Aircraft Equations of Motion

Aerodynamic force and moment representation

42
Aircraft Equations of Motion – Speed derivatives
With this part we are going to provide a physical explanation of some of the stability coefficients.
We are going to adopt simple models of the flow physics responsible for the creation of the forces
and moments due to the motion variables 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟.
We are going to develop simple expressions to estimate the stability coefficeints limiting the the
contributions to the primary aircraft parts: wing, horizontal and vertical tail.
More details can be found in Nelsons’s references or in:
• Airplane Flight Dynamics and Automatic Flight Controls, Roskam
• Aircraft Dynamics: From Modeling to Simulation, Napolitano

43
Aircraft Equations of Motion – Speed derivatives
Drag, lift, pitching moment and thrust vary with changes in the airplane’s forward speed.

𝑇
Introducing the thrust coefficient 𝐶𝑇 = , the speed derivative can be expressed as follows
𝑄𝑆

𝜕𝑇 𝜕 1 2 1 𝜕𝐶𝑇 2
1
𝑇𝑢 = ቤ = 𝜌u 𝑆𝐶 = 𝜌𝑆 ቤ 𝑢 + 2𝐶𝑇,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑢0 = 𝜌𝑆𝑢0 𝐶𝑇 𝑢 + 2𝐶𝑇,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝜕𝑢 trim 𝜕𝑢 2 0 𝑇 2 𝜕𝑢 trim 0 2
Where
𝜕𝐶𝑇
𝐶𝑇 𝑢 =
𝜕𝑢/𝑢0

The speed derivative of the drag force can be evaluated as

𝜕𝐷 𝜕 1 2 1 𝜕𝐶𝐷 1
𝐷𝑢 = ቤ = 𝜌𝑢0 𝑆𝐶𝐷 = 𝜌𝑆 ቤ 𝑢02 + 2𝐶D,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑢0 = 𝜌𝑆𝑢0 𝐶𝐷 𝑢 + 2𝐶D,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝜕𝑢 trim 𝜕𝑢 2 2 𝜕𝑢 trim 2
Where
𝜕𝐶𝐷
𝐶𝐷 𝑢 =
𝜕𝑢/𝑢0
Usually, 𝐶𝐷 𝑢 is referred to changes of the Mach number as:
𝜕𝐶𝐷 𝑎 𝜕𝐶𝐷
𝐶𝐷 𝑢 = =𝑀
𝜕𝑢/𝑢0 𝑎 𝜕𝑀
44
Aircraft Equations of Motion – Speed derivatives
Recalling that in Nelson the Δ𝑋 collects both drag and thrust,
Δ𝑋 = −Δ𝐷 + Δ𝑇

Therefore,
𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝑇
=− +
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢

Substituting from the previous slide, it yields

𝜕𝑋 1 1
= − 𝜌𝑆𝑢0 𝐶𝐷 𝑢 + 2𝐶D,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + 𝜌𝑆𝑢0 𝐶𝑇 𝑢 + 2𝐶𝑇,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝜕𝑢 2 2

And in coefficient form yields

𝜕𝑋 𝑢0
𝐶𝑥𝑢 = = −𝐶𝐷 𝑢 − 2𝐶D,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + 𝐶𝑇 𝑢 + 2𝐶𝑇,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝜕𝑢 𝑄𝑆

If we assume that at the trim condition 𝑇 = 𝐷 and 𝑇𝑢 = 0 (𝐶𝑇 𝑢 + 2𝐶𝑇,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 0), we can approximate:

𝐶𝑇 𝑢 = −2𝐶𝑇,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = −2𝐶D,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 (for jet airplanes)

For propeller driven airplanes 𝐶𝑇 𝑢 = −𝐶D,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 can be more realistic.

45
Aircraft Equations of Motion – Speed derivatives
The change in the Z force with respect to the forward speed can be shown to be,
𝜕𝑍 𝜕 1 2 1 𝜕𝐶𝐿 2
1
= − 𝜌u0 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝜