:
1. It can use the Simple Present Tense to express the future with timetabled or scheduled
program with verbs like be, open, close, begin, start, arrive, finish, come, leave, return, end, etc.
Example: 1. The bus leaves the station at 2 pm tomorrow.
2. The meeting starts at 7 and ends at 10.
2. It can also use the Present Continuous Tense to express future arrangement when a plan
exists by the speaker involving others.
Example: I can’t play football after school as we are taking the entrance exam next month.
3. Subject + ‘be’ + going to + V1 form to predict about the future based evidence.
Example: 1. I have won a DV lottery, so I’m going to fly to America next year.
2. Look at that black cloud! It is going to rain.
4. The Simple Future Tense (Subject +Will +V1): is used to:
a. predict what will happen in the future without evidence.
Example: 1. I will visit Lake Tana next month.
2. It rain will come early this year.
b. make a promise or determination.
Example: I will visit you for an hour tomorrow morning.
c. give immediate response.
Example: A: The phone is ringing!
B: Ok. I will answer it.
5. The Future Continuous Tense (Subject + will be + V-ing): to express:
a. expected action or event will happen in the future
Example: 1.We will be taking our mid-exam next month.
2. She will be leaving in a few days.
b. an action will be on progress at some future time.
Example: We will be working on the farm next month.
5. The Future perfect Tense (Subject + will have + past participle (V3) to express an action
which is expected to be completed before a certain point of time in the future.
Example: By the coming year, we will have joined to University.
Note that it is always used with the ‘by + time words, phrases or clauses’ like by tomorrow, by
October 2023, by the time you arrive, etc.
6. The Future Perfect Tense (Subject + will have been + V-ing) to express a future action that
will continue up to a certain point in the future.
Example: I will have been working there for two years on Sunday.
Exercise: Choose the best answer among the given alternatives.
1. My brother always ______________ his homework in the evening.
A) do B) does C) doing D) done
2. The world’s largest ocean _____________ the Pacific.
A) was B) is C) are D) were
3. A: Can you milk a cow?
B: Yes, but I _____________ since I left my father’s farm.
A) have milked B) don’t milk C) milked D) haven’t milked
4. The actors ___________ for five months. Now, they are ready for the premier.
A) has been rehearsing B) had been rehearsing C) have rehearsing D) have been rehearsing
5. When I was in the countryside, I _____________ saddled a horse.
A) used to ride B) rode C) to ride D) ride
6. When the play ended, the audience ___________ home.
A) went B) had gone C) gone D) was going
7. The leader sat down only after he___________ his speech.
A) completed B) had completed C) has completed D) completes
8. He didn’t write until we_______________ our work.
A) have finished B) had finished C) are finished D) completes
9. I am working hard to save money. By September next year, I _____ my own house and car.
A) will buy B) will have bought C) must buy D) have bought
10. I see new machines unloaded on her premise. I think she______ production soon.
A) start B) is going to start C) will start D) may be starting
11. Next year this time, we ___________our first-year university.
A) will complete B) have to complete C) have completed D) will have completed
12. The exam ___________ at 8:00 a.m. tomorrow morning.
A) is starting B) starts C) starting D) is started
13. Three months have passed ______________ my mother died.
A) since B) for C) during D) when
14. I finished work, ______________ to teach and found a nice place to swim.
A) walked B) walks C) waking D) was waking
15. ___________ she___________ that soup without reading the recipe?
A) Has/made B) Has/make C) Has/tasted D) Has/taste

2.3. The Active and Passive Voices

 The Form
Tense Active Passive
Present simple: The man repairs the car. The car is repaired.
Present continuous: The man is repairing the car. The car is being repaired.
Past simple: The man repaired the car. The car was repaired.
Past continuous: The man was repairing the car. The car was being repaired.
Present perfect: The man has repaired the car. The car has been repaired.
Past perfect: The man had repaired the car. The car had been repaired.
Future simple: The man will repair the car. The car will be repaired.
Present conditional: The man would repair the car. The car would be repaired.
Perfect conditional: The man would have repaired the car. The car would have been repaired.

The passive voice in English is formed with the verb 'to be' and the past participle, which is
different for regular verbs (translated, mended) and irregular verbs (taken, thrown).
Examples: Statement: The letter is written. This shop has been opened.
Question: Is the letter written? Has the shop been opened?
Negative: The letter is not written. The shop has not been opened.
The passive forms of the present and past continuous tenses are as follows. Other continuous
forms are not normally used in the passive.
Present: A new house is being built on our street.
Past: A new house was being built on our street.
In all the examples above the agent is not mentioned and so we do not know it.
Similarly: Flowers were planted in the garden. (We do not know who did it).
If we want to say who planted the flowers, we mention the agent at the end of the sentence and
use the preposition by.
Examples 1. The flowers were planted by my mother.
But: 2. The window was smashed with a stone. (The stone is not the agent. We do not
know who smashed the window. We only know how he or she did it).

 The Use
The passive voice is used:
1. If the action is more important than the agent.
Example 1. A demonstration has been held.
2. This theatre was built in 1868.
The important thing is what happened, not who did it.
2. If the agent is not known.
Example: 1. He was offered a job. (Someone offered him the job.)
2. They are supposed to be good students. (Some teachers suppose that.)

The difference in meaning between the passive of simple and continuous tenses.
Example 1. A new house is built on our street. (The house is finis
2. A new house is being built on our street. (They are building it these days, it is not
finished.)
3. I was being introduced to Mrs. Jones when her husband arrived. (Her husband arrived in
the middle of the introduction.)
2. When her husband arrived I was introduced to Mrs. Jones. (Her husband arrived first
before the introduction)
Exercise: Choose the best one to complete each sentence using either the passive or the
active form.
1. My grandfather __________ this house in 1943.
A) built B) build C) was built D) is built
2. Talent is like a plant that needs ________, watered and pruned.
A) feeding B) to fed C) food D) to be fed
3. You _______________ to do your homework before you went out.
A) are supposed to B) were supposed C) suppose D) were supposing
4. My house ____________into last night for the second time.
A) broke B) was broken C) has broken D) has been broken
5. A room ____________ for you at the Hilton Hotel.
A) has reserved B) has been reserving C) reserves D) has been reserved
6. It was agreed that the football match ______________.
A) be postponed B) postpones C) postponed D) was postponed
7. The committee __________ the issue thoroughly at the meeting yesterday.
A) was discussed B) discussed C ) is discussed D) discusses
8. “Just a moment, please!” “The room_________,” said the teacher.
A) is cleaned B) has been cleaned C) is being cleaned D) is cleaning
9. By the way, do you know how much time ________ to finish the exam?
A) given B) has given C) we are given D) we have given
10. Nurses and doctors ________ every three days to see the progress the migrants are making.
Reports show that most of them are now recovering which is good thing to hear.
A) are dispatched B) dispatched C) have been dispatched D) were dispatched

2.4. Reported Speech

There are two ways of relating what a person has said: direct and indirect speech. In a direct
speech, we repeat the speaker’s exact or original words between inverted commas.
Example: He said, “I have lost my umbrella.”
In an indirect speech, we give the exact meaning of a speech, without necessarily using the
speaker’s exact words.
Example: He said (that) he had lost his umbrella.
There is no comma after say in indirect speech. That can be omitted after say and tell + object.
But it should be kept after other verbs like: claim, complain, explain, object, point out, protest,
promise, etc.
i. When we change direct speech into indirect speech, some changes are usually necessary.
A. The pronoun and the possessive adjective changes:
The first and the second person pronouns and possessive adjectives normally change to the third
person except when the speaker is reporting his own words.
(I = he, she; me = him, her; my = his, her; mine = his, hers; we = they; us = them; our = their)
Example: 1. She said, “He’s my son.” ̴ She said that he was her son.
2. “I’m ill,” she said. ̴ She said that she was ill.

B. This / These:
When this is used in time expressions, usually becomes that.
Example: She said, “She’s coming this week.” ̴ She said that she was coming that week.
When this and these is used as adjectives, usually change to the.
Example 1. He said, “I bought this pearl for my mother.”
̴ He said that he had bought the pearl for his mother.
2. He said, “I bought these pearls for my mother.”
̴ He said that he had bought the pearls for his mother.
When this and these are used as pronouns, it may be changed to it, they/them.
Example: 1. He said, “I found these knives beside the king’s bed.”
̴ He said he had found them beside the king’s bed.
2. He said, “We will discuss this tomorrow.”
̴ He said that they would discuss it the next day.
C. Expressions of time and place change:
Direct speech In direct speech
now then / at that time
today yesterday/that day/Tuesday/the 27th of June
yesterday the previous day/the day before
last night the night before / Thursday night
last week the week before / the previous week
tomorrow today / the next day / the following day / Friday
Example: 1. I’ll do it tomorrow,” he promised. ̴ He promised that he would do it the next day.
2. She said, “My father died a year ago.”
̴ She said that her father had died a year before/the previous year.
But if the speech is made and reported on the same day these time changes are not necessary.
Example: At breakfast this morning he said, “I’ll be very busy today.”
̴ At breakfast this morning he said that he would be very busy today.
2. Here can become there, but only when it is clear what place is meant.
Example: At the station, he said, “I’ll be here again tomorrow.”
̴ He said that he’d be there again the next day.
Note that here can also be replaced by some phrase of place.
She said, “You can sit here, Tom.” ̴ She told Tom that he could sit beside her.

ii. Changing different types of sentences

A. Statements
Indirect speech can be introduced by a verb in the present tense like: He says that ... when we
are:
a. reading a letter and reporting what it says.
Example: The letter says we are all invited to the party.
b. reading instructions and reporting them.
Example: The instruction says we must do it carefully.
c. reporting a statement that someone makes very often.
Example: Tom says that he’ll never get married.
Verbs in the direct speech can be changed into a corresponding past tense when it is introduced
by a verb in the past tense like in the following table.
Tenses Direct speech: Examples Reported speech: Examples
Simple Present 1. “I work hard.” He said he worked hard.
Present 2. “I’m working hard at the He said he was working hard at that moment.
continuous moment.”
Simple past 3. “We worked hard yesterday.” He said they worked / had worked hard the
day before.
Past Continuous 4. “I was working hard all last He said he was working / had been working
week. hard all the week before.
Present Perfect 5. “You have never worked He said she had never worked hard.
hard.”
Past Perfect 6. “We had worked hard all He said they had worked hard all that week.
week.”
Simple Future 7. “I’ll work hard for the rest of He said he would work hard for the rest of
today.” that day.
Future 8. “I’ll be working hard for the He said he would be working hard for the
Continuous rest of today and tomorrow.” rest of that day and the next.
Going to + V1 9. “You are going to work hard He said they were going to work hard all that
all week! ” week.
Modal ‘can’ 10. “I can work hard.” He said he could work hard.
Modal ‘must’ 11. “You must work hard! ” He said she must / had to work hard.
Modal ‘may’ 12 “We may have to work hard He said they might have to work hard that
today.” day.
Modal ‘should’ 13. “You should work hard! ” He said they should work hard that day.
When the reporting verb is in the present simple or the situation is still true, change may not be
necessary.
But when we are reporting something that was said at an unknown time and in an unknown
place, called ‘indefinite reported speech’; we have to change some of their actual words like
pronouns, tenses of the verb, adverbs of time and demonstratives:
But we don't need to change the tense for things which are general facts even if the reporting
verb is past form.
Example: DS: The teacher said, “Oxygen and hydrogen form water.”
RS: The teacher said that oxygen and hydrogen form water.
B. Questions
Note:1) When we change direct speech questions into indirect speech, the following changes are
necessary:
a. tenses, pronouns and possessive adjectives, adverbs of time and place change as statements.
b. the interrogative form of the verb changes to the affirmative form.
c. the question mark is omitted in indirect questions.
2. If the introductory verb is say, it must be changed to a verb of inquiry like: ask, wonder,
want to know, enquire, etc.
Example: He said, “Where is the station?” ̴ He asked where the station was.
3. If the direct question begins with a Wh-question word like: when, where, who, how, why,
etc. the question word is repeated in the indirect question.
Example: He said, “Why didn’t you put on the brake?”
̴ He asked (her) why she hadn’t put on the brake.
4. If it is Yes/ No question if or whether must be used as a conjunction.
Example: “Is anyone there?” he asked. ̴ He asked if/whether anyone was there.
C. The verb of command /request /advice such as command, order, warn, tell, ask, beg,
request, advice, remind, etc. are usually expressed by: object + to + V1.
Example:1. He said, “Lie down, friends.” ̴ He told his friends to lie down.
2. He said, “Help me, please.” ̴ He requested (me) to help him.
3. He said, “Drink two litters of water daily.”
̴ He advised me to drink two litters of water daily.
Negative commands, requests, advices, etc. are usually reported by not + to + V1.
Example: “Don’t swim out too far, boys,” I said. ̴ I warned the boys not to swim out too far.

D. Offers and Suggestions could be reported like these examples.

Offers: He said, “Shall I bring you some tea?” ̴ He offered to bring me some tea.
Suggestions: He said, “Shall we meet at the theatre?” ̴ He suggested meeting at the theatre.

Exercise 2: Choose the one from the given alternatives that best completes each sentences.
1. “Why did you withdraw from the college?” the teacher asked. This question can be reported
later as ______.
A) The teacher asked me if I had withdrawn from the college.
B) The teacher asked me why I had withdrawn from the college.
C) The teacher wanted to know why had you withdrawn from the college.
D) The teacher asked me why had I withdrawn from the college?
2. Senait: " I played the piano well yesterday."
Salim: "What did she say?"
Kibru: She said that ________________________.
A) she played the piano well before a day C) she played the piano well before yesterday
B) she played the piano well the previous day D) she played the piano well two days before
3. English teacher: “That boy behaved badly.”
Unit leader: “What did the English teacher say?”
Class monitor: She said that ______________________________.
A) the boy had behaved badly C) the boy did behave badly
B) the boy had to behave badly D) the boy had had behaved badly
4. The school director wanted to know ______________.
A) if aster was late B) are you late, aster? C) why was Aster late? D) if Aster is late
5. Lemlem: What did the reporters ask you after the interview?
Hanna: __________________.
A) They asked me what am I planning to do? C) They asked me what was I planning to do?
B) They asked me what I had planning to do. D) They asked me what I was planning to do.
6. The children’s mother warned them ____________.
A) to not go near the sea C) “Don’t go near the sea.”
B) not to go near the sea D) don’t near the sea
7. The commander warned his soldiers ______________.
A) to not swim in a still water C) to swim not in a still water
B) not to swim in a still water D) don’t swim in a still water

2.5. Conditional Sentences

A. Zero condition: we use Zero Conditional talk about scientific facts, general truth, or
situations to give instruction with the structure:
If/When clause: Present Simple Main Clause: Present Simple
Example: 1. If you heat ice, it melts.
2. If you don’t water plants, they die.
3. If you want to leave a message, speak after the tone.
B. Probable or Type 1 Condition: it is the condition that something will happen if a certain
condition is fulfilled. The time reference in this condition is either the present or the future.
If clause: Simple Present Main Clause: Simple future
Example: If we don’t increase the number of children going to school, our country will not
develop.
In the same sequence, ‘If- clause’ can be introduced by: as long as, so long as, provided that,
providing and with the main clause future tenses.
Example: 1. If you come to school, you will learn different subjects.
2. As long as you come to school, you will learn different subjects.
3. Provided that you come to school, you will learn different subjects.
When 'Should' + bare infinitive' is used in Type1 conditional sentences in the ‘If-clause’, it
expresses a less likely condition and it will have the same meaning as ‘If you happen ---, If you--
- by chance---’
Example: If you should meet the manager, you will give him your application.
=If you happen to meet the manager, you will give him your application.
=If you meet by chance the manager, you will give him your application.
In this case inversion is also possible as in: = Should you meet the manager, you will give him
your application.
 Note: 'may, can, must, should, ought to, need to, etc can be used in the Main Clause with the
probable condition to express permission, ability, advice, necessity, etc.
Example: 1. If it gets dark, she may not come.
2. If you have a passport, you can visit our country.
We can use ‘unless’ instead of ‘if --- not’ in conditional sentences.
Example: Unless we increase the number of children going to school, our country will not
develop.
In conditional sentences, the main clause can be put at the beginning; in this case, no comma is
necessary between the main clause and if clause.
Example: Our country will not develop if we don’t increase the number of children going to
school.
C) Unlikely or Type 2 Condition: it is the condition that makes a statement about things that
might be real, but not real at the present. Thus, the time reference is either the present or the
future.
If –clause: Past simple Main Clause: Conditional (would+V1)
Example: If I won a billion birr, I would buy a car. (=I don’t win a billion birr, so I can’t buy a
car.)
Unlikely (Improbable) Condition is used to express:
a. less probability when the speaker doesn’t expect the action in the If-Clause to happen.
Example:1. If they admitted the truth, they would be pardoned.
(=They are not expected to admit the truth.)
2. If Almaz telephoned me, I would tell her the truth.
(= The speaker doesn’t expect Almaz to phone him.)
b. unreal (imaginary) conditions:
Example: 1. If I were you, I would tell her the truth. (= But I am not you.)
2. If he were a bird, he would fly. (= He is not a bird.)
3. If they were rich, they would buy a house. (= They are not rich.)
Note that 'were' is usually used with both singular and plural subjects in the If-Clause of Unreal
Condition although 'was' is possible in the 1st and 3rd singular subjects.
Note that also inversion is possible in Probable Condition by omitting If as in:
1. If he were a bird, he would fly. = Were he a bird, he would fly
2. If they admitted the truth, they would be pardoned. = Were they to admit the truth, they would
be pardoned.
Note that common verbs can be changed into 'were + subject + to + V1’ to form inversion.
D. Impossible or Type 3 Condition: this is a condition about what might have been if only
something had happened. The time referred to is past and it has no any relation to the present
time.
If - clause: Past perfect Main Clause: Perfect conditional (would have+V3)
Example:1. If she had come on time, she wouldn't have been punished.
(= She didn't come on time, so she was punished.)
 2. If I had had enough time, I would have written some notes.
(= I didn't have enough time, so I didn't write any notes.)
Note that ‘could have’ and ‘might have’ can also be used in the past conditional sentences.
Inversion is also possible in these types of conditional sentences.
Example: 1. Had she come on time, she wouldn't have been punished.
2. Had I had enough time, I would have written some notes
There are certain exceptions to use 'will/would/should' in the ‘if clause’ of conditional sentences.
i. to express polite requests, but 'would' is more polite than others.
Example: If you will/would wait a moment, I will see if the manager is free.

ii. 'will /would' can be used with all persons to indicate willingness.
Example: If he will/would listen to me, I will be able to help him.
If you would tell me what you want for dinner, I‘d cook it for you.

iii. 'will' can be used to express obstinate insistence.

Example: If you will play the drums all night, no wonder the neighbors complain.

Exercise: Choose the best alternative to complete each sentence.

1. ________ you hurry, you will be late.
A) Unless B) If C) Should D) Unless you will
2. If you want to listen to music in the computer, ________ the button.
A) will press B) should press C) it presses D) press
3. If you heat water at 100 cent grade, it ___________.
A) boils B) will boil C) should boil D) can boil
4. If I __________ an animal, I would like to be a lion.
A) will B) would C) were D) had
5. __________ she to come on time, she wouldn't be punished.
A) If B) Were C) Would D) Came
6. If I had done my homework, the teacher _________ pleased with me.
A) had done B) would do C) would have been D) would be
7. If I ____________ ill, I would have come with you on your trip.
A) hadn't been B) wouldn't have been C) had been D) would have been
8. _________ you come to the concert, you would have enjoyed it very much.
A) Had B) Would C) If D) Unless
9. If I _______ a bird, I _______ in the air and ________ in a nest.
A) was/would flew/ lived B) were/ would fly/ live
C) had had/ would have flown D) will be/ will live/ live
10. If I had had more leisure time, I _______ the Semen Mountains and _______their breath
taking view.
A) would visit/ enjoy B) should have to visit/ enjoy
C) would have visited / enjoyed D) ought to have visited/ enjoyed
11. If I had known how difficult the job was, I ____________ it for sure.
A) won’t have started B) won’t have to started
C) wouldn’t have to start D) wouldn’t have started
12. Fruit is good if it ________ eaten fresh.
A) can be B) is C) will be D) was
13. If you won a lottery, what ______ you ______with it?
A) are / doing B) will/ do C) were/ doing D) would/ do
14. We can’t avoid soil erosion ______we plant trees around the hills.
A) whenever B) even if C) unless D) if not

2.6. Expressing regret

We express regret when things do not happen as we would like or as we dream of.

To express present regret, we use:

a. Type 2 conditional sentences
Example: If I had trained well, I could be in the team.
b. I wish + subject + past simple Example: I wish I trained very well.
c. If only + subject + past simple Example: If only I trained very well.
d. But for + noun/ noun phrase, subject + would + V1
Example: But for raining, we would come to the school.
(=If it wasn’t raining, we would come to the school.)
e. But for the fact that + clause, subject + conditional
Example: But for the fact that it was raining, we would come to the school.
To express past regret, we use:

a. Type 3 conditional sentences

Example: If I had lived here for a long time, I would have known the town very well.
b. If only+ subject+ past perfect Example: If only I had lived here for a long time.
c. I wish + subject+ past perfect Example: I wish I had lived here for a long time.
d. But for + noun/ noun phrase, subject + would have + past participle
Example: But for my headache, I would have come to school.
(= If I hadn't had a bad headache, I would have come to school.)
e. But for the fact that + clause, subject + perfect conditional
Example: But for the fact that I had a bad headache, I would have done my home work.
(=If I hadn't had a bad headache, I would have come to school.)
When we want to express something that we want to stop or change in some way, we use the
structure: I wish+ subject+ would/could + V1
Example: 1. I wish my little sister wouldn’t play loud music at night.
2. I wish my friend would stop smoking.

Exercise: Choose the best alternative to complete each sentence.

1. When we go running, I am always the last. I wish I ____ faster.
A) have run B) had run C) could run D) will run
2. My maths book isn’t in my bag. It must be at home. I wish I _________ to bring it today.
A) hadn’t forgotten B) do not forget C) forgot D) have forgotten
3. I wish I ____ a teacher. My life was less stressful when I was a teacher.
A) will be B) were C) was D) have been
4. I wish I _________ to your advice about spending my money wisely.
A) listen B) have listened C) would’ listen D) had listened
5. I _____ I studied harder in school.
A) am wishing B) wish C) would wish D) will wish
6. I feel completely lonely today and I wish I_________ hear her lovely voice where she is from.
A) can B) may C) will D) could

2.7. Expressing strong opinions using: It is time/It is high time

It is high time + past simple tense: expresses something should have been done, but now
already became late.

Example: 1. It is high time I bought a new pair of shoes.

2. It is high time that you cleaned.
It’s time + infinitive verb: also expresses the right time something to be done has arrived at the
present.
Example: 1. It’s time to change the rules of the school.
2. It’s time to go home.
Exercise: Choose the best alternative to complete the blank spaces.
1. We must go now! It is high time we ____________ to school.
A) go B) to go C) goes D) went
2. It is time for you__________ to bed as it becomes 4 o'clock.
A) go B) to go C) goes D) went
3. He is preparing to travel. It is time___________ goodbye.
A) say B) to say C) says D) said
4. Oh! It is 12 o’clock! It is time you______________ to bed.
A) go B) to go C) went D) goes
5. We must start planting soon! It is high time we ___________ the grain.
A) sow B) to sow C) sowed D) sown

2.8. Verb and verb patterns

When one verb is followed by an other verb, the form of the second verb may be in ‘to+V1’ or ‘
V-ing’ form.
i. a. Some common verbs that are followed by the ‘to+V1’ form are:
afford agree appear arrange attempt care come decide deserve determine fail happen
hesitate hope hurry learn live manage need neglect offer plan pretened promise
prove refuse seem study undertake
Example: 1. I have decided to buy some new football boots.
2. We agree to meet on Thursday.
b. Those verbs that are followed by ‘object + to + V1’ form are:
allow cause encourage enable forbid force invite instruct oblige order
persuade press remind request require show...how teach tempt tell warn urge
Example: 1. He persuaded her to join him.
2. We requested you not to smoke in the restaurant.
c. Those verbs that are followed by either ‘to + V1’ form or ‘object + to + V1’ form are:
ask beg choose expect help trouble want wish
Example: 1.a. They asked to play in the team. b. They asked him to play in the team.
2. a. Do you want to read this passage? b. I want a student to read this passage.
ii. Some verbs are followed by ‘V- ing’ form. These are:
admit anticipate avoid confess consider defer delay deny discuss dislike detest
enjoy finish forgive imagine involve keep mind miss omit pactice postpone
quit resent suggest
Example:1) Have you finished washing your clothes?
 2) Do you enjoy playing cards?
iii. Some verbs that are followed by the ‘to + V1’ form or the ‘V–ing’ forms are:
advice bear begin cease* commence continue dread forget* hate * intend
like* leave love mean permit prefer propose regret* remember* start stop* try
Note that most of them used without changing their meaning in both forms.
Example: I prefer to eat/ eating my breakfast very well.
But those with the a star (*) may change their meaning when we use ‘to+V1’ form or ‘V-ing’
form.
Example: 1. a) I stopped to eat my lunch. (= I stopped my job in order to eat.)
b) I stopped eating my lunch. (= I stopped the activity of eating lunch.)
2. a) I like drinking water. (= I take much of water as a habit.)
b) I like to drink water. (= I’m thirsty now.)
3. a) I forget seeing this film. (= I have seen this film before.)
b) I forget to see this film. (= I remember now to see this film.)
iv. The following verbs are only followed by ‘object + V1’ (bare infinitive) such as bid, have,
let, make. These verbs do not indicate physical perception; they are not followed by ‘V-ing’
form.
Example: 1) The teacher let him stay at home.
2)The nurse made the patient take some medicine.
However, those indicate physical perceptions can be followed by both ‘object +V1’ (bare
infintive) and ‘V–ing’ form. These are feel, hear, listen to, look at, notice, observe, see ,etc.
Example: 1) I saw him cross the road. Or I saw him crossing the road.
2) I heard them sing at the concert. Or I heard them singing at the concert.
But the verb ‘recognize’ and ‘smell’ are only followed by ‘V-ing’ form.
Example: 1) Can you smell the food burning?
2) They recognize him climbing over the fence.
Note that it is possible to use ‘to + V1’ in both groups when they are in their passive form.
Example: 1) a. I saw him cross the road. (Active)
b. He was seen to cross the road. (Passive)
2) a. The nurse made the patient take some medicine. (Active)
b. The patient was made to take some medicine. (Passive)
But the verb 'let' is not used in the passive instead we use the verb 'allow' or 'permit'.
Example: The teacher let him stay at home. (Active)
He was allowed to stay at home. (Passive)
Exercise: Choose the best alternative to complete each blank space.
1. I wish it would stop _______. I want to go out.
A) training B) to rain C) rain D) rains
2. Yosef wants ______ to you.
A) taking B) to talk C) talked D) talk
3. He kept on __________at his watch.
A) to glance B) glancing C) glanced D) glance
4. I tried_____ the man’s name, but I couldn’t.
A) remember B) to remember C) remembering D) remembers
5. He admitted______ the boat and was fined.
A) steal B) stole C) stealing D) to steal
6. Could you let me _______ what time the meeting starts?
A) know B) knows D) knowing D) knew
7. Tolosa promised ________ her after finding a good job.
A) marry B) marrying C) to marrying D) to marry
8) I always delay ________ my Christmas presents till after Christmas, when it’s much cheaper.
A) to buy B) buying C) buy D) bought

2.9. Expressing purpose

We use certain phrases or clauses to show why somebody does something. These are called
purposes. They are introduced with the following expressions or words these are: To + V1:
Example: 1. A hearing aid is used to help somebody hear.
2. These products have greatly helped farmers to grow more.
In order to/so as to + V1 (formal):
Example: 1. In order to improve the quality of their lives, the people should get modern
education.
2. Many blind people have been given dogs so as to help them get around more
easily.
For + noun: used to express purpose.
Example: Nitrogen is need for the growth of plants.
For + -ing + (noun): used to express purpose or function of something.
Example: A hearing aid is used for making sounds louder.
For a negative we can use: In order not to /so as not to + V1:
Example: We walked in quietly so as not to wake up the children.
Prevent + noun /pronoun + from + ing:
Example: I parked the car under a tree to prevent it from getting too hot.
So that+ clause (subject + verb): commonly with modal verbs for a positive purpose clause in
the present, future or past.
Example: 1.Here’s my number so that you can call me if you have a problem. (Future)
2. We left early so that we would be able to park close to the stadium. (Past)
Lest/ for fear that + clause (subject + verb): for a negative purpose clause.
Example: We studied hard lest we couldn't fail the exam.

Exercise: Choose the correct phrase for the following.

1. We worked hard just before the holiday ______ we could really enjoy it.
A) in order to B) to C) so that D) for
2. Ahmed just goes out ________ the paper.
A) buy B) to buy C) for buy D) will buy
3.This oven is used _________ bread.
A) to make B) make C) for making D) making
4. We bought this bracelet ________Sarah’s birthday.
A) for B) to C) in order to D) so that
5. Abel whispered ________ disturb the other passengers on the flight.
A) so as not to B) for C) to D) not to
6. Pay attention to your work _________ you will not make mistakes.
A) for fear that B) unless C) when D) if

2.10. Dealing with problems and finding solutions

It is used to describe feelings to emphasize your personal experience, not suggestions that you
are making to the listener. We use the structure:
a. Subject + the verb 'to find' + object + negative meaning adjectives, as problems.
Example: Abebu found it hard to study by using time table.
b. Subject + the verb 'to find' + object + positive meaning adjectives, as solving problems.
Example: I find it interesting to sit outside and watch the different people walking at lunch time.

c. We can also describe how we dealt with a problem by using ‘problem solving verbs’ and the
phrase ‘the problem by + gerund complement’.
Example: Kebebu faced up to the problem by drawing a study time table.
Exercise: Choose the best alternative to complete each sentence.
1. I found it _________ to pass this grammar quiz since it was heavy.
A) useful B) simple C) hard D) long
2. We found our English a __________ person. He is outgoing and lively.
A) friendly B) angry C) depressed D) fast
3. Mekonnen __________ the problem by drawing up a study time table.
A) brought B) solved C) came D) ran
4. I found the sofa very ___________. Mostly, I sleep on there.
A) difficult B) hard C) confortable D) sociable
5. My friend _____________ the problem by discussing with his friends.
A) sorted out B) read C) came D) ran

2.11. Phrasal Verbs: Adjective + preposition

Some adjectives can be followed by different prepositions, sometimes with a different meaning
in other cases with no change of meaning.
Example:1. frightened of = feeling fear
2. frightened for = fear for someone will be hurt
3. surprised at / by = happened suddenly or unexpectedly
Note that when a preposition is immediately followed by a verb, the verb becomes gerund form.
Example: 1. I am good at swimming.
2. Are you interested in seeing the new film at cinema?
Adjectives Prepositions
angry, annoyed, exited, happy, sorry, worried, trouble , anxious, serious about
bad, good, clever, quick, slow, hopeless, surprised, envious, puzzled, at
astonished, shocked, alarmed, amazed, angry, mad, awful, skilled, lucky
afraid, capable, frightened, suspicious, tired, jealous, doubtful, sure, fond, certain, of
full, scared, ashamed, proud , aware, envious
disappointed, surprised, frightened, awake, puzzled, astonished, shocked, by
alarmed, amazed
good, kind, nice, polite, similar, inferior, junior, senior, subsequent, prior, related, to
rude, frightened, attracted, allergic, unfriendly
content, delighted, disgust, unhappy, displeased, pleased, dissatisfied, popular, with
angry, bored, crowded, disappointed, familiar
famous, responsible, sorry, frightened, eager, suitable, ready for
interested, confident, comfortable, connected, present, skilled, polite, disappointed in
dependent, keen , based on
absent, different, safe, free, made from

Exercise 1: Supply the correct prepositions in these questions.

1. They get angry ________ a person.
2. He was angry ________ the weather
3. He is good ________English.
4. He is good _________ his sister.
5. I am frightened _________ walking home alone in the dark.
6. I am frightened _________ him that he will be broken his leg.

Exercise 2: Choose the correct preposition to complete each sentence.

1. She is highly skilled ___________ physics and chemistry.
A) in B) to C) about D) at
2. I was pleased __________ the gift you gave me.
A) on B) about C) with D) at
3. The kids are very fond __________ the puppy.
A) to B) with C) of D) on
4. Absalom is famous __________ his social affairs and I really like his arguments.
A) at B) for C) with D) on
5. My son scored A’s in all the courses he took this semester. I am really _____ him.
A) famous for B) keen on C) satisfied by D) proud of
6. She was rude ________ all of us, so the president should take an immediate measure- in fact,
see her off for good. A) on B) to C) at D) with
7. It seems she wanted me to do her a favor. You know, she has never been as nice _____ me as
she is. A) on B) with C) to D) for

2.12. Quantifiers
Quantifiers are words or phrases that are used before a noun to express the amount or the
quantity of something.

They can be used with countable and uncountable nouns.

Examples of quantifiers with uncountable nouns
much, a great deal of
a little/little/ very little a large amount of
a bit of a large quantity of
Examples of quantifiers with countable nouns
many several a majority of
a few/ few/ very few a large number of
a number (of) a great number of

Examples of quantifiers with both countable and uncountable nouns

all no/none a lot of
enough not any lots of
more/ most some plenty of
less /least any

The most common quantifiers are some, any, many, no one, much, a lot of, plenty of, none of,
few, a few, little and a little, etc.

Some, any
‘Some means a certain number or quantity of’ used for:
a) positive meaning statements.
Example: I have got some money.
b) polite requests and offers.
Example: 1. Could you give me some coffee?
2.Would you like some coffee?
‘Any is used in negative statements, in most questions, with ‘If clauses’, with negative words
like never, hardly, without, refuse, doubt, etc.
Example: 1. He hasn’t got any money.
2. Can you tell me any good jocks?
3. If you find any problem, please tell me.
4. I refuse to give him any help.

A few, Few
‘A few means at least some with plural countable noun.
Example: There are a few people here that I know. (= There are at least some people here that I
know.)
‘Few means not many at all’ and emphasizes the smallest of the number with plural countable
nouns.
Example: There are few people here that I know. (= There aren’t many people at all here that I
know.)
A little, little
A little means at least some’ with uncountable noun.
Example: We have a little time to do our homework. (= We have at least some time to do our
homework.)
‘Little’ means not really much’ and emphasizes the smallest of the amount with uncountable
noun.
Example: We have little time to do our homework. (=We haven’t really much time to do our
homework.)
Some quantifiers express large amount/ quantity like much, many, a lot of, plenty of, a large
number of, etc.

Much, many
‘Much is used with uncountable noun in questions, negatives, and with positive statements after
too, as, very and so.
Example:1. There isn’t much water here today.
2. There is too much noise, I can’t hear myself.
‘Many is used with ‘countable noun’ in questions, negatives and with positive statements after
too, as and so.
Example:1. Are there many mango trees in your garden? 2. There aren’t many people here
today.

A lot of, plenty of, a great deal of, etc. are used with both plural countable and uncountable
nouns in positive statements and a great number of, a good many of, etc. with plural countable
nouns in positive statements etc.
Example: 1. I would like plenty of sugar in my tea, please.
2. There are plenty of mango trees in our garden.

Exercise: Choose the best alternative to complete each sentence.

1. I am left with very ______ patience; I won’t tolerate you anyway.
A) little B) much C) less D) few
2. John spends ______ of his time playing card games.
A) much B) some C) little D) any
3. There isn’t _____ milk in the bottle.
A) little B) much C) many D) a little
4. I have __________ things to do before I leave for the meeting, so I have to lock myself in and
work with no interruption.
A) a few B) some C) a lot of D) much
5. Now, the group discussion is over. Do you have ___________ question for further
explanation?
A) some B) any C) one D) a few
6. __________ students have obtained full marks in college Entrance English Examination.
A) Few B) A few C) Many D) Several
7. I cannot afford to go out this weekend; I have ______ assignments on my table.
A) too many B) too few C) very little D) very many

2.13. Indefinite pronouns

Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person, place or thing. They are formed from
quantifiers such as any, some, every and no. Look at some of them:
anybody anyone anything anywhere
somebody someone something somewhere
everybody everyone everything everywhere
nobody no one nothing nowhere
Indefinite pronouns with ‘no’ come with affirmative verbs to have a negative meaning.
Example: I am the only child in my family. No one is sleeping in my bed.
Indefinite pronouns with ‘any’ come with the negative verbs to a negative meaning.
Example: My sister eats all the cooked food. I don’t have anything to eat.

Exercise: Choose the best alternative to complete the blank spaces.

1. My sister had got some illness that she didn’t go ___________ last week.
A) somewhere B) nowhere C) anywhere D) everywhere
2. I can’t find ____________ to go with me; I only myself arrive there.
A) someone B) no one C) anyone D) everyone
3. I looked for my watch in all area of the house, but I found it _____________.
A) somewhere B) nowhere C) anywhere D) everywhere
4. _______ could people stand or sit, it was so crowded.
A) Somewhere B) Anywhere C) Nowhere D) Everywhere
5. I can’t get my glasses. There is ________ that I left them. Can you help me in searching,
please?
A) anywhere B) somewhere C) nowhere D) everywhere
6. There is _________ left to eat as all customers have come in our restaurant today.
A) something B) nothing C) anything D) everything
7. As the sun is scorching, _________ is coming to the road.
A) somebody B) nobody C) anybody D) everybody
2.14. Discourse Markers
1. What are discourse markers?
Discourse markers are words and phrases that are used to manage and organize the structure of
discourses. They connect sentences without changing the general meaning of what is being said.
They are also known as linking words, linking phrases or sentence connectors.

2. What is the purpose of discourse markers?

The purpose of discourse is used to help in making speech and writing both logical and coherent.
Let's take a look at some examples with and without them to see what effect they have:
a. With discourse markers:
1. I don't like milk and it's not because I'm lactose intolerant.
2. I usually wouldn't go to the theatre but I'll go with you.
3. She's the most experienced doctor in the surgery, so they treat her with respect.

b. Without discourse markers:

1. I don't like milk. I'm lactose intolerant.
2. I usually wouldn't go to the theater. I'll go with you.
3. She's the most experienced doctor in the surgery. They treat her with respect.
Note how "because '', '' but '' and '' so '' help the phrases to flow a lot smoother. Without them the
messages might be vague and they might not even be understood.

3. What are the categories of discourse markers?

Discourse markers can be divided into four broad categories: interpersonal discourse markers,
referential discourse markers, structural discourse markers and cognitive discourse markers.
Now, let's take a closer look at each category.

A. Interpersonal discourse markers

The purpose of interpersonal discourse markers is to indicate the relationship between the
listener and the speaker. There are a number of attitudes that show this relationship:

i. Perception
These include words and phrases such as 'look ', 'believe me' and 'you know'.
Example: Helen: It was such a horrible experience.
Arora: Believe me, I get it. It was horrible for me too.
Helen: Look, I know it seems like a lot now, for both of us. But we'll be fine. It's going
to be alright, you know.
Arora: Yeah. I know.
'Believe me', 'look' and 'you know' are used to express the perception of the participants in the
conversation. They establish the relationship between Helen and Arora who exchange their turns
as listener and speaker back and forth.

ii. Agreement and disagreement

Agreement can be expressed through the use of discourse markers such as 'exactly', 'absolutely',
'certainly', 'definitely', 'okay' ', and 'I see'.
Example: Azeb: I think this is a very ugly vase.
Helen: Absolutely! It's hideous.
Disagreement can be voiced with the discourse markers such as 'I'm not sure', 'mind you', 'I don't
think so', 'I beg to differ' and 'not necessarily'.
Example: Azeb: I think this is a very ugly vase.
Helen: I don't think so. It looks fine to me.
Note how Helen can express either agreement or disagreement with Azeb's statement.

iii. Amazement
Amazement can be expressed through the use of a number of different discourse markers such as
'wow', 'wonderful'.
Example: Helen: Look at my new dress!
Maya: Wow! It's gorgeous!
These interpersonal discourse marker 'wow' enhances Maya's expression of amazement.

B. Referential discourse markers

Referential discourse markers are usually conjunctions. They are used to indicate the sequence,
causality and coordination between sentences.
i. Sequence
These discourse markers use words and phrases that indicate sequences such as 'now' and 'then'.
Example: Maya: Now I'm fine. But you should've been there! He shouted at me.
Azeb: And then what happened?
Maya: Then I started crying.
Here, the referential discourse markers are used to organize Maya's story in sequences.
ii. Causality
The cause and effect of an action, also known as causality, can be shown through the referential
discourse markers 'because', 'as a result of', 'thanks to' and 'due to'.
Example: Helen: I was late because my alarm didn't go off. Why were you late?
Azeb: Thanks to my brother who was in the bathroom, I had to wait for half an hour
before I could brush my teeth!
Helen and Azeb use the discourse markers 'because' and 'thanks to' to state the reasons for being
late. We can use “consequently” for formal, and “because” for informal situation.

iii. Coordination and non-coordination

These discourse markers are used to connect sentences that are complete thoughts that don't
depend on each other to make sense separately. To indicate coordination, you can use such as
'and'' and 'so'. As for non-coordination, you can also use 'but'.
Example: 1. My shift ended and I went home.
2. My shift ended so I went home.
3. My shift hadn't ended but I went home.
Depending on the different discourse markers that are used, the message can be either one of
coordination ('and', 'so') or non-coordination ('but'). We can use “However, Nevertheless and
Nonetheless” for formal), and “But” for informal.

C. Structural discourse markers

The role of structural discourse markers is to indicate the hierarchy of the actions in a
conversation at the exact time they are being performed. This category of discourse markers
expresses the value the speaker adds to the statements that are uttered in a conversation,
highlighting which statements are the least and the most important to them.

i. Organization
Structural discourse markers that are used to show organization, include phrases such as 'first of
all', 'secondly', 'for a start', 'next' and 'last of all'.
Example: Helen: First of all, you don't know me.
Azeb: Okay, and what's second of all?
Helen: Secondly, you have no right to judge me.
Azeb: I didn't mean to ...
Helen: And last of all, no one can tell me how to live my life.
In this conversation, Helen uses structural discourse markers to lay out her point and, in this way,
to make a statement.

ii. Introduction
Introduction can be expressed through the use of the structural discourse markers like 'so', 'to
begin with', 'to start with', 'for a start'.
Example: Maya: So we'll start the presentation by welcoming all of you here today.
Helen: Yes, thank you all for coming. To begin with, let's introduce ourselves!
Maya and Helen both use structural discourse markers to indicate the beginning of their
presentation.
Note: 'so' is used to express as coordination to connect equal statements, but as a structural
discourse marker, it indicates the beginning of a statement.
We also use:
1. In addition, Furthermore, Moreover (for formal)
2. What's more, On top of that (for informal)
ii. Summarization
Summarization is the opposite of introduction - it expresses the ending of a statement. Some of
these discourse markers are: 'in the end', 'to sum up', 'to conclude', and 'in conclusion'.
Example: Helen: To sum up, with this whole presentation, all we really want to say to you is
that the most important thing in life is to be kind to others.
Maya: In the end, that's all that really matters, isn't it?
Here, Helen and Maya use structural discourse markers to conclude their presentation and
summarize their message.

D. Cognitive discourse markers

Cognitive discourse markers are used to reveal the thought process of the speaker(s) during a
conversation.

i. Processing information
Speakers can express how they are processing the information that is exchanged during a
conversation, through the use of cognitive discourse markers such as 'uhh' and 'um'.
Example: Azeb: So what do you think?
Maya: Um... I'm not sure. Let me think.
Azeb asks Maya a question and her thought process is revealed through the use of the cognitive
discourse marker 'um'.

ii. Realization
Realization can be indicated through the use of cognitive discourse markers such as 'oh!',
'Really?' and 'Oh no! '.
Example: Helen: We're going to be late for class!
Maya: Oh no! Let's hurry!
Maya's immediate reaction upon realizing the information she has been given and expressed
through the cognitive discourse marker 'oh no!'.

iii. Rephrasing
Some of the cognitive discourse markers that are used to rephrase something you have already
said include 'I mean' and 'in other words'.
Example: I like pizza. I mean, I don't mind having it once in a while.
So that the speaker isn't misunderstood, they rephrase the statement with the cognitive discourse
marker 'I mean'. This means they don't want pizza all the time, only 'once in a while'.

E. The use of linking words and expressions

To add more information: also, again, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, likewise,
moreover,
Example: Your dog got into my yard; in addition, he dug up my petunias.
To restate or to show alternative: instead, otherwise, in other words, in essence, that is to say,
in short, in brief, to put it differently
Example: Lemma made his friend represent him on January 13; in other words, he has invited
other gusts to make a speech on that day.
To introduce details as result of something: accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this
reason, hence, subsequently, therefore, thus, so then
Example: Abraham kept talking in class; therefore, he got in trouble.
To express exception: aside from, besides, except, excluding, other than, outside of
Example: I enjoy all high school subjects, except civics.
To introduce contrast: conversely, in contrast, however, even so, nevertheless, on the other
hand, on the contrary, rather, etc.
Example: She went into the store; however, she didn’t find anything she wanted to buy.
To give an illustration: for example, for instance, for one thing, illustrated with, as an example,
in the case, as an illustration
Example: Many students hate some calculating subjects. For example, they dislike physics and
mathematics.
To express similarity: comparatively, correspondingly, identically, likewise, similarly, together
with, in the same way
Example: Abraham is an intelligent student. Similarly, his younger brother is also a brilliant
student.
To emphasize an important idea: above all, chiefly, indeed, in fact, especially, particularly,
undoubtedly, in particular, namely, specifically
Example: I like you a lot; in fact, I think we should be best friends.
To sequence things in order: first, second, third, at first, first of all, to begin, in the first place,
at the same time, for now, for the time being, the next step, in time, in turn, later on, meanwhile,
next, then, soon, later, while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward, with this in mind ,still, etc.
Example: She cooked breakfast; then she made coffee.
To show direction or space: here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above, to
the left, to the right, in the distance, etc.
Example: Our leaving home is in the white apartment. To the left, Paradise Elementary School
is found.
To generalize: as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, usually,
ordinarily
Example: As a rule, I will ask my brother when I run out of money.
To summarize: after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in any
event, in brief, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis, in the long run, to sum
up, to summarize, eventually
Example: I didn’t want invite many people in my wedding. In short, they were only my best
friends.
Note: Most adverb conjunctions are commonly put either between full stop and a comma, or
between a semicolon and a comm. Some conjunctions such as ‘Still’ and ‘Also’ are not preceded
by a semicolon and ‘Otherwise’ and ‘Then’ are not followed by a comma.

Exercise 1: Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. You need to put more efforts into your work; _____________, you won’t get a passing grade.
A) moreover B) otherwise C) unless D) instead
2. I love the colour red; _________, this shade seems a little too bright.
A) therefore B) similarly C) in fact D) accordingly
3. She is a very smart girl; ___________, it’s not at all surprising that she gets such good grades.
A) again B) besides C) contrarily D) therefore
4. Ismail is a millionaire; _____________, his brother Jamal is always flat broke.
A) in contrast B) accordingly C) again D) likewise
5. He felt he couldn’t tell the truth about what happened; _________, he lied.
A) in contrast B) likewise C) namely D) instead
6. I love to eat chocolates; ___________, people often give them to me at holidays.
A) nevertheless B) accordingly C) however D) also
7. The tree has developed a large crack over the years; ________, it will have to be cut down for
safety’s sake.
A) for example B) however C) eventually D) likewise
8. She has an incredible voice; _________, she will go far in her music career.
A) otherwise B) undoubtedly C) similarly D) additionally
F. The use of subordinating conjunctions: are words or phrases used to join dependent
clauses to independent clauses.

The transition always indicates time, cause and effect, comparison, concession, condition,
place, etc. relationship. Example: When the doorbell rang, my dog barked loudly.
Here are some common types of subordinating conjunctions:

Cause and effect: why, as, because, since, in case, in order that, so that, now that
Example: I arrived late to work because the train delayed at its usual time.
Concession : although, as though, even though, just as, though, in spite of, despite, etc.
Example: Although he was sick, he came to school. 2) In spite of his sickness, he came to
school.
Difference: while, whereas
Example: Gondar is growing fast whereas Dabat is a slowly growing town.
Condition: even if, if, in case, lest, for fear that, provided that, unless, whether or not
Example: As long as you come to our school, I will show you our library.
Place: where, wherever Example: I will find my bag wherever they hide it.
Time: after, as soon as, as long as, before, by the time, once, still, till, the first time, until, when,
whenever, while,
Example: As soon as we finish the work, we will come to your house.

Note: The most important idea is contained within the independent clause and the less important
idea is written in the dependent clause. And also when the independent clause comes at the
beginning, no comma is necessary at the middle part.
Exercise 2: Complete each sentence using the subordinating conjunction from the given
alternatives.
1. I visit the Grand Canyon _________ I go to Arizona.
A) once B) whenever C) wherever D) where
2. This is the place _________ we stayed last time we visited.
A) where B) when C) how D) once
3. You won’t pass the test _________ you study.
A) when B) if C) unless D) even if
4. I could not get a seat _________ I came early.
A) as B) though C) when D) if
5. We are leaving on Wednesday _________ it rains or not.
A) if B) whether C) though D) when
6. The musicians delivered a rousing performance directly ____ they had often rehearsed it.
A) though B) as C) once D) while
7. Write this down _________ you won't forget.
A) or B) when C) lest D) while

2.15. Relative clauses

Defining relative clause: it gives important information for nouns or noun phrases which needs
definition.
The following table shows the relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses.

Type subject object possessive

people who who, whom, that whose
things which which , that whose
Example: 1.The boy is my cousin. He didn't study hard.
The boy who didn't study hard is my cousin.
2.The book was still on the shelf. I hadn't read it.
The book which I hadn't read was still on the shelf.
In these examples, we define using 'who' the subject of a person and 'which' the object of a thing.
Non- defining relative clause: tells us extra information; it commonly comes after specific
nouns or phrases. When it is written, it should be separated by comma (s).
The following table shows the relative pronouns used in non-defining relative clause.

Type Subject Object Possessive

people who whom whose
things which which whose

Example: 1. Hanna has moved to Minelik II School. It is near to Arat Kilo.

Hanna has moved to Minelik II School, which is near to Arat Kilo.
2. That man is my uncle. I help him working in his shop.
That man, who I help working in his shop, is my uncle.
In these two examples, we replace using 'which' the subject of a thing and 'who' the object of a
person.
In non-defining relative clauses, we cannot ‘that’ and the relative pronoun ‘who’ cannot also
come after a preposition when it comes with a prepositional object, so we use only 'whom'.
Example: This is Genet. I sold my car to her last month.
This is Genet, who I sold my car to last month.
 This is Genet, to whom I sold my car last month.
The pronoun 'whose' refers to people and things to replace a possessive adjective.
a. This is Tsehay. Her sister is staying with us.
b. This is Tsehay, whose sister is staying with us.

Exercise: Choose a suitable relative pronoun to complete each sentence.

1. The person whose fingerprints are on the gun is the person ____ killed the inspector.
A) which B) whom C) who D) whose
2. My bag, _____ I had left at the gate, had disappeared.
A) which B) whom C) that D) whose
3. The medicine ______ the doctor gave me had no effect at all.
A) who B) whom C) that D) whose
4. What was the name of your friend _______ eyeglasses were broken?
A) which B) whom C) that D) whose
5. Jemal, ____ couldn’t see the blackboard, decided to change his seat.
A) which B) who C) that D) whose
6. The bag in ______ the robbers put the money was found outside the bank.
A) which B) whom C) that D) whose
7. The flight on _______ my teacher was leaving was cancelled.
A) which B) whom C) that D) whose
8. Of all the stuff she bought yesterday, I like the books ______ she got from the library. I started
one of them and the story is really thrilling.
A) whose B) which C) whom D) those
9. The writer __________ book became the bestseller of the year is my grandfather.
A) who is B) where C) whom D) whose
Answer Key
Part II: Grammar and Usage
1. Subject and verb agreement
Exercise:1) B 2) B 3) A 4) B 5) A 6) A 7) B 8) B 9) D 10) C 11. A 12 A.
2. English Tenses
Exercise: 1. B 2. B 3. D 4. D 5. A 6. A 7. B 8. B 9. B 10. B 11. D 12. B 13. A 14. A
15. A
3. The Active and Passive Voices
Exercise: 1. A 2. D 3. B 4. B 5. D 6. D 7. B 8. C 9. C 10. A
4. Reported Speech
Exercise:1) B 2) A 3) A 4) A 5) C 6) B 7) B
5. Conditional Sentences
Exercise:1) A 2) D 3) A 4) C 5) B 6) C 7) A) 8) A 9) B 10) C 11) D 12) B 13) D
14) C
6. Expressing Regret
Exercise: 1. C 2. A 3. B 4. D 5. B 6. C
7. Expressing strong opinions using: It is time/It is high time
Exercise: 1. D 2. B 3. B 4. C 5. C
8. Verb and verb patterns
Exercise: 1. A 2. B 3. B 4. B 5. C 6. A 7. D 8. B
9. Dealing with problems and find solutions
Exercise: 1. C 2. A. 3. B 4. C 5. A
10. Adjective + preposition
Exercise 1: 1. with 2. at 3. at 4. to 5. of 6. for
Exercise 2: 1. A 2. C 3. C 4. B 5. D 6. B 7. C
11. Quantifiers
Exercise: 1. A 2. A 3. B 4. C 5. B 6. A 7. A
12. Indefinite pronouns
Exercise: 1. C 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. B 6. B 7. B
13. Discourse Markers
Exercise:1) B 2) C 3) D 4) A 5) D 6) B 7) C 8) B
14. Relative clauses
Exercise: 1. C 2. A. 3. C 4. D 5. B 6. A 7. A 8. B 9. D
PART III: COMMUNICATIVE ASPECTS
3.1. Some common daily communicative English
i. Social relationships
A. Greeting: it means welcoming someone with particular words or a particular action. Here are
some expressions you can use to greet people.
Greeting Responding to greeting
A: Hi/ hello. B: Hi/ hello.
: Good morning. : Good morning.
: Good afternoon/ Good evening. : Good afternoon/Good evening.
: How are you? : I'm fine thank you (thanks). How about you? /
And you?
: How are you doing? : Can't complain. / Not bad. How about you? / And
you?
: Nice/Good to see you. : Nice/Good to see you, too.

B. Self introduction and introducing others

Introducing yourself: here are some expressions to introduce yourself.
My name is ... I’m...
Nice to meet you; I’m... Pleased to meet you; I’m...
Let me introduce myself; I'm ... I'd like to introduce myself; I'm ...
Introducing others: Here are some expressions to introduce others:
(Jemal), please meet (Nigusie). (Jemal), have you met (Nigusie)?
I'd like you to meet (Aziza). I'd like to introduce you to (Betty).
(Leila), this is (Bayesh). (Bayesh) this is (Leila).

Useful responses when introducing yourself or other people and again giving responses for
these expressions:
A.Nice / Pleased/ Happy/ Glad to meet you.
B: Nice Pleased/ Happy/ Glad to meet you, too.
Note: when introducing yourself or other people in a formal situation use full names.
Example: I'm Alemu Baye.

C. Telephone conversations
Commonly, English speakers make phone calls either for business reasons or personal affairs.
These are expressions you can use in your conversations on the phone:
Receiver: You’ve reached.... (department). Caller: Can I speak to Mr/Mrs.....?
: How can I help you? : Could I speak to ...., please?
 : Who shall I say is calling?
: Who's calling, please?
If the receiver is the wanted person, can say:
: Who's speaking?
: It's Mr/Mrs... here.
: It's Mr/Mrs... speaking.
: Mr/Mrs... speaking.
If the person who is needed is not around, the receiver can say:
: Please hold and I'll put you through.
: Just a second. I'll see if s/he is in.
: Wait for/Hang on for a moment.
: Could you leave a message? / Can I take a message?

Exercise 1: Choose the response that is most appropriate to complete the dialogue.
1. Josie: ____________________________
Secretary: I am afraid Mr. Abera is not in.
A) I want Mr. Abera, please. C) Is it Mr. Abera’s Office, please?
B) How are you, Mr. Abera? D) Can I speak to Mr. Abera, please?
2. Debebe: May I introduce myself? My name is Debebe.
Kebede: _______________.
A) Pleased to meet you. My name is Kebede.
B) Allow me to introduce myself. I am Kebede.
C) I’d like to introduce myself. My name is Kebede.
D) May I introduce myself, too. My name is Kebede.
3. Secretary: How do you do, sir?
Visitor: ____________________
A) How do you do? C) I’m fine. How do you do?
B) I’m fine. How are you? D) Very well, how do you do?
ii. Directing locations and giving advice to someone asking you
A. Asking for and giving directions
Asking about location or direction: to ask about directions use these questions:
How can I get to . . . from here? How can I get to . . . ?
Where is . . . ? Can you tell me how to get to . . . ?
Can you show me the way to...? What's the best way to get to . . . ?
Giving directions: to give directions use these expressions:
Go straight on until you… Go past the restaurant/school...
Take the first (turning) to the left/right. The ... is beside/in front of / next to...
Turn left/right

If you don’t know, you can say:

Sorry, I don’t know.
Sorry, I’m a stranger here myself. (If you do not live in the area)

B. Asking for and giving advice

Asking for advice: we can ask for advice using the following expressions:
Do you think I should / can----? What do you think I should do?
What shall/ can I do? What would/ do you advise me to do?
Could you give me some advice about…? What would you do if you were in my position?
What would you do if you were me?
We can also advise by using these expressions:
My advice would be --- I would / wouldn't recommend you ---
I advise you to --- I would/ wouldn't advise you to ---
I (think) you ought to --- I (think) you should/ shouldn't ---
I (think) you can/can't -- Why don't you ---?
I (think) you had better/ had better not --- If I were you, I should/ shouldn't ---

Exercise 2: Choose the response that is most appropriate to complete the dialogue.
1. Tourist: Excuse me, please? How can I get to the museum?
You: _________________
A) The museum is closed today. C) What time do you want to get there?
B) Do you want to walk or take a taxi? D) It is somewhere around Arat Kilo.
2. Stranger: Excuse me, please. Can you tell me how to get to the bus station?
You: __________________
A) I always like to walk. C) Sorry, I am studying at the university.
B) Sorry, I’m a stranger myself. D) The bus station is no more in Merkato.
3. Sosina: __________________.
Nigisti: It may be good to see a doctor.
A) How about my back? C) My back seems to be improving a lot.
B) My back is aching. What shall I do? D) I have finished the tablets for my back.
4. Bachere: _________________________
Galgalo: If I were you, I’d go home and take a rest.
A) What a bad headache. It is like a migraine.
B) How about going home? I have a bad headache.
C) I have got a bad headache. I have had it since morning.
D) What a bad headache. I have never had this kind before.
iii. Expressing your level of agreement for an opinion, a suggestion and giving clarification
A. Asking for and expressing an opinion
 We use the following expressions to ask for an opinion:
What do you think about---? What is your feeling ---?
How do you feel ---? Do you agree ---?
How do you like ---? What is your opinion about ---?
Do you think---? What is your view ----?
How do you find ---?

 We use the following expressions to express our opinion:

I think--- To my mind, ---
In my point of view --- As I see it---
It seems to me that--- In my opinion ---
From my point of view--- To be honest, ---
Frankly speaking, --- As far as I can see---
I can see that ---

 Expressions for agreeing with an opinion:

I agree with this opinion. I completely agree with this view.
This is absolutely right. I couldn't / can't agree more.
We use the following to express partial agreement:
I agree with this point of view, but--- This idea is right, but---
I agree with you, but--- I partially agree with you ---
Maybe.

 We use the following expressions for disagreeing with an opinion:

I'm afraid. I can't agree with you. I disagree with you.
That’s nonsense! I think you're wrong.
I couldn’t agree less.

 We use the following expressions to say I don’t have an opinion:

I have no strong feelings about… I really can’t say.
I have no idea. I’ve no opinion.

 We use the following expressions for trying to change someone’s opinion:

Don’t you think that------? Look at it this way---
Have you considered that---? Would you agree that---?
Example: A: I think people should be allowed to smoke if they want to.
B: I just can’t agree. It is very bad for their health.
 A: Don’t you think that a person should decide himself to stop smoking?
B: I see your point, but I think the person should be given strong advice on the risk
of smoking.

‘Yes/No’ responses to statements or questions can also reflect different degrees of speculating
certainty felt by the speaker using some modal auxiliaries and common verbs.
When we are also almost certain of our evidence, we may use ‘will’ and ‘won't’.
Example: Is Roland in his living room?
Positive response: Yes, he will be, he sometimes goes out late. (Almost certain)
:Yes, he must be there. I heard his voice. (Deduction)
: Yes, he may be there, but I’m not sure. (Possibility)
: Yes, he is. I have seen him at the door. (Certainty)
Negative response: No, he won't be. He often goes out at this time. (Almost certain)
: No, he can't be there. There's no sound in his room. (Deduction)
: No, he may not be there, but I’m not sure. (Possibility)
: No, he isn't. I have just seen him at his office. (Certainty)

B. Making suggestions and their responses.

A suggestion is an expression to get an agreement or disagreement response from the person who
is asking.
Examples: A: Will / Won’t you come for a walk with me?
: Would / Wouldn’t you like to come for a walk with me?
B: (Yes,) I'd like to/I'd love to. (Positive)
: (No,) I'd prefer not to, thank you. (Negative)
: No, I won't. (Impolite)
Note: ‘to’ must follow like, love, etc.
We can also make a suggestion using the following modal auxiliaries and imperatives, for
example:
A: Shall we go for a swim? B: Yes, let's. (Shall we?) (Positive)
: Can/Could/Might we go for a swim? : I couldn’t agree more! / I agree with you.
: Let us go to the stadium. : That sounds like a good idea.
: Let’s contribute some money to our school. :No, let’s not. /No, I'd rather we didn't. /No,
I'd rather not.
C. Expressing lack of understanding and asking for clarification
Expressing lack of understanding: when you fail to understand what has been said to you, you
can use these expressions:
Examples: I beg your pardon?
I'm not quite sure I follow you.
Sorry, I didn't quite hear what you said.
Asking for clarification: when you don't understand what someone has said, you can add for
clarification like the following expressions:
Could you be more specific, please? Could you clarify that, please?
Could you put it differently, please? Could you explain what you mean by...?
Would you elaborate on that, please? Could you say that again, please?
Clarifying one's point or idea: to clarify your idea you can use the following expressions:
Let me explain that--- What I mean is---
To put it differently--- Let me put it in another way---
To say this differently--- Let me explain that in more detail---

Exercise 3: Choose the response that is most appropriate to complete the dialogue.
1. Brother: Can we have some ice-cream in that café?
Sister: _________________.
A) Who owns the café? C) I’m afraid I have no money.
B) Do they make it there? D) Girls like ice cream very much.
2. Student: She is going flunk, I feel. Can we help?
Friend: ___________________
A) You know, she is very lazy.
B) I think she has now started working hard.
C) I don’t think there is anything to be done.
D) I can’t understand how she passed her last course.
3. Abebe: Let us contribute to the building of the Renaissance Dam.
You: _________________
A) Splendid. I can’t agree more. C) What is the position of Egypt now?
B) I was really proud when I visited it. D) How much of it has been completed?
4. Bulti: The enemy is approaching. We have to evacuate soon.
Gebrai: ________________.
A) Who else is evacuating? C) Perhaps, we might need to do that.
B) This area is ideal for them. D) I think, they have soldiers in excess of us.
5. Father: A picnic wouldn’t be any fun without your mother.
Son: ________________________.
A) I couldn’t agree more. C) Yes, it is funny.
B) I understand father. D) So, no picnic with mother.
6. Kebede: How do you feel about our new directress?
Biru: ______________________
A) She is new to the school. C) She invited us to a dinner party.
B) To be honest, she puts me off. D) Did she study educational management?
7. Girma: Life will improve when we move to Addis.
Abere: _____________________
A) Addis is our capital. C) Certainly. We will have a better income.
B) That will happen after six months. D) There are lots of buildings under construction.
8. Customer: They say your boss is thoroughly rich.
Waiter: ____________________
A) He has an expensive car. C) People talk about history.
B) He doesn’t live in Ethiopia. D) Of course, can you see all these?
9. Wife: I am not feeling well these days.
Husband: _______________________
A) Hospitals are so busy. C) Doctors are not doing their job.
B) Maybe you’ll need a rest. D) What about the new clinic down there?
10. Ali: ____________________
Almaz: That sounds reasonable.
A) Shall we go for coffee? C) Is Mimi doing her homework?
B) Did she buy a new purse? D) Isn’t Abera coming?
11. Peter: This is the cheapest car in town. He shouldn’t have gone for it.
John: ___________________
A) I can’t agree more. C) That car is not new.
B) Is he a businessman? D) Why is that so cheap?
12. Belay: My house has been broken into. I am thinking of hiring security.
Amare: _________________.
A) When does that happen? C) Why do they do such a nasty thing?
B) You may also report to the police. D) In fact, that happens to a number of people

iv. Accepting or refusing different questions

A. Offering help: offering means expressing willingness to help someone in trouble. To offer
help, you may use the following expressions:
Examples: May/ Could/ Can/ Shall I help you? Would you like some help?
Do you need some help? If you like, I will help you
Excuse me; is there anything I can do to help?
For practical help like carrying a bag, cleaning a room, pushing a car, and so on, you can say:
Do you need/ want a hand? Let me help you? (When you have already started helping)
Offering to do things for others in action:
Examples: May I take your coat? (More polite)
Could/ Can / Shall I open the window for you?
Would you like me to open the window for you?
What shall/can I do for you?

When we accept the help, we will say for example:

That's very kind of you. Oh, yes, please.
Thank you very much. Yes, I'd like some, please.
I'd love some. That is very nice / kind of you.
Thanks. (Informal)
Yes, you can. (Not polite)

When we refuse of offering help we will say like:

No, it's all right. Don't worry, I’ll do it.
It's OK, I can do it. No, thanks. (Informal)
The following types are not polite: No, I won't. No, you can't.
B. Making a request: it is asking somebody politely to do something for you. You can make a
request using the expression: Would / Could / Can/ Will + you ---?

If you want to request the following things, you can say:

Examples: Would you help me with this exercise? Could you lend me your pen?
Can you show me your photo album? Will you lend me your book?

 To be more polite, you can use ' Excuse me' or ' Please'.
Example: Excuse me; would you lend me your book?
Could/ Can/ Will you lend me your book, please?
To make your request more polite you can also use:
Would/ Could/ Can/ Will you possibly---?
I wonder if you would/ could/ can/ will ---
Example: I wonder if you could lend me your book.
Could you possibly lend me your book?
Accepting the request:
Yes, of course. Yes, certainly.
Sure here you are. Surely.
Certainly. All right.
Okay. / Alright. (Informal)
Refusing requests politely:
Unfortunately, I can't. I would like to, but is not possible.
I'm afraid I can't. Well, actually it is not possible.
I'm sorry I can't. I'm sorry it is rather difficult.
Sorry, it is rather difficult.

Refusing requests less politely: No, I won't. No, certainly not.

No, I refuse.
'Would/ Do you mind + gerund' can also be used for a request.
Example: Kedir: Would you mind giving me your book?
Selam: No, not at all. / Not at all. (Positive response)
: No, I don't mind. / No, I wouldn’t mind. (Positive response)
: Yes, I do. / Yes, I would mind. (Negative, impolite)

Indirect questions are used for a request and they are more polite than direct questions.
Example: Yeshi: Could you tell me why they left for Paris?
Amarech: Yes, of course. They want to participate in a meeting.

C. Making invitations: to invite a person for a meal, you can use these expressions formally:
Do you have (coffee) with me? Do you have (dinner) with me?
Would you like to have (lunch) with me? Could you have (tea)?
Please come to my birthday party? May I invite you?
 To invite a person for a meal, you can use these expressions informally:
Will you have (tea)? Have (coffee)?
Can you come to our party? Have (coffee) with me?
Why don't you have (lunch) with me? How about having (lunch) with me?
 To invite a person for something, you can use these expressions:
1. Do you want to go to the (movie tonight)?
2. Would you like to go to the (theater tomorrow)?

Accepting invitations:
Sure. What time? Sure. When should I be there?
What the greatest idea, thank you. That sounds lovely, thank you.
That's very kind of you, thanks. I'd love to thank you.
Thank you. I'd like to very much. Thank you, with pleasure.
Thank you that sounds lovely. Thank you. I'll look forward to it.
Thank you. I'd be delighted Thank you very much. That would be nice.
To refuse an invitation we can use these types of expressions:
No, thank you. That's very kind of you, but ---
I'd love to, but --- Sorry, I'm afraid I'm not free.
I can't. I have to work. Sorry, I'm afraid I can't.
I'd love to very much, but I'm afraid I can't. Sorry, I've got an appointment with a friend.
Examples: 1. Liku: Would you like tea with me?
Selam: Thank you very much. That would be nice.
2. Rosa: Will you have a coffee?
Fasika: No, thank you.
D. Asking for and giving permission: we commonly use ‘May/ Could / Can I/we ---?’ to ask
for permission in the present or future.
Examples: Could I use your book? Can I use your book?
May I borrow your camera? May I/we borrow your book?

 Note: 'Might' is not commonly used for permission as it is very formal.

 To be more polite, you can use 'Excuse me' or 'Please’ and indirect question types for
permission.
Examples: Excuse me; may I use your dictionary?
Can I use your book, please?

Indirect questions are used for permission and they are more polite than direct questions.
Examples:
Would you mind if I use your dictionary? I wonder if I could borrow your laptop.
Is it ok if I use your dictionary?

Giving permission:
Surely. Certainly.
Go ahead. Yes, that's all right.
Yes, you may. Yes, certainly.
Yes, you can. Yes, of course.

Refusing permission politely:

I'm afraid you can't. I'm afraid you may.
I'd rather you didn't. I'm afraid not.
I'm afraid I need it.

Refusing permission impolitely:

No, you can't. No.
Example: 1. Samuel: Could I put on the TV?
Yasin: Yes, you can. / Certainly. / Surely. / Yes, of course.
2. Taddese: Can I borrow your car, please?
Asfaw: I’m afraid it is in the garage/I’d rather you didn’t/I’m afraid you can’t. (Polite)
: No. (Impolite)
 Note that the response can be either personal or general:
Stranger: Could I smoke here, please?
You: You may/may not. (Personal)
: You can/cannot. (General)

 The following type of response can also express emphatic general.

: You’re allowed /not allowed to smoke here.
: You’re permitted /not permitted to smoke here.
: You mustn't smoke here.
: You’re forbidden to smoke here.

E. Shopping: these are some examples of expressions used by a shopkeeper in boutique shops:
Can / May I help you? What size do you wear?
What size are you? What color would you like?
How does it fit? How would you like to pay?
These are some examples of expressions used by a customer:
I am looking for (a T-shirt.) Can I try it/them on?
Where is the changing room? Can I pay by credit card / in cash?
Example: Shopkeeper: May I help you?
Shopper: Well, I am looking for trousers.
Shopkeeper: What size do you wear?
Shopper: Medium.

 The following expressions can also be said by a customer at grocery.

Good morning/ Good afternoon. Could you have a kilo of salt?
Could I have (a kilo of orange), please?
A pack of (soup), please.
A kilo of (salt), please.
Do you have (any pineapples)?
These are also some examples of expressions used by a shopkeeper at grocery:
That’s birr (fifteen). They’re birr (20).
That’s (dollar). Anything else?
Example: Shopper: Can I help you?
Customer: Could I have a kilo of orange, please?
Shopper: That’s birr eighteen for a kilo. Anything else?
Customer: No, thank you. I want to have only orange.

F. Preferences: here are some examples of asking for preferences.

-Which do you prefer drinking (tea or coffee)?
-Which do you prefer (Chemistry or Physics)?
-Which do you prefer to drink (juice or water)?
-Do you prefer (pizza or spaghetti)?
-Would you rather eat (a cake or a fruit)?
-Would you prefer to eat (a cake or a fruit)?
Replies: here are some examples for replying for preferences.
-I prefer (baseball). -I'd prefer to (drink juice).
-I wouldn’t rather any. -I'd rather (drink mineral water).
-If I had a choice, I would (eat a sandwich). -No, thank you.
Example: A: Do you prefer pizza or spaghetti?
B: If I had a choice, I would eat pizza.
Things to remember about preferences: 1) "I'd prefer" + to + verb / V-ing
2) "I'd rather" + verb

Exercise 4: Choose the response that is most appropriate to complete the dialogue.
1. Teacher: Which stream would you like to join Art or Science?
Student: ___________________
A) I would rather go for Science. C) How many teachers teach Arts?
B) Many students would want Arts. D) Excuse me, I would ask my dad.
2. Secretary: How can I help you?
Student: ___________________
A) What is the director’s doing? C) Can I talk to the director, please?
B) Can I use the Director’s office? D) By showing me the director’s office
3. Aleltu: ___________________________.
Thomas: Sorry, I am busy with my assignments.
A) Have you seen the report I complied? C) Have you finished doing your assignment?
B) Could you help me organize the report? D) Would you read the report when you are ready?
4. Shopkeeper: __________________
Customer: I want a brown suit, please.
A) What do you want? C) How do you like our shop?
B) Can I help you? D) Why are you here?
5. Guest: ______________? They are very dirty.
Guide: Certainly sir. I will call a shoe shine boy right away.
A) Can you help me with my shoes C) Can you mend my shoes
B) Where should I leave my shoes D) How do you like my shoes
6. Shopkeeper: _______________
Customer: Thank you. But that’s not my choice at the moment.
A) You may as well try blue-black. C) We offer a 5% discount.
B) The fabric is fine. D) The dressing room is right in front.
7. Waiter: Sorry, did you say tea or coffee?
Customer: ________________________
A) Many people like tea. C) I would rather have coffee.
B) They say tea is addictive. D) Yes, these are my favourite drinks.
8. Guest: Could I ask you how safe it is to walk it here?
Bank Clerk: _________________
A) Yes, you can ask. C) It is your choice, sir.
B) You’d better hire a taxi. D) It is tiresome, indeed.
9. Girma: Would you like some more sandwiches?
Guest: ____________________
A) No, thanks. I’ve had enough. C) No thanks. I just had my breakfast.
B) Never at all. I hate sandwiches. D) No, thanks. Sandwiches are not good.
10. Shop Assistance: Can I help you?
Customer: ____________________
A) Why not? B) Yes, of course. C) Do you have a shirt? D) I’m looking for a shirt.
11. Son: ______________________
Dad: I am afraid I need it.
A) Would you borrow my dictionary? C) Could you please lend me your dictionary?
B) Could you please buy me a dictionary? D) How about giving back your new dictionary?

V. Expressing feelings
A. Expressing surprise: when you are given unexpected news you often wish to express your
surprise.
 The following expressions introduce some surprising information:
-Believe it or not--- -You may not believe it but ---
-Funnily--- -Do you know that/what ---?
-Surprisingly, --- -It may sound strange but ---
-Guess what? -You won’t believe this but ---

Responding to the good news:

Congratulations! Well done! (Mostly for sport)
Oh, how wonderful That’s great!
How fantastic! I’m glad to hear that!
I can’t believe that! Superb!
That sounds like great news! Incredible!

Responding to bad news:

How come! What! What are you talking about?
How could it be! How on earth!
That’s incredible! What! That’s ridiculous!
Are you kidding? That’s very strange!
That’s unbelievable!
Example: Kebede: Do you know that our boss has been fired from his position?
Belay: What! That’s ridiculous!

B. Expressing Gratitude: is saying thank you and to show your appreciation for something
done or given to you:
Thanks. Sincere thanks. Thank you.
I am indebted to you. I appreciate what you've done for me. I am grateful.
You've been very helpful. I thank you from the bottom of my heart.
If anyone deserves thanks, it's you.

Responding to thanks:
You’re welcome. Don’t mention it.
(It’s) my pleasure. It’s nothing.
Anytime Think nothing of it.
I'm glad/happy I could help. It’s no bother.
It’s/That’s all right. Sure
It’s/That’s ok. No problem
Not at all. Of course
Examples: 1. A: Thank you for accepting my invitation.
B: It’s my pleasure to be here.
2. Beyene: I appreciate what you've done for me.
Jibril: Think nothing of it.
C. Apologizing: means to tell someone that you are sorry for having done something that has
caused him inconvenience or unhappiness. Here are some expressions you can use to make and
respond to apologies:

Making apologies:
I apologize for... I must apologize for...
I'd like to apologize for... I am so sorry for...
I shouldn't have... It's my entire fault. Excuse me for ...
I'm ashamed of... Please, forgive me for...
I'm terribly sorry for... Please, forgive me for my...
Pardon me for this...

Accepting apologies:
That's all right. Never mind.
Don't apologize. It doesn't matter.
Don't worry about it. Don't mention it.
That's OK. I quite understand.
You couldn't help it. Forget about it.
Don't worry about it. No harm was done.

Remember: “I'd like to apologize” is the short form of “I would like to apologize”.
Examples: 1. Taxi driver: I must apologize for my late arrival.
Tariku: Don't worry about it.
2. Genet: I'd like to apologize for my troublemaking.
Chala: Never mind.

D. Expressing disappointment is expressing something annoying for us. We can express our
disappointment using the following expressions:
Oh, how disappointing! That’s disappointing!
It’s disappointing! It was rather disappointing!
That’s annoying! This is really annoying!
Examples: 1. Hotel Manager: I must apologize I haven’t booked you, sir.
Tourist: Oh, how disappointing!
2. Student A: This teacher always comes late.
Student B: That’s annoying!

Note that we can also express our disappointment when we don’t accept an apology.
E. Expressing sympathy: is expressing something that makes us sad for us using like the
following expressions.
Poor you! Oh, no!
Oh, what a pity! Oh well, but never mind. Better luck next time.
That’s a shame. What a pity!
What a nuisance! What a shame!
How awful! But don’t worry. How terrible! But it is not the end of the world.
Example: 1. A: I’ve just heard that my father has been diagnosed as HIV positive.
B: How awful!
2. Alemu: I failed only by the interview
Habtamu: How terrible! But it is not the end of the world.

Exercise 5: Choose the response that is most appropriate to complete the dialogue.
1. Journalist: Did you know that they sacked your manager?
Player: ___________________.
A) Does he want to be employed? C) The national club also did the same.
B) This is ridiculous! Who told you? D) He had a row with the board members?
2. Manager: We have decided to offer you a scholarship.
Employee: _______________________.
A) I love being abroad. C) This is a very good office, isn’t it?
B) Scholarships are motivating. D) I can’t believe that! Where I am going?
3. Ras Hotel: Our apologies for not being able to book you sir?
Guest: ____________________
A) Oh, I like that, thank you very much. C) Well, done! Thank you very much.
B) That is very kind of you. D) Oh! That is a bitter disappointment to me.
4. Ilu: We really enjoyed our stay with you. Good food, good hospitality!
Feven: _________________
A) I’m happy you did. C) We also liked the food.
B) Thank you very much. D) We’re so pleased to meet you.

3.2. Different types of questions

A. Yes/ No questions: they are closed questions that have a short answer and it does not require
a complete answer.
Example: Dawit: Can she play football?
Sefiw: Yes, she can.
: No, she can’t. / No, she can play tennis.
Note that the subject of a short answer should be a pronoun, not a noun.
Negative questions are also answered by ‘Yes/ No’ forms, but when assume mostly there is a
negative response.
Example: A: Isn’t basketball a beloved sport in your country?
B: No, it isn’t.
: Yes, it is.
Note that the statement can be questions by rising intonation at the end.
Example: A: The students write their notes?
B: Yes, they do.
: No, they don’t. / No, they go home without writing anything.
 We use ‘so’ instead of repeating words in a that-clause when we respond to the question and
the tag question after the word believe, hope, imagine, suppose, think, guess, etc.
Example: Melkam: Will the rain come in the afternoon?
Jemal: I think so. (Usual for positive)
: I think it will rain in the afternoon. (Unusual)
: I don’t think so. (Usual for negative)
: I don’t think it will rain in the afternoon. (Unusual)
In this example, so is used instead of ‘It will rain in the afternoon’.
Example: Helen: The problem of inflation is not solved yet, is it?
Abel: I don’t think so. / I don’t think it is (solved).

B. Question tags: if you are confirming a positive statement, you say yes. If you are disagreeing
with a positive statement, you say no.
Example: 1) A: She has known that the meeting had been postponed, hasn’t she?
B: Yes, she has. I wrote to her myself.
2) A: You didn’t know that Hanna married John, after all, did you?
B: No, I didn’t.

C. Imperative Questions: imperatives are usually open questions. They begin with ordinary
verbs such as tell, give, send, etc. We normally answer ‘subject + will’ for affirmative
imperatives. However, for negative imperatives, we use ‘subject + will not’.
Example: 1) A: Send me a postcard.
B: I will.
2) A: Don’t forget to phone me.
B: I won’t.

D. Wh-questions: they are commonly open questions except for some specific measurements.
We use the word who, which, and what’ as interrogative pronouns of a subject when the
structure is: ‘Wh-word + (auxiliary) + main verb’.
Example: Amlaku: Who wrote the letter?
Binyamin: My friend wrote the letter.

 We use the word whose, which and what’ as interrogative adjectives of a subject when the
structure is: ‘Wh-word + noun + (auxiliary) + main verb’.
Example Ali: Whose child broke the window?
Aster: Thomas’s child broke the window.

 We use ‘who, which and what’ as interrogative pronouns of an object when the structure is:
‘Wh-word + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb’.
Example Adam: Who was Chaltu calling?
Belay: Chaltu was calling her brother.

 We can use whom instead of who with the preposition to or for as interrogative pronouns of
an object.
Example: Adam: To whom was Chaltu calling?
Belay: Chaltu was calling her brother.

 We use ‘which, what and whose’ as interrogative adjectives of an object when the structure
is: ‘Wh-word + noun + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb’.
Example: Asfaw: Which shirt do they prefer?
Aman: They prefer a brown shirt.

 We use also how many and how much’ as interrogative adjectives to get a quantifier answer
from the subject or the object of a sentence.

‘How many’ can be used as a subject (with plural countable noun) with the structure: ‘How
many +noun + verb’.
Example: John: How many people will attend the show?
Sosina: Two thousand people will attend it.

‘How many’can also be used as an object (with plural countable noun) when the structure is:
‘How many + noun + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb’.
Example: A: How many questions did you answer?
B: I tried to answer all of them.

‘How much’ can be used as a subject (with uncountable noun) with the structure: ‘How much +
noun +verb’.
Example: A: How much money was spent on your sister’s wedding?
B: Twenty thousand birr was spent on my sister’s wedding.
How much can also be used as an object (with uncountable nouns) when the structure is: ‘How
much + noun + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb.
Example: A: How much water does the boy drink daily?
B: He drinks three liters of water daily.

 We use when, where, why and how’ as interrogative adverbs when the structure is Wh-word
+ auxiliary verb + subject+ main verb’ to express time, place, reason and method or way
respectively.
Example: A: When will Rahel come?
B: In the afternoon.

Thus, it is wrong to use ‘when / where / why + subject + auxiliary verb + main’ verb when they
are used as direct questions.
 We use also what and how’ about measurements.
 We use the word what with nouns such as length, width, height, depth, thickness, distance,
size, age, weight, etc.
 We use the word how with adjectives such as long, wide, high, deep, thick, far, big, old,
heavy ,etc.
Example: Abel: What length is this rope? / How long is this rope?
Alemu: It is seven meters long.

The word how can also be followed by an adjective or an adverb in questions to get various
specific answers.
Example: 1. A: How large is your house?
B: It is two hundred square meters.
2. A: How quickly did he accomplish his task?
B: He accomplished his task very slowly.
3. A: How often do you go to the cinema?
B: Every Sunday/ Sometimes.
4. A: How far is your home from the school?
B: Two kilometers.
5. A: How long have you studied?
B: About two hours.
Note: ‘How often’ is used for frequency.
‘How far’ is used for distance.
‘How long’ is used for duration or length of time.
 We use ‘How?’to ask about things that change such as mood, health, work, etc.
Example: 1. A: How is John? B: He is very well.
2. A: How does she seem today? B: Much happier.
 We use What like?’to ask about things that do not change such as people’s appearance and
character.
Example: 1. A: What is John like? B: Tall, good-looking, a bit shy.
2. A: What does your sister look like? B: Short, dark and cheerful-looking.
E) Indirect or Imbedded Questions: they are questions in the form of a statement used to talk
or ask particularly personal information introduced by a polite phrase such as:
Can you tell me...? Could you tell me...? Would you mind...? Do you know...? I
wonder…
Example 1. A: Would you mind telling me where you went last night?
B: Of course not. I was at Red Fox Hotel. (Positive response)
: Yes, of course. Why do you ask me this? (Negative response)
2. A: Can you tell me if you have seen my jacket?
B: Yes, (of course). It was in the cupboard.
: No, I haven’t. Why don’t you put it in properly?
Note we use ‘if/ whether’ as a conjunction for direct questions.
3. A: I wonder if you help me carry this bag.
B: No, problem. Give it to me. (Positive) / I am sorry, I must run home. (Refusing)

Exercise 6: Choose the response that is most appropriate to complete the dialogue.
1. Mulat: ______________________?
You: Not enough to pay my bills.
A) Do you earn much C) How much do you earn
B) How much do you pay D) Is it enough to pay your bills
2. Lilu: Do you speak Italian?
You: ____________
A) Just a little B) I speak five languages C) I speak Arabic, too D) I’ve been to Italy
3. You: Are you married, Zahra?
Zahara: _________________.
A) Before three years B) My husband’s name is Jemal C) I’m 30 D) No, I am not
4. You: Hello. Where do you live?
Stranger: ______________
A) I’m from Jimma B) Around Arat Kilo. C) I live with my sister D) I come by bus
5. You: I know your favorite pastime.
Your friend: ___________________
A) No, you don’t. B) No, you aren’t. C) I like swimming. D) I don’t play tennis.
6. Teacher: We’re on page 50, aren’t we?
Student: _____________________.
A) No, exercise 5. C) Yes, we’ve done the homework.
B) Yes, exercise 4. D) No, we haven’t done the homework.
7. Uncle: When are you going to marry?
You: _________________
A) Not until I’m 45. C) I’m going to college next year.
B) I’ll have only two children. D) I don’t actually live here after marriage
8. You: Why did you leave the party early last night?
Rahel: ________________.
A) I didn’t feel very well. C) I left my husband.
B) I left 2 o’clock. D) We had a great evening.
9. Hagos: How long have you been doing this job?
Kedir: ___________________
A) It is about 10 years now. C) I do all the marketing myself.
B) I’m usually at home by 2 or 3. D) The salary is not good enough.
10. A: Isn’t boxing a popular sport in this country?
B: ______________________
A) No, it is! B) Yes, it isn’t! C) Not, never. D) No, it isn’t.
11. Teacher: ______________________
Sara: As often as I can.
A) Do you go to the cinema? C) When did you go to the cinema?
B) Can you go to the cinema? D) How often go to the cinema?
12. Mother: ____________________?
Daughter: Well, I placed the eggs carefully in the jar.
A) What did you do next C) Did you place the eggs in the jar
B) Who placed the eggs in the jar D) When did you place the eggs in the jar
13. Mother: Have we got any more sugar in the kitchen?
Daughter: _________________
A) No, there is none. C) No, there is little sugar.
B) No, there isn’t much sugar. D) No, there is nothing.
14. Teacher: How far is the school from your home?
Student: ______________
A) 3kms. B) 2 hours. C) I often arrive late. D) I always by bus
Answer Key
Part III: Communicative aspects
1. Some common daily communicative English
Exercise 1: 1) D 2) A 3) A
Exercise 2: 1) D 2) B 3) B 4) C
Exercise 3: 1) C 2) C 3) A 4) C 5) A 6) B 7) C 8) D 9) B 10) A 11) A 12) B
Exercise 4: 1) A 2) C 3) B 4) B 5) A 6) A 7) C 8) B 9) A 10) D 11) C
Exercise 5: 1) B 2) D 3) D 4) B
2. Different types of questions
Exercise 6: 1) D 2) A 3) D 4) B 5) A 6) B 7) A 8) A 10) D 11) D 12) B 13) 14) A
PART IV: WRITING
1. Capitalization and punctuation
A. Capitalization: the first letter of a word is capitalized when we write:
a. a new sentence after a full stop, a question mark and an exclamation mark.
Example: 1. She reads a book. However, she doesn’t understand it.
2. Do you read this book? It is helpful.
3. Read this book! It is helpful.
 Note that the pronoun I is always capitalized.
Example: She gave me a book; I read it well.

b. proper nouns of people, places, cities, continents, planets, rivers, oceans, seas, etc.
Example: The ships sail through the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea and then the Mediterranean Sea
to go to Europe.

But when the word “earth” is preceded by the definite marker “the”, it is not capitalized as in the
sun and the moon.
Example: The moon revolves around the earth and the earth revolves around the sun.

c. nouns and adjectives refer to languages, religions, nationalities and ethnic groups such as
Allah, God, the Almighty, the Bible, the Quran, Islam, Christianity, Protestant, Buddhism, etc,
Example: He studied Arabic to understand the Quran well.
d. names of days, months, and holidays such as Monday, January, Christmas, etc.
Example: Our school will be closed on Wednesday, January 21, to celebrate Epiphany.
But note that the seasons winter, autumn, summer and spring are not capitalized.

e. the first letter of content words such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs in the titles of
books, magazines, plays, films, etc.
Example: A Practical English Grammar is an important reference book.

But functional words like articles, propositions, conjunctions, etc, are not capitalized unless they
come at the beginning. Example: A Better Way to English is an important reference book.

f. complete names of oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, buildings, mountains, particular schools,
hospitals, colleges, universities, and regional states such as the Atlantic Ocean, the
Mediterranean Sea, Gondar University, Mt. Kilimanjaro, Black Lion Hospital, Focus
Elementary School, Teacher’s Training College, the Blue Nile, Sheraton Hotel, etc.
Example: My father has been admitted to Black Lion Hospital.
 Note the definite article ‘the’ is used before particular names of oceans, rivers and seas. But
oceans, seas and schools are not capitalized when they are used as common nouns.
Example: Our school has many intelligent students.

g. the first letter of a quoted sentence or a direct speech.

Example: Ahmed said, “The man will arrive on time if he has finished his work in time.””

But when the quoted sentence is separated into two parts, the second part of the quotation may
not begin with a capital letter unless it is begun after a full stop, question mark and exclamation
mark.
Example: “The man will arrive on time,” said Ahmed, “if he has finished his work in time.”

h. words that show ranks or professions if they are followed by names such as Dr. Zeki, Teacher
Alemu, Ato Alebel, Mr. James, Professor Asrat, Sister Almaz, etc.
Example: I want to interview Ato Alemu this afternoon.

But the titles of high officials must be capitalized without the names of a person such as the
Prime Minister of Ethiopia, the President of the United States, the Pope, the Bishop, the
Governor, etc.

i. family relationship words such as an aunt, uncle, father, mother, grandfather, niece, nephew,
etc. if they are not preceded by possessive adjectives.
Example: We asked Father to allow us to go to Harar.

j. names of institutions, governmental bodies, and organizations, such as the Minister of

Education, African Union, etc.
k. The first word of a salutation should be capitalized as well as the first word of a closing.
Example: Dear Helen, Best wishes,
l. capitalize the names of specific courses. Example: I must take history and Algebra 202.

B. Punctuations
1. Full stop/ Period (.) is used:
a. at the end of a statement that is not a question or an exclamation.
Example: 1. I knocked at the door.
2. There was no replay. I knocked again.
b. at the end of soft imperatives.
Example: Open the door. (Soft imperative)

But if the order is given emotionally, it becomes an exclamation and becomes a command.
Example: Open the door! (Command)
c. at the end of indirect questions.
Example:
1. a. Aster said to me, “Did you go shopping?” (Direct)
b. Aster asked me if I went shopping. (Indirect)
2. a. He said to me, “Where have you been?” (Direct)
b. He asked me where I have been. (Indirect)
d. sometimes in abbreviations.
Example: Jan., a.m.

Note that common abbreviations both with and without full stop is acceptable, but we should be
consistent when using them.
Example: Dr. or Dr U.S.A or USA

e. in the Internet and e-mail addresses to say ‘dot’.

Example: http://www.oup.co.uk

2. Comma (,) is used:

a. to separate lists of items (words and phrases), but the last two items are connected with
coordinating conjunctions.
Example:1. We bought a bouquet of red, pink and white roses.
2. What do you like to take tea, coffee, milk, or chocolate?
3. You can find the book on the table, in the drawer, or the cupboard.
4. They keep calm, take their time, think ahead and write their answer.

b. as parenthetic:
i) before and after a clause to give additional information about the noun it follows.
Example: Mt.Ras-Dejen, which is the highest mountain in Ethiopia, is situated in North
Gondar.
ii) to separate appositives which are noun phrases that rename nouns already fully identified.
Example: Mr. Samuel, our English teacher, was transferred from Fasiledes Preparatory to our
school.
iii) for internal words or phrases in the indirect address.
Example: This is a lucrative job, my friend, which will make you rich.
iv) to separate a word or a phrase of transitions when they come within a sentence.
Example: Rooney, for example, had to stay with Manchester United.
v) to separate a phrase or a clause of personal opinion within a sentence.
Example: The cost of living, I think, will increase next month.
vi) when a phrase or a clause is intended to comment or to give additional information within a
sentence.
Example: My brother, not knowing what he was doing, separated from his friends.

c. to separate the day from the date of the month and the date of the month from the year.
Example: On Tuesday, February 3, 1993, the great strike began in the country.

d. to separate the names of an office from the street address, the street address from the city and
the city from the state.
Example: We went to CBE, Bluko Street, Gondar, Amhara Regional State to take out some
money.

e. to separate main clauses, especially long ones, linked by coordinating conjunctions such as for,
and, nor, but, yet and so.
Example: We had been looking forward to our holidays, but it rained heavily at that time.

f. to separate a subordinate clause from the main clause when it comes at the beginning with
subordinating conjunctions such as after, before, although, even though, though, when, while, if,
until, etc.
Example: When they arrived, I had been talking on the phone to my brother.

g. to separate an introductory word, phrase, adverb, or adverbial phrase from the rest of the
sentence that applies to the whole sentence.
Example: 1. Oh, that’s where it was.
2. Yes, that’s good.
3. By the way, did you hear about Sara’s car?
4. To tell you frankly, we learned this topic last year

h. to separate the tag question from the rest of the sentence.

Example: 1. It’s quite expensive, isn’t it?
2. You live in Bahir-dar, right?
i. before or after he said, he replied, etc. when writing a direct speech and before a short
quotation.
Example: 1. “Come back soon” she said.
2. She said, “Come back soon.”
3. Semicolon (;) is used:
a. instead of a comma, separate parts of a sentence that has already a comma.
Example: In the Olympics games the first place gets, a gold medal; second place, a silver
medal; and third place, a bronze medal.
b. to separate two independent clauses in a compound sentence that has no conjunction.
Example: The sun was already low in the sky; it would soon be dark.

c. to separate two independent clauses joined by connective adverbs such as therefore,

consequently, as result, thus, hence, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, in addition,
furthermore, besides, moreover, likewise, that is, afterward, indeed, namely, etc.
Example: Abel has a cold; therefore, he will not be able to come to school.

4. Colon (:) is used:

a. to introduce a list of items.
Example: These are our options: we go by train; we leave the show; otherwise we take the car to
see the show all.

b. before a clause or phrase that gives more elaboration about the main clause in formal writing.
Example: He got two scholarship awards: studying English in U. K. and Spanish in Spain.

 Note that you can use a semicolon or full stop instead of a colon here, but not a comma.

c. after the greeting in a standard formal letter, but if we use a comma it indicates a friendly
acquaintance letter.
Example: Dear professor Samuel: (formal)
Dear Professor Samuel, (informal)
Dear Sir/ Madam: (formal)

 But in the British style of formal greeting colon is not used, but with or without the comma is
possible.

d. to introduce a direct quotation, especially, a long formal one that may be indented.
Example: As Kenneth Morgan writes:
The truth was, perhaps, that Britain in the years from 1914 to 1983 had not changed
all that fundamentally. Others, however, have challenged this view …

e. to separate hours from minutes.

Example: 1. 4:30 p.m. 2. 8: 15 a.m.

f. after an introductory label.

Example: Person A: How many students are absent today?
Person B: None of them.
5. Question mark (?) is used:
a. at the end of a direct question and Wh-question.
Example: 1. Are you students?
2. Where’s the car?

b. to express doubt, especially with a date of life span or publication of a book.

Example: 1. John Marston (? 1575-1634)
2. J. Harmer (? 1991)

6. Exclamation mark (!) is used at the end of a sentence to express surprise, joy, anger, shock
or another strong emotion or command.
Example: 1. That’s marvelous!
2. ‘Never!’ she cried.

 Note that in informal written English, you can use more than one exclamation mark, or an
exclamation mark and a question mark.
Example: A: Your wife has just given birth to triplets.
B: Triplets!! Or Triplets!?

7. Apostrophe (‘) is used:

a. with apostrophes s (‘s) to indicate that a thing or a person belongs to somebody. If a word
either singular or plural doesn’t end in s, add an apostrophe and s to form the possessive to
modify a noun after the possessive.
Example: Singular: the man’s cloth Plural: the men’s cloth
the child’s cloth the children’s cloth
someone’s cloth people’s cloth

If the singular word ends in s, add an apostrophe and s.

Example: 1. James’s cloth
2. Firdows’s cloth
If the plural noun ends in s, add an apostrophe after s.
Example: 1. the boys’ shoes
2. the girls’ shoes
If the word is a compound noun, make only the last word possessive.
Example: 1. Father-in-law’s cloth
2. Fathers-in-law’s cloth
3. Someone else’s cloth
If the nouns are joint possession, make only the last noun possessive.
Example: John and Paul’s cloth
 If the nouns are individual possession, make both nouns possessive.
Example: John’s and Paul\s cloth
b. to show that a letter/ letters or number is/are omitted in words or dates.
Examples: 1. I’m = I am
2. They’d write = They would write
3. They’d written = They had written
4. He’s writing = He is writing
5. He’s written= He has written
6. He’s clever = He is clever
7. He’s an engineer= He is an engineer
8. The summer of ’79 = the summer of 1979

c. with apostrophe s to form the plural of a letter, a figure or an abbreviation.

Example: 1. Your G’s look like your 7’s and your As look like your O’s.
2. During 1990’s

8. Hyphen (-) is used:

a. to form a compound from two or more other words.
Example: hard-hearted, mother-in-law, out-of-date, best-selling book, fork-lift truck

b. to form a compound from a prefix and a proper name and sometimes, in British English, a
prefix ending in a vowel from a word beginning with the same vowel:
Example: pro-European, co-operate, pre-eminent

c. to form words with the prefixes such as self-, ex-, etc.

Example: self-reliance, ex-wife

d. when writing compound numbers between 21 and 99, and infractions of words.
Example: thirty-one, seventy-three, a one-thirds majority, two-fifth of the votes

9. Quotation mark (“ ”) or (‘ ’) is used:

a. to identify the exact words of the speaker by starting the quotation with a capital letter.
Example: He screamed, “Get lost!”
But if the quotation is split in to parts, the second part doesn’t begin with a capital letter unless it
begins a second sentence.
Example: “Would you help me,” he said, “just this bag, please!”
“Get it for you,” he said. “She’ve had enough.”
 Note that i) commas, full stops, question marks and exclamation marks should be put inside
the quotation when they come at the end of the quoted sentence.
 Example: “That is all I know,” he said.
He said, “I will come to your home.””
Did she say “Why does the manager order this job?”
She exclaimed, “Don’t make me angry!””
ii) we should make a single quotation inside a double quotation when there is another quotation
in the quoted sentence.
Example: 1. "My father’s usual words," said Asefu, "are 'Be faithful to a friend and a
promise,' among my life guide lines.”
2. Sara said to her husband, “But you said you loved me!” ‘I will never leave you,
Sara, as long as I live.’ “That’s what you said, isn’t it?”
 Note that single quotation marks are British style while double quotations are American
style.

iii) when the main sentence is a question and the quoted sentence is a statement, the question
mark should be outside the quotation mark.
Example: Did the soldiers say, “We will die for our countr”?

iv) when a quoted sentence is joined by a connective adverb with another sentence the semicolon
or the colon should be outside the quotation before the connective adverb.
Example: The doctor said “Chewing khat is not good”; however, he himself chews khat a lot.

b. to enclose the names of units in a book, titles of newspapers, magazines, songs and short
stories.
Example: Did you read “Phrasal Verbs” in Practical English Grammar?

c. to put words or phrases inside quotations when they are used in a special or ironic sense.
Example: Books are “bridges” between readers and authors.
(In this case, the word bridges is used with a special meaning.)

d. to put words or phrases inside quotation marks when we:

i) talk about them.
Example: What does the word “extraordinary” mean?
ii) want to indicate that they are from other languages.
Example: My aunt gave me "Chechebsa" when I visited her last year.

10. The dash (__) is used:

a. instead of a colon or semi-colon to indicate that what follows is a summary or a conclusion
after a series.
Example: Men were shouting, women were screaming, children were crying __ it was chaos.
b. in a single or pairs as a parenthetic form to separate comment or an afterthought from the rest
of the sentence.
Example: Graduation is the happiest event in our educational life __ or so I am told.

Exercise 2: Choose the appropriate answer for each question in the given alternatives (UEE
Questions).
1. Which one of the following sentences is correctly punctuated?
A) He saw or at least he thought, a big snake lying in his bed.
B) He saw or, at least he thought, a big snake lying in his bed.
C) He saw or, at least, he thought, a big snake lying in his bed.
D) He saw, or at least he thought, a big snake lying in his bed.
2. Which one of the following sentences is correctly punctuated?
A) If he doesn’t obey, then he follows a punitive measure; he is dismissed for good.
B) If he doesn’t obey, then he follows a punitive measure: he is dismissed for good.
C) If he doesn’t obey, then he follows a punitive measure, he is dismissed for good.
D) If he doesn’t obey, then he follows: a punitive measure, he is dismissed for good.
3. Which one of the following sentences has correct punctuation?
A) “But, look here, said Berhan, I can’t give you this one”!
B) ‘But look here,” said Berhan, “I can’t give you this one!”
C) “But look here,” said Berhan, “I can’t give you this one”!
D) “But, look here, said Berhan, “I can’t give you this one!”
4. Which one of the following sentences is correctly punctuated?
A) What do you mean when you say “hyphenation?”
B) What do you mean when you say “hyphenation”?
C) What do you mean when you say, “hyphenation?”
D) What do you mean when you say, “hyphenation”?
5. Which one of the following sentences has correct punctuation?
A) Mamo said, “Every dog has its day;” however, I didn’t understand what it meant.
B) Mamo said, “every dog has its day” ; however, I didn’t understand what it meant.
C) Mamo said, “Every dog has its day”; however, I didn’t understand what it meant.
D) Mamo said, “every dog has its day;” however, I didn’t understand what it meant.
6. Which one of the following sentences is correctly punctuated?
A) We visit three places: Jimma; Oromia, Shire; Tigray, and Dessie; Amhara.
B) We visit three places: Jimma, Oromia; Shire, Tigray; and Dessie, Amhara.
C) We visit three places, Jimma; Oromia, Shire; Tigray, and Dessie; Amhara.
D) We visit three places: Jimma, Oromia; Shire, Tigray; and, Dessie, Amhara.
7. Which one of the following sentences has correct punctuation?
A) Father said “Abera keep quiet!” C) Father said, “Abera, Keep quiet!”
B) Father said, Abera “Keep quiet!” D) Father said, “Abera, keep quiet!”
8. Which one of the following sentences is wrongly punctuated?
A) She goes to Axum University in Tigray.
B) We are from Samara Afar Regional State.
C) He comes from Jimma, Oromia Regional State.
D) They bought it from Azezo, a suburb in Gondar.
9. Which one of the following sentences is correctly punctuated?
A) Not surprisingly, universities all over the world, follow similar rules.
B) Not surprisingly universities all over the world, follow similar rules.
C) Not surprisingly, universities all over the world follow similar rules.
D) Not surprisingly; universities all over the world, follow similar rules.
10. Which one of the following sentences is correctly punctuated?
A) “You may not have a cold” Nana explained. “Just allergies,” she added.
B) “You may not have a cold,” Nana explained. “Just allergies”, she added.
C) “You may not have a cold” Nana explained. “Just allergies,” she added.
D) “You may not have a cold,” Nana explained. “Just allergies,” she added.
11. Which one of the following sentences is correctly punctuated?
A) Why don’t you turn your television off when you are not watching it!
B) Why don’t you turn your television off, when you are not watching it?
C) Why don’t you turn your television off when you are not watching it?
D) Why don’t you turn your television off when you are not watching it.
12. Which one of the following sentences has a correct punctuation?
A) Where he is, God knows. C) He comes from Somali region.
B) He ate at the Ghion hotel. D) I was born in Gambella; Ethiopia.

4.2. Order of sentences: Basic word order of statements

The basic order of different elements of English statement are: WHO-WHAT-WHERE-
WHEN-HOW-WHY orders.

A sentence usually begins with the WHO (subject) followed by WHAT (verb).
Example: 1. Abel called.
2. The bus retuned.

Note: WHO (the subject) can be a person or a thing.

 Some verbs require an object. The object is also part of the WHAT element. So make sure
you keep the verb and its object together.
Example: 1. Abel ate breakfast.
2. The bus hit the tree.

 Some verbs take an indirect object that comes after a preposition.

Example: 1. Abel spoke to Sara.
2. The bus collided with a tree.

Now once you have the basic structure WHO and WHAT, you can add the other elements in the
following order: WHWER- WHEN-HOW-WHY.

 Note that every sentence will not have every element. There will be a selection of them in
English.
1.WHO- WHAT- WHEN- WHY:
Example: Abel called earlier to cancel his appointment.
2. WHO-WHAT-WHERE-WHEN-WHY:
Example: Abel ate breakfast on the train this morning because he was late.
3. WHO-WHAT-WHERE-WHY:
Example: The bus returned to the station to drop off the passengers.
4. WHO-WHAT-HOW:
Example: The bus hit the tree with great force.

 If one of these elements is composed of different parts, go from the smaller unit to the larger
one.
Let’s look at the different elements of WHEN:
Example: The conference started at 10 a.m. on Tuesday last week. (Time- day- week)
 If there is the different elements of WHERE, we go from smaller one to the larger one.
Example: They live in a flat in a big city in France. (A flat- city- country)

You may occasionally hear a sentence starts with an element other than ‘WHO’. This happens
when you want to emphasize that element and your voice should be emphasized as well. In
written form, you should separate that element form the sentence with a comma. But make sure
there is good reason for emphasizing the element that you are putting at the beginning of the
sentence.
Example 1: Abel was fine on the train.
Let’s put the WHERE element at the beginning as in: On the train, Abel was fine. (Unnatural)
However, if we contrast ‘on the train’ with the other place word or phrase like ‘at the office’, we
have a good reason to put this element at beginning of the sentence as in: On the train, Abel was
fine, but at the office, he felt sick.
Example 2: Abel called earlier to cancel his appointment.
 Let’s put WHEN element at the start as in: Earlier, Abel called to cancel his appointment.
(Unnatural)

However, if we contrast the two times for example ‘earlier’ with ‘now’, we have a good reason
to put the time at the start as in: Earlier, Abel called to cancel his appointment, but now, he
regretted.
Example 3: 1. The bus hit the tree with great force.
2. Let’s put HOW element at the start as in: With great force, the bus hit the tree.
(Unnatural)

But when we add another element make a little story, so there will be a reason to put HOW
element at the beginning as in: The bus swerved, and with great force, hit the tree.
Example 4: The bus returned to the station to drop off the passengers.
Let’s put HHY element at the start as in: To drop off the passengers, the bus returned to the
station. (Unnatural)
 To emphasize the reason, we can say: To drop off the passengers safely, the bus returned to
the station.

However, some adverbs may not follow the above basic sentence structure like:
1. The indefinite adverbs of frequency such as always, usually, normally, generally, often,
frequently, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, hardly ever, rarely, never, etc. The most common
position for these adverbs is before the main verb in the WHAT position.
Example: I always watch the news.

a. If there is an auxiliary verb (do, does, have, etc. ) or the modal verbs ( can, must, will, etc.)
they come between the auxiliary or modal verb and the main verb.
Example:1. I don’t always watch the news.
2. They can rarely have a rest.

b. If the sentence contains two auxiliaries, they should come after the first auxiliary.
Example: 1.He could never have completed his job without your help.
2. She has seldom been beaten in the Marathon.

c. If the auxiliary verbs are ‘used to’ and ‘have to’, they come before ‘used to’ and ‘have to’.
Example: 1. She often has to cook her own lunch.
2. He always used to help his poor family.
d. If the main or the auxiliary verb is the verb ‘to be’, they come after the verb ‘to be’
Example: 1. She is always at home on Sundays.
2. He is usually coming to class.
2. Adverbs of manner answers the question HOW in the sentence structure HOW comes
between WHEN and WHY. But if the HOW is an ‘-ly’ adverb such as quickly, slowly, gently,
carefully, quietly, etc. you can put it before the main verb for the purpose of stress the element.
Examples: 1. He oened the door quietly. (Usual)
He quietly opened the door. (Stressed)
2. You could see it in the distance clearly. (Usual)
You could clearly see it in the distance. (Stressed)

3. Other adverbs such as already, just, recently, soon, currently, still, finally, even, probably,
also, all, almost, both, etc. come before the main verb.
Examples: 1. I have already had lunch.
2. She has just come back.
3. We will soon have a break.
4. We will probably get a letter next week.
5. They have all finished.
6. I would also like to visit Paris.
7. I can’t even move my fingers.
8. We both arrived late.

If you have any of the negative adverbs at the beginning of a sentence, you will require an
inversion ( negative adverb- auxiliary- subject-main verb) structure.
Example: 1. a. They will never do it again. (Usual)
b. Never will they do it again. (Inverted)
2. a. It seldom rains here. (Usual)
b. Seldom does it rain here. (Inverted)

4.3. Kinds of sentences

4.3.1. Sentences based on their structures
There are four kinds of sentences.
1. Simple Sentence is an independent clause with a complete thought. The most common structures of
these are: (subject and predicate)
a) Subject and transitive verb with indirect and direct object: S+ TV + IO + DO.
Example: My father bought me a book.
b) Subject and transitive verb with direct object: S+ TV + DO.
Example: The man sells his car.
c) Subject and link verbs with complements such as verb to ‘be’, act, appear, become, feel, grow, look,
remain, seem, sound, turn, etc: S + LVs + an adjective, a noun or noun phrase with an article.
Example: 1) Sara is intelligent. 2) Sara is a student. 3) Sara is an intelligent student.
d) Subject and intransitive verbs with or without adverbs: S+ IV+ (adverbs).
Example: 1) Sara runs quickly. 2) Sara lives in a big city.
2. Compound Sentence contains two independent clauses joined by:
 Coordinating conjunctions such as for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS). These
coordinators can be preceded by a comma.
 Semicolon
 Transitional markers
Examples: Some students are studying in the library, but others are playing outside.
I ate everything on the tray; I was really hungry.
She studied hard; however, she didn’t get pass marks.
3. Complex Sentence contains an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. These
types of sentences always have subordinating conjunctions such as because, since, as, although, after,
when, if, etc., and a relative pronoun such as that, who, whom, or which. It can also be punctuated by a
semi-colon.
Example:1) Although he was sick, he came to school.
2) The man whom you saw at school last night is my uncle.
4. Compound-Complex Sentence contains at least two independent and one dependent clause.
Example: I always tell you about the difficulty of the road, but you never listen to me when I
give you advice.

4.3.2 Sentences based on their functions

1. Declarative sentence: A sentence which declares or asserts a statement is called declarative sentence.
It simply announces an idea. It has a plan statement. A declarative sentence ends with full stop.

Example: The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. It follows subject–verb pattern.

2. Interrogative sentences: are questions that end with a question mark. The most common
types of these are:
a. Yes/No Questions: Auxiliary verb + Subject + (Main verb).
Example: Have you ever been to London?
b. Wh-questions: Wh-word + Auxiliary verb + Subject + (Main verb).
Example: Where do you live?
 Note Wh- words are not only used to ask questions but they are also used as a pronoun for
statements
Examples: What do you want to eat after school? Wh-word used in question
What I want to eat after school is bread with honey. Wh-word used in question
c. Tag questions: Statement with a comma and auxiliary verb + subject pronoun.
Example:1.You live in this town, don’t you? 2. You don’t live in this town, do you?
 Note that the positive statement has a negative tag and a negative statement has a positive
tag.
d. Requests: Would / Could / Can/ Will + you ---?
Example: Could you help me to carry this bag?
e. Offers: May/ Could/ Can/ Shall I ---? Example: Shall I help you?
f. Permissions: May/ Could / Can I / we ---? Example: Could I use your book?
g. Indirect questions: they are questions in the form of statements introduced by a polite
expression like:
Can you tell me---? Could you tell me---?
Would you mind---? Do you know---?
Example 1. Would you mind telling me where you went last night?
2. Can you tell me if you have seen my jacket?
 Note we use ‘if/ whether’ as a conjunction for direct questions when we change them into
indirect questions.

C. Imperative sentences: are sentences that give command; make instructions, requests and
suggestions; express invitations and wishes most of them end with a full stop.
Example:
1. Go out of my office! (Command)
2. Let us go to the stadium. (Suggestion)
3. Have a good picnic. (A wish)
4. Write this sentence correctly. (Instruction)
5. Have a coffee, please. (Invitation)
6. Go to your room. (An order)
7. Please lend me your book. (A request)

 Note that imperative sentences begin with Verb 1 forms, but its subject ‘You’for most of
them are understood.

D. Exclamatory sentences: are sentences that express sudden and strong feelings such as
surprise, wonder, pity, gratitude, etc.
Example: 1. How handsome he is!
2. What a wonderful job you have!
Exercise 3: Choose the correct form for the disordered sentences (UEE Questions ).
1. looking have we over you all been for
A) We have been looking for you all over. C) You have been looking for we all over.
B) We all have been looking over for you. D) All over you have been looking for we.
2. him you like son like we and your seeing laugh
A) You like your son and we like seeing laugh him.
B) You laugh like seeing your son and we like him.
C) We like him laugh and your son like seeing him.
D) We like seeing him laugh like you and your son.
3. people going to many invite party are to your you?
A) Are you going to invite many people to your party?
B) Are your many people going to invite you to party?
C) Are your many party going to you people to invite?
D) Are you going to many party to invite your people?
4. us him and go up let pick
A) Let him go and pick up us. C) Let him go up and us pick.
B) Let him up and go pick us. D) Let us go and pick him up.
5. carefully work you did your check?
A) Did you work your check carefully? C) Did you carefully check your work?
B) Did carefully you check your work? D) Your work did you carefully check?
6. Mammo dog the skinny killed.
A) Mammo the skinny dog killed. C) Skinny the dog Mammo killed.
B) Skinny dog killed the Mammo. D) The skinny dog killed Mammo.
7. for and join come us celebration the
A) Come and join for us the celebration. C) Come and join the celebration for us.
B) For us the celebration come and join. D) Come and join us for the celebration.
8. he around robbed that bank spread a easily.
A) That he robbed a bank spread around easily. C) He easily robbed a bank around that spread.
B) Around that bank he easily robbed a spread. D) He easily robbed a bank that around spread.

4.4. Paragraph writing

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that are arranged in a logical order, developed on a
single unified idea coherently to give appropriate information.

A. Parts of a paragraph: a paragraph has three parts.

1. The topic sentence: a topic sentence essentially tells readers what the rest of the paragraph is
about. All sentences after it have to give more information about that sentence, prove it by
offering facts about it, or describe it in more detail. Every topic sentence will have a topic or
main idea and a controlling idea.

Here are some examples of topic sentences:

a. Topic Sentence: There are many possible contributing factors to global warming.
The topic is “global warming” and the controlling idea is “contributing factors.”
b. Topic Sentence: Cooking requires a number of different skills.
The topic is “cooking” and the controlling idea is “many different skills.”

However, sometimes the controlling idea may not be stated clearly to identify a topic. In order to
find the main idea about the topic, in such cases, look for the most repeated words, phrases, or
key ideas in the paragraph. Look for the attitude of the writer whether he/she has a positive or
negative feeling that makes the topic important to you, the reader.

For example:
a. ‘Victoria is a wonderful city to visit because it has an ideal location, beautiful gardens and
interesting things.’

The writer has a positive feeling about Victoria and shows this by the use of positive adjectives:
wonderful, beautiful, interesting. From this topic we know that the paragraph will be about the
positive aspects of Victoria.

b. ‘As the puppy grows it will consume most of your time, much of your sleep, and many of your
favorite possessions.’

The writer has a negative feeling about ‘the puppy’ and shows this by the use of negative
expressions: consume your time, your sleep, your favorite possession. From this topic sentence
we know that the paragraph will be about the negative aspects of the topic the puppy.

2. Supporting sentences or the details: give information that explains and expands the topic of
the paragraph. They answer questions—who? what? where? when? how? and why? to give
details. Good writers think of these questions when they write supporting sentences for the topic
sentence.
Example: If the topic Sentence is: ‘I will never forget my summer vacation.’ We can ask
questions like What did you do?, Where did you go?, How old were you at that time? Why was
this vacation so memorable?

3. Concluding Sentences: it is the last sentence of the paragraph. It concludes, or wraps up, a
paragraph. It lets the reader know that you have finished talking about the idea introduced by the
topic sentence. A concluding sentence often has one of these four important purposes:
 1. It restates the main idea.
2. It offers a suggestion.
3. It gives an opinion.
4. It makes a prediction.

B. Types of Paragraph
Basically there are four main types of writing. These are Descriptive, Narrative, Expository, and
Argumentative/Persuasive writing
1. Descriptive paragraph – this type of paragraph describes something that shows the reader
what a thing or a person is like. The words chosen in the description often appeal to the five
senses of touch, smell, sight, sound, and taste. This type of paragraph writing creates powerful
images in the reader’s mind. It describes places, people, events, situations or locations in a highly
detailed manner. Adjectives play vital roles to write this type of paragraph.
Example: The man was very tall and wore a faded blue jeans, and white T-shirt. His white hair
made him look older than he is. (very tall, faded blue, white are adjectives that describe the
nouns and the author uses these adjectives to draw pictures in reader’s mind)

Example 1: Rearrange the following jumbled descriptive sentences for a person to make a
coherent paragraph.
a. But my neighbor, Tasew will bring you home.
b. I am sorry I cannot come to meet you at the airport.
c. He is a middle aged man in his early twenties with frizzy hair, a fairy complexion and
appears cheerful by nature.
d. As you have never met him before, Tasew has a round face, average height and medium
build.
e. In addition to his physical appearance and character, he is usually casually dressed in old
jeans, and a T-shirt and wears a hat.

Here sentence (b) should be in the first line as the writer explains that he can’t go to the airport,
but he sends his neighbor called Tasew (a). Then he introduces Tasew’s physical appearances
and behavior in sentences (a) and (c) respectively. Lastly, he expresses the type of cloth that
Tasew wears. Therefore the order of the sentence becomes: b a d c e.

Example 2: Rearrange the following jumbled descriptive sentences for a place to make a
coherent paragraph.
a. To the south of the bed and below the shelf, three red bean bag chairs are ragging from
years of use.
b. To the left of the bed against the wall, a walnut shelf is standing with a reading lamp, a
clock and a radio.
 c. My bedroom is very attractive.
d. Also, in all four corners of the room my speakers are mounted just below the ceiling.
e. Below the north window, my bed with an imitation of a leopard picture bedspread is laid
horizontally.

Here sentence (c) is the topic sentence with the positive attitude of the writer about his bedroom.
Sentence (e) is the first detail of the paragraph as the writer mentions what his bed looks like
before sentence (b) which includes a walnut shelf’ in addition to the bed. Sentence (a) becomes
the third one as it carries ‘the bed’ and the shelf’ as it logically follows the definite article ‘the’
for ‘a walnut shelf. Lastly, sentence (d) becomes the last as the writer completes his idea on the
four corners of his bedroom after he discusses the floor. So the correct orders of these sentences
are c e b a d.

Example 3: Rearrange the following jumbled descriptive sentences for a situation to make a
coherent paragraph based on the climatic order.
a. This made the village dull and sleepy.
b. The weather was hot and extremely scorching.
c. There are also rumors that the enemy was approaching.
d. Unfriendly as the situation was, not a soul was to be seen anywhere.
e. Suddenly a too loud and scary explosion broke the monotonous stillness.

Sentence (d) can be the first sentence that begins with the lower intensity before sentence (a)
which contains the reference word this’ for the situation. Sentence (b) gives the reason why the
situation becomes dull and sleepy. But sentence (e) tells another higher intensity which is
different from sentences (d), (a) and (b). Sentence (c) also indicates the other additional higher
intensity which is different from (e). Thus, the correct order is d a b c, e.

2. Narrative paragraph
The narrative paragraph tells us an event or a story may be written from the first or third person
point of view. In the longer narrative, elements like characters, setting, point of view, conflict
and plot are developed in the composition. When the narrator is a participant in the action, the
narrative becomes from the first person point of view (I or We). When the narrator is outside the
action of the story, the narrative is from the third person point of view (He, She, and They).
Narrative texts can be short stories, novellas, novels, histories, autobiography, biography, etc.
A narrator tells us a story or event chronologically. He/she uses narrative tenses like simple past,
past continuous, past perfect, past perfect continuous…..
Example: Once up on a time there were a father, a son and a donkey………. The narrative story
tells you what happened then?
Example: Rearrange the following jumbled narrative sentences chronologically to make a
coherent paragraph.
a) I was exhausted after twenty-one hours of activity.
b) Then I passed with my family the whole night and didn’t go to sleep until 2:00 a.m.
c) I had to get up at 5: 00 a.m. to attend a holiday sunrise service the rest of the morning.
d) Last Sunday was an exhausting day for me.
e) In the afternoon, I visited my older uncle’s house and played cards with him until about
9:00 p.m.

In this paragraph, one full Sunday activity is described chronologically. Sentence (d) is the topic
sentence because the writer expresses the negative attitude of his day. The sentence becomes (c)
the first detail as it indicates the time duration which is ‘5:00 a.m.’ sunrise morning. Sentence (e)
is the next detail since the adverb word ‘in the afternoon’ and ‘9:00 p.m.’ comes after 5:00 a.m.
morning. The sentence in (b) is the last detail; the time expression ‘the whole night and until 2:
a.m.’ tell us the ending of the one-day activity. Sentence (a) becomes the conclusion as the writer
indicates that he was exhausted by the twenty-one hours of activity. So the correct orders of
these sentences are a c e d a.

C. Expository paragraph
Expository writing’s main purpose is to explain facts. It is a subject- oriented writing style. An
expository paragraph focuses on presenting factual information and being objective. Exposition
means explanation and an expository paragraph is a paragraph that explains something usually
by means of:

i. Definition and example: this type of paragraph is developed by defining a concept and using
examples for elaboration.
Example1: Rearrange the following jumbled expository sentences for definition and example
to make a coherent paragraph.
a. Graphology is the study of handwriting.
b. They also consider the spacing between words.
c. To do this, they look carefully at the slant of the writing.
d. For example, a person with printing hand writing is said to be creative and witty.
e. Graphologists believe they can analyze personalities through their handwriting.

In this paragraph, sentence (a) is the topic sentence as it contains the word ‘Graphology’ which
needs definition. The sentence (e) should be as it introduces ‘Graphologists’ who study
handwriting and sentence (c) becomes next the pronoun word ‘they’ refers to the graphologists.
Sentence (d) gives an example of a person who can be studied for his/her intelligence based on
their handwriting. Sentence (b) is the last one which gives additional studying ways of
handwriting. Thus, the correct order is a e c d b.

ii. Exemplification: uses specific examples to illustrate a point made in writing. The examples
can be facts, historical examples, statistics, events or behaviors and so on. A good
exemplification paragraph should answer the following characteristics:
Relevance: Does the example relate specifically to the point being made?
Accuracy: Are you honest about your facts and statistics?
Sufficient details: Have you used enough examples to prove your point?

Example 2: Rearrange the following jumbled expository sentences for size to make a coherent
paragraph.
a. It eats about a ton of food each day.
b. The lion needs about 15 pounds of food.
c. Different animals have different food requirements.
d. The record-holder for the amount of food eaten each day is the blue whale.
e. The relatively small chimpanzee, for example, eats an average of 4.5 pounds of food each
day.

Sentence (c) is the topic sentence of the paragraph for it contains the controlling idea. The next
one is sentence (e) since the paragraph seems to discuss animal food requirement from small size
to large size; based on this, sentence (b) and (d) follows. Sentence (a) becomes the last as the
word ‘It’ refers to the whale which takes the record holder of food requirement in given the
paragraph. Thus, the correct orders of these sentences are c e b d a.

iii. Classification: it is the process of putting a large number of items into smaller and well-
defined groups. We can organize such types of paragraphs for different categories or items which
entertain classification.

Example 3: Rearrange the following jumbled expository sentences for the category of aircraft
to make a coherent paragraph.
a. The shape of each depends on its size, speed and purpose.
b. The concord, for example, is one particular type.
c. The concord is the fastest passenger airliner.
d. There are many types of aircraft.
e. It has a nose that drops down on landing and takes off.
In this paragraph, sentence (d) is the topic sentence that tells the types of aircraft. The next
sentence is (a) as it logically follows to tell us the shape, size, speed and purpose. Sentence (b)
and (c) give examples among the different types of aircraft about a ‘concord’ and its speed
respectively. Sentence (e) is the writer rests his idea about the concord. So the correct order
becomes: d a b c e.

iv. The process paragraph is used to show a series of actions that produce a change. There are
two basic kinds:
a. The how-to or the instruction paragraph is developed often using a sequence of words and
the imperative form of a verb is commonly used.

Example 4: Rearrange the following jumbled sentences for lists of items to make a coherent
paragraph.
a) Then cool the burn immediately with cold water.
b) A simple burn of the skin caused by exposure to fire can be treated by anyone using the
following steps.
c) After that, place a clean, cold, wet towel on less serious burns to ease the pain.
d) First, remove the victim of the accident from the fire as soon as possible.
e) Also, apply dry, sterile bandages to transfer the victim to the immediate proper medical care.
f) Finally, protect the burn from contamination without using any ointment for burns.

Sentence (b) becomes the topic sentence as it has the controlling idea ‘the following steps’.
Sentences (d), (a) and (c) should come after sentence (b) based on the use of a sequence of
words. Sentence (f) has to be put before (e) since sentence (e) indicates that the victim has to be
taken to the proper medical care. Thus, the correct is b d a c f e.

b. The explanation paragraph tells how something works and how it came to be. As a reader,
you are not expected to be able to do anything, but you just understand how it happened or how
it works. The passive form of the verb is commonly used in an explanation paragraph.

Example 5: Rearrange the following jumbled sentences for lists of items to make a coherent
paragraph.
a. First, a rating company installs meters in a few thousand representative homes in a particular
area
b. Although most people know how a TV show is measured by its rating, few know exactly how
shows are rated.
c. Thus, these are the ways how shows are rated.
d. The meter then electronically sends this information from all the homes in the area.
e. When the TV set in one of these homes is turned on, the meter records the day, time and
channel.
f. Finally, the computer prints a rating sheet that shows how many homes watched each show
and which shows are the most popular.
Here sentence (b) becomes the topic sentence as it introduces ‘how a TV shows is measured’.
Sentence (a) should come next based on the use of a sequence of words. Sentence (d) has to be
put before (e) since the TV has to be turned on to send information after it is recorded and
sentence (f) and (c) becomes the last detail and the conclusion respectively for the paragraph.
Therefore, the correct becomes: b a d e f c.

v. Comparison/Contrast: when we say comparison, it means how something is similar to

something else and when we say contrast, we mean how something is different from something
else. We can develop these types of a paragraph using words or terms that express similarity and
difference.

Example 6: Rearrange the following jumbled expository sentences for contrast to make a
coherent paragraph.
a. They are not so interested to express their feelings as women when they challenge them.
b. Men tend not to reveal immediate information about themselves.
c. Men and women communicate about themselves differently.
d. Thus, both sexes are dissimilar in expressing themselves.
e. On the other hand, women frequently express their inner feelings.

Here sentence (c) introduces both ‘men and women with the controlling idea of difference, so it
becomes the topic sentence of the paragraph. Sentence (b) and sentence (a) should follow the
topic sentence respectively as they tell us about the men before the contrasting phrase ‘On the
other hand’ to begin sentence (e) for expressing ’women’. The word ‘thus’ indicates the
conclusion, so sentence (d) becomes the last by restating the topic sentence. Therefore, the
correct order is c b a e d.

vi. Cause and effect is a method of relating the cause and the effect of something. These types
of paragraph can be developed based on the discourse markers that indicate the cause and the
effect or vice versa.
Example 7: Rearrange the following jumbled expository sentences for cause and effect to make
a coherent paragraph.
a. As a result, many people become homeless and disease may spread.
b. It also takes years to build and normalize it again.
c. The movement follows a great loss of life and millions of dollars damage.
d. Earthquakes are caused by sudden slips of rock breaking along the earth’s crust.
e. The breaks result in strong movement when the pressure on rock layers becomes too great.
Here sentence (d) becomes the topic sentence that introduces the cause of the earthquake.
Sentence (e) and sentence (c) follow as they tell us the reason why the earthquake and its
destruction happen respectively. Then, sentence (a) comes to tell us the result of the earthquake.
Sentence (b) ends how challenging the result of the earthquake is to become normalized again.
Thus, the correct orders of these jumbled sentences are a e c a b.
Expository writing includes science text books, recipes, business- technical, how - to- articles,
directions etc.

D. Argumentative: it is to convince someone that a particular point of view is the right one. The
basic types are:
a. Logical argumentative types: is used to convince someone by using the basic kind of support
like answering the opposite idea, presenting facts, referring to an authority on the topic, giving
examples and predicting the consequences.

Example 1: Rearrange the following jumbled argumentative sentences to make a coherent

paragraph.
a There is no escaping global warming.
b. Why worry about the changes that are happening today?
c. However, there is a small group of people who think that global warming is a myth.
d. You pick up a newspaper or watch TV without hearing about this major issue.
e. They say that the earth’s climate has been changing for as long as anyone can remember.

Here sentence (a) should be in the first line as the writer expresses his opinion about the issue of
global warming. Sentence (d) can be the second since it gives the evidence where the issue of
global warming is discussed. Sentence (e) should come before sentence (c) because of the
pronoun ‘They’ which refers to ‘a newspaper or TV’. Sentence (b) becomes the last as the writer
ends the paragraph after the opposition of the small group of people about global warming by
questioning to make their argument strong. So the correct order becomes a d e c b.

b. Persuasive types: it is to convince someone that a particular product, thing or someone is

good or bad.
Example 2: Rearrange the following jumbled argumentative sentences to make a coherent
paragraph.
a. Why don’t you come to take your share of these attractive prizes?
b. For those who change a foreign currency will have additional coupons for those prizes.
c. For the winners, the bank prepares latest automobile, 40 inch TV set and latest mobile
phones.
d. For every 500 birr you save you will get a coupon that makes you a winner.
e. Commercial Bank of Ethiopia prepares to give fabulous prizes.

Here sentence (e) should be in the first line as it introduces the origination that gives the prizes.
Sentence (d) becomes before sentence (c) as the phrase a winner comes before ‘the winners’
grammatically. Then, sentence (b) follows since it indicates another coupon is given in addition
to the 500 birr saver. Finally, the announcer tries to convince someone that saving is good for the
prize, so sentence (a) will be the last. Thus, the order of these jumbled sentences are e d c b a.

Exercise 4: Choose among the given alternative that contains the correct order to make a
coherent paragraph.
1. a. There are various reasons why gambling is so popular.
b.The most obvious reason why people gamble is to make money.
c. Even if you know you may not win, there is always a chance that you win.
d. Another reason people gamble is to bring some excitement into their lives.
e. For many people winning from gambling is the only way they make a lot of money.
A) a e b d c B)c d e b a C) d e a c b D)a b e d c
2. a. One, I have a problem with the lectures.
b. I don’t seem to succeed in my new course.
c. Apparently, my classmates are also uncooperative.
d. They speak quickly and not very clearly.
e. They are not willing to lend me the books I want.
(A) b d a c e (B) b a d c e (C) d b a e c (D) d a b e c
3. a. People used symbolic vocal sounds.
b. Language signaling systems are many types.
c. Animals also communicate with one another using cries.
d. But the number of signals is limited except in human languages.
e. For example, birds utter warnings at the eminence of danger.
(A) c e d b a (B) b a c e d (C) d a b c e (D) d a c b e
4. a. While there, she worked part-time as a travel agent.
b. After six months she went to work for Kenya Airlines.
c. At nineteen she left school.
d. She also worked at a local airport.
e. She then went to college.
(A) c a e d b (B) e c a d b (C) c e a d b (D) b c e a d
5. a. Right in front of me, there were large plants.
b. On my left, the ground rose gently to a low hill.
c. I made my first landing there and began to look around.
d. A kind of fruit like none I had ever seen before grew on them.
e. Attracted by their color, I got closer for a thorough examination.
(A) c a d e b (B) a c b e d (C) a b c e d (D) c d e a b
6. a) So, I left the house through the back door.
b) Because of the rain, I was told to wear my coat to school.
c) There he was my father a few meters behind me with the unwanted coat.
d) But as I just reached the school gate, I heard my Dad calling me my name.
e) However, hated doing it since no other boy had one.
(A) a d c b e (B) b e a d c (C) b d e c a (D) d c e b a
7. a. Every year one million children die of malaria.
b. Malaria is very common in many parts of the world.
c. However, people must also cooperate to stop its spread.
d. Governments have special programs to control malaria.
e. Many others cannot go to school or work because of malaria.
(A) a b c e d (B) b a e d c (C) b d a e c a (D) a e b c d
8. a) In 1991, the country launched an early-warning system-the first in the world and one that
has been emulated by countries like Japan.
b) Mexico’s recent quake occurred 32 years after the city’s 1985 shock, which killed about
10,000 people and destroyed 3,000 buildings.
c) Since then, Mexico has worked to shore up its earthquake preparedness.
d) Some had a minute to duck and cover, to grab go bags, and to locate their loved ones.
e) Thanks to sirens and smartphones, thousands of individuals were alerted to the impending
quake.
f) Those seconds can mean the difference between life and death.
(A) b c a e d f (B) f a e b d c (C) c a b d f e (D) a e d c f d

Exercise 5: Identify the following paragraph parts from which type of paragraph is mostly
likely taken from.
1. If you take this one, you can win a new microscope that the company has put on offer. You
can also enjoy all benefits that state-of-the-art machines in the category could provide.” This is
probably taken from____________ piece of writing.
2. I thought he was asking me just for a walk and did not hesitate to give the slightest in. He then
started smartly guiding me into a forest where I could see no soul around. Ten minutes into the
venture, however, I started realizing that he was trying to use my naivety. He remarked, you
know, I.” This is most probably taken from _________ type of text.
3. This bird is one of a group of long-legged wading birds. It has a long beak that curves down.”
This statement is likely taken from the beginning of__________ type of text.
4. The internet has provided great benefits, but at the same time it has also created problems and
inequalities.” This piece of writing is likely to be _____________.
5. We had already cruised for one and half hours when we heard a loud bang. The driver
instinctively swerved the vehicle and we came to a safe stop.” This is likely part of writing
___________ in nature.
6. This building is a small house consisting of two floors. The outside front wall is 9m long and
5m high. There is a door in the middle of the wall at the ground level.” This piece of writing is
likely to be_____________.
7. Below are my reasons to claim that seminar is a better alternative to the lecture method of
teaching in higher education.” This is most likely taken from ____________of piece of writing.
8. Walk along the road in front of the post office until you come to the football field. Behind the
football field, there is a street with a vegetable market. There is a café opposite the vegetable
market. I’m living in the villa located just next to the market.’ This is most likely taken from a
piece of writing that is _____________.

Exercise 6: Identify the following sentences from which type of paragraph is mostly likely
taken.
1. Which one of the following best illustrates descriptive writing?
A) The place was extremely quite. C) They have already been there for one year.
B) I have always wanted to visit the place. D) We then went into a room where the king used
to sleep.
2. Which one of the following best illustrates a sentence taken from a descriptive piece of
writing?
A) The girl standing by him is confronting the policeman.
B) The girl standing by him is beautiful and wore blue jeans.
C) The girl standing by him should have really won the contest.
D) The girl standing by him has a father who works in a fish shop.
3. Which one of the following best illustrates a sentence taken from an argumentative piece of
writing?
A) Four-wheel-drive vehicles are available here.
B) Most four-wheel- drive vehicles consume more petrol.
C) We hired a four-wheel-drive vehicle for the off-rid trip.
D) It was not possible to make it even in a four-wheel-drive vehicle.
4. Which one of the following is a line most likely taken from a narrative piece of writing?
A) The cause of the uproar remains a mystery.
B) Quite a lot of them died suffocated in the crowd.
C) I don’t know many shops were burnt down that day.
D) When the clock struck seven, people started yelling and shouting.
5. Which one of the following is a line most likely taken from a narrative piece of writing?
A) Altogether, he was extraordinarily eloquent.
B) Then the speaker stood up and asked everyone for attention.
C) He was so simplistic in his approach and influential in his argument.
D) He had the art of disarming you of your opinion and making you join his block.

4.5. Writing an essay

An essay contains an introduction, some paragraphs of the body and a conclusion. The
introductory paragraph states a general topic or the thesis statement. It also restates the issue
of the essay. The body of the paragraph starts from the second paragraph. Each topic sentence
of the body should support the thesis statement. The ideas in the body also support the topic
sentences of the paragraph. These are the details such as examples, facts, descriptions, personal
experiences, etc. The concluding paragraph is the last part. It concludes or wraps up the essay.
It lets the reader know that you have finished talking about the idea introduced by the essay. A
concluding sentence often has one of these four important purposes: it restates the issue of the
essay; it offers a suggestion; it gives an opinion; it makes a prediction and it may give a problem
and solution.

Exercise 7: Read the following parts of essay and choose the best answer from the given
alternatives.
1. We can easily see from these few examples the extent of foreign influences on our language,
our arts and our eating habits. This is most likely taken from the __________section of an essay.
A) body B) details C) conclusion D) introduction
2. ‘During the last century vaccination programs were introduced in most countries around the
world. Before this, thousands of people, especially, children, used to die of infectious disease
every year.’ This is most likely taken from the _____________ section of an essay.
A) body B) details C) conclusion D) introduction

6. Writing class room survey research report

A survey report presents and analysis the information obtained through a survey research. It is
normally written in a formal style and divided into sections. Each section should have a heading.

a. Methodology or procedure:
It is a way of obtaining information through questionnaire, interview or observation. For
example, if your tool is questionnaire, observation or interview mentioning how it is
administered is methodology or procedure.

b. Parts of survey research:

The introduction or first section: presents the purpose of the report and how it was carried out.
In short, it answers the question:
What was investigated? How many people were included in the survey?
Who they were? How the information was given: is it by interview or questionnaire?

c. Data analysis and discussion:

It is the body of the report that presents the findings; that is, the information which has been
found. It clearly divided into topics. The facts are presented and may comment on it. Facts
should be presented in figures, as proportions, in rank orders, as fractions or percentages. The
present tense is normally used to describe the findings. Exact figures can be put in brackets after
a broader statement of proportions.

d. The conclusion: it is drawn from all information presented and it may include
recommendation, or limitation.

Exercise 7: Choose the appropriate answer for each question in the given alternatives.
Questions 1-5 are extracted from a research report. Read each of them and identify the
part of the report they have been taken in the given choices A-D.
1. The study made an attempt to see if the differences exist between the ways students from rural
areas and those from towns adapt to the higher education environment. Where in a research
report would the above sentence most likely belong?
A) Methodology B) Introduction C) Data analysis D) Conclusion
2. This study showed that both government and private media are biased in their own ways with
regard to the information they transmit to the public. Which section of a research report are the
above lines most likely taken from?
A) Conclusion B) Methodology C) Data analysis D) Introduction
3. Of the 110 that filled in the questionnaire, 88(80%) said the bonus they get from the
companies are nowhere close to the extra-efforts they make to boost production. Which section
of a research report is the above most likely extracted from?
A) Discussion B) Conclusion C) Methodology D) Data analysis
4. In order to achieve objectives and genuinely address the needs of the employees, it is
important that their voices are heard during appointment of managers. Where in a research
report would the above sentence most likely belong?
A) Discussion B) Data analysis C) Recommendation D) Conclusion
5. Fifty-five employees from each of the companies were made to fill in a questionnaire after on-
the-job observations were conducted. Which sections of a research report is the above sentence
most likely taken from?
A) Methodology B) Introduction C) Data analysis D) Conclusion
4.6. Letter writing: Informal and formal letter writings
4.6.1. Informal letters are letters written to someone you know like friends, relatives, and
acquaintances. It is called personal letters. When writing personal letters, remember to include
the following parts:
 Sender's address - is usually located at the top right-hand corner of the letter.
Example: P.O. Box 567
Fasileds Secondary School,
Gondar, Ethiopia.
 The date is located under the sender's address usually on the right-hand side below the
sender’s address.
Example: 03/05/16, May 3, 2016, 3rd May 2016, May 3rd 2016
 The greeting/salutation/ opening - is located under the date on the left-hand side. It may
begin with ‘Dear/ Hello/ Hi’. Example: Dear Hanna,
 The body of the letter includes the messages. It is written in paragraph form.
 The closing of the letter would include:
a) To family members and close friends: Love, Love from, Lots of love, etc.
b) To friends and acquaintances: Your friend, Best wishes, All the best, Take care, Let us keep in
touch, etc.
Your first name or signature is put under the closing.
Note that you can use contractions in an informal letter. Consider the following format of a
personal letter:
P. O. Box 567
Fasiledes Secondary School,
Gondar, Ethiopia.
9/04/2023
Dear Ahmed,
How are you? I’m writing to tell you about my summer. It’s really been fun. I’ve gone to visit
the Castle several times and I have visited several of my friends from school. Next week, I am
going to Gorgora beach with my family.
I hope you are having a fun summer, too.
Your friend,
Andargie
4.6.2. Formal letters
There are different types of formal letters from social to business letters that use similar formats.
When writing formal letters, remember to include the following parts:
1) The sender's address goes in the top right-hand corner.
2) The date goes below the Sender’s address; it may also go to the left-hand corner above the
recipient's address.
3) The recipient’s name or job title goes in the top left-hand corner below the sender’s address
and the date.
4) The recipient’s address goes below his/ her name or job title.
5) The greeting or salutation of a formal letter uses the recipient’s title and sur name if you
know them use, for example, Dear Mr. Beckham, Dear Dr. Worku, etc.

But if you don’t know the name of the person you are writing to, and then use: Dear Sir or Dear
Madam, Dear Sir or Madam, or Dear Sir

 Note that in American style colon is put after the salutation.

If the formal letter is an application letter, we should write the topic our job position after
greeting.
6) The body of the letter if it is handwriting should be indented, but if it is typed or printed from
a computer paragraphs can be written in block style. Be polite and use formal language like:
Regarding (the program) for your ----
I would like to suggest ---
Please telephone me on --- if this is not convenient.
Thank you very much for your letter and your kind ---- I look forward to hearing from/ seeing
you on -----
7) Closing: British style uses a) ‘Yours sincerely’ when you know the recipient’s name.
b) ‘Yours faithfully’ when you don’t know the recipient’s name.
8) The writer’s signature can be put after the closing.
9) The sender’s name is written at the bottom of the letter below his/ her signature.
Example: Formal letter when the writer knows the receiver in block style

1.

2
3
4

7
8
9

10

11

12

1. Sender’s address 2. Date 3 & 4 inside address 5 Salutation/ greeting 6

Subject 7, 8 & 9 are body of the letter 10. complementary closing 11 signature 12.
Sender’s name
Some Types of letters
1. Letters of application
A letter of application may be written when we apply for a permanent/temporary job or
educational course. It is important to include only the relevant information, and to use a suitable
style, formal or semi-formal.
Introduction or Paragraph 1- the reason for writing like:
- I am writing to apply for the post/job/position of/which I saw advertised in...
- I am writing with regard to your advertisement...
- I am writing in response to your advertisement...
Main body: paragraphs 2 - 3 – 4 should be:
- qualifications/training
- previous experience/qualities and skills
Reference to experience:
- ...for the last/past year I have been working as... since/for
- I have had the experience of...
- Two years ago I was employed as...
- I worked as... before
Conclusion or Final Paragraph - closing remarks:
- I would appreciate a reply at your earliest convenience...
- Please contact me regarding any queries you may have...
- I enclose my CV and I would be glad to attend an interview at any time convenient to you...
- If you wish me to attend an interview, I am available at any time...
- I look forward to hearing from you in due course...

Example of an application letter when the writer does not know the receiver in the
indented style
Azezo Airport Sub-city
Gondar
15th March 2016

The Manager
Guna Trading Ltd,
P.O. Box 1243
Gondar
Dear Sir/ Madam:
Re: The post of junior administrative assistance
I have seen your advertisement in the Ethiopian Herald newspaper and I would like to apply for
the post of junior assistant for general office work.
I am 19 years old and I left Gondar Poly Technique College with a diploma in Accounting last
year.
I would like to work in an office as I think I am suited to working with people and keeping
records, writing letters, keeping accounts and so on. I have some experience of dealing with
customers and keeping stock records as I have worked in Ato Abadir’s supermarket on Sundays
and during school holidays for the last two years. I am interested in learning languages. In
addition to Amharic, I speak English. These may be useful in your office. I do not have any
computer skills but I am very keen to learn.

I have enclosed my CV which gives full details of my background and my referees who have
said they will be glad to answer any further inquiries about me. If you would like to contact
them, they are my former Vice Director Ato Fasil Asmamaw at Azezo Preparatory School
0918203450 and Ato Alemu Baye at Gondar Poly Technique College 0918203450.
I look forward very much to hearing from you.
Yours faithfully,
(Signature)
Sara Daniel
Enc: CV
2. Letter of complaint
It is a formal type of letter writing.
Useful languages for letter of complaint:
Opening remarks:
 I am writing to complain about/regarding/ on account of / on the subject of…..
 I am writing to draw your attention to….
 I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction ……..
Closing remarks:
 I would like to hear your explanation for the above problems….
 I hope the matter will be resolved…..
 I trust the situation will improve…….
 I would therefore be grateful if you could give me a full refund…..
 I hope that I will not be forced to take further action……..
3. Letters of Apology
A letter of apology can be either formal or informal. It can be written when some one has made a
mistake, has failed to perform a duty or is not able to fulfill his/her promise.
Useful languages for letters of apology
Opening remarks:
 I am writing to apologise for……..
 I must apologise for ……
 How can I apologise enough for …..etc
Closing remarks:
 Once again, sincerest apologise for …..
 I hope I will accept my apologises……
  I beg you how sorry I am……..(for informal)
Other types of letters are: letters of invitations, letters or recommendations, letters of request,
letters of inquiry, letters of request, order letter, claim letters, condolence letter, etc. These letters
have their own ways of usefull expressions; i.e opening and closing remarks.
4.6.3. Formal and Informal Letters
A) Style in Letters
The characteristic of formal style in letters The characteristic of informal style in letters are:
are:
- The greeting (Dear Sir/Madam , Dear Mrs - The greeting (Dear/Hi/ Hello Alex, Dear Dad,
+ Surname) etc.)
- Frequent use of the passive - Informal language and style (idioms, colloquial
- Formal language (complex sentences, non- English)
colloquial English) - Abbreviated forms, some pronouns can be
- No abbreviated forms omitted
Formal letters in British English if it begins - Friendly letters begin with ‘Dear + first name’
with: and end with ‘Love/Yours/Best wishes, etc.’ and
a) ‘Dear Sir/Madam’ and end with ‘Yours then ‘first name.’
faithfully’ and then ‘full name’. Note that: Informal (friendly) letters have only
b) ‘Dear Mr/Mrs + surname’ and end with one address (the writer’s address) whereas formal
‘Yours sincerely’ and then ‘full name’. letters have two (the writer’s and the recipient’s)
Semi-formal letters can begin with Dear address.
Mr/Mrs + surname and end wit ‘Best
wishes/Yours + first name/full name’
B) Sample opening remarks for some types of formal and informal letters.
Types of letters Examples of formal opening Examples of in formal opening
remarks remarks
Apology I am writing to apologize for... I'm so sorry if I upset you in any
way...
Invitation We would be honoured if you... I'd like to invite you to...
Accepting Invitation I am writing to thank you for the Thanks for the invitation to ...,
kind invitation sounds lovely...
Refusing Invitation We thank you for your recent Thanks for the invitation, but...
invitation to but...
Asking for Advice I am writing to ask if you could Can you give me your advice ---?
help me with-
Giving Advice I am writing in reply to your letter I just got your letters and I think I
asking for advice about can help you
Giving Information I am writing to inform you about You wanted me to tell you about
Making a Request I am writing to inquire in I want you to tell me
connection with
Expressing regret I/We regret to inform you that— I am sorry to tell you that---
Complaining I am writing to complain about--- I am not happy with----
C) Sample closing remarks for some types of formal and informal letters.
Types of letters Examples of formal closing remarks Examples of in formal closing
remarks
Apology I hope you will accept my apologies... I can't tell you how sorry I am...
Invitation We would be grateful if you could... Hope you can come
Accepting We wait the event with great See you then
Invitation anticipation
Refusing I am sorry to miss the opportunity of... I'm really sorry we'll have to miss
Invitation it
Asking for Advice I look forward to receiving your Please tell me what to do
advice
Giving Advice I would like to know if this was Let me know what happens
helpful
Giving I hope I have answered some of your I hope this will help you
Information questions
Making a Request I look forward to receiving Please, let me know
Expressing regret We would like to thank you for----. Hope to hear from you soon.
Complaining I look forward to hearing your early Hope to hear from you soon.
reply
D) Sample Letter Closings for Different Categories
Business Type Letter Personal Type Letter
Formal or Impersonal: Formal or Impersonal:
Yours faithfully, Faithfully yours, Yours Respectfully yours, Yours respectfully,
truly, With gratitude, Thank you, etc. Yours always, Kindest regards etc.
Not too Formal: Not too Formal:
Yours sincerely, Sincerely yours, Sincerely, Regards, Your friend, Affectionately, Always, Best,
Truly, Wishing you well, Cordially, etc. Always and forever, Missing you, See you soon, etc.
An Intimate Way: Thanks, Best wishes, An Intimate Way:
Take care, Until next time, etc. Much love, All my love, Lots of love , Love,
Eternally yours, Hugs, Hugs and kisses, Adios, Ciao,
High five, etc.
Exercise 9: Choose the appropriate answer for each question in the given alternatives.
1) The following items (a-e) are components of an application letter arranged in the wrong order.
Which alternative shows the correct order?
a) New Thoughts University
b) P. O. Box 2040
c) Ato Bekele
d) Head, Purchasing Department
e) Addis Ababa
A) a c d e b B) c d a b e C) a c b e d D) c d a e b
2) “I am writing this letter in response to your advertisement of 12 September 2009 regarding…”
Which part of a formal letter does the line go in?
A) salutation B) introduction C) body D) closing
3) “Please find enclosed a photocopy of my credentials.” This is most likely taken from a _____.
A) letter of request B) letter to close friends C) letter of acceptance D) job application letter
4) “Let us keep in touch!” which part of a letter does this line go in?
A) Body B) Closing C) Salutation D) Introduction
5) “It was great to hear from you.” This is likely taken from the beginning of a ____________.
A) formal letter B) business letter C) letter to a boss D) letter to a friend
6) “I look forward to hearing from you soon.” This is most likely taken from:
A) the body of a business letter.
B) the introduction of a letter to a close friend.
C) the closing section of a letter of application for a job.
D) the salutation section of a letter of application for a job.
7) The phrase ‘I regret to inform you that … …’ is a possible introduction used in a letter to
someone who:
A) should settle her/ his bill C) is required to sign her/ his contract
B) is advised to collect an item D) did not succeed in a job interview
8) ‘Take care and thanks again.’ This is most likely taken from:
A) the ending of a formal letter. C) the ending of a letter to a friend.
B) the beginning of a formal letter. D) the beginning of a letter to a friend.
9) ‘We would love to come.’ This short extract is taken from a letter which:
A) invites B) gives news C) accepts invitation D) asks for further information
10) ‘I hope you are all well.’ This is likely taken from:
A) the body of a friendly letter C) the beginning of a formal letter
B) the ending of a formal letter D) the beginning of a friendly letter
11) ‘I respectfully request you to consider making this priority for our organization.’ This is a
typical example of a line taken from a/an ___________ letter.
A) social B) informal C) business D) friendly
12) Which one of the following is most likely an opening to your application for a job?
A) Hello Sir B) Greetings C) Dear Sir D) Dear Mr. Manager
13) ‘I hope my qualification and the experience I have will win me your favour.’ What kind of
letter is this sentence most likely taken from?
A) social B) personal C) formal D) informal
14) ‘Below are the names and addresses of my references/referees.’ This is a typical example of
a line taken from:
A) curriculum vitae B) an application letter C) an informal letter D) letter to a friend
Answer Keys
Part IV: Writing
1. Capitalization and punctuation
Exercise 1: 1) D 2) A 3) B 4) B 5) C 6) D 7) C 8) B 9) C 10) D 11) C 12) A
2. Word order in sentences
Exercise 2: 1) A 2) D 3) A 4) D 5) C 6) D 7) D 8) C
3. Patterns of organizing a paragraph
Exercise 3: 1) D 2) B 3) B 4) C 5) A 6) B 7) B 8) A
4. Paragraph kinds
Exercise 4: 1) argumentative 2) narrative 3) descriptive 4) argumentative
5) narrative 6) descriptive 7) argumentative 8) expository
Exercise 5: 1) A 2) B 3) 4) D 5) C
5. Writing an essay
Exercise 6: 1) C 2) D
6. Writing a simple survey research report
Exercise 7: 1) B 2) A 3) D 4) D 5) B
7. Informal and formal letters
Exercise 8: 1) B 2) B 3) D 4) B 5) D 6) C 7) D 8) C 9) C 10) D 11) C 12 ) C 13) C
14) B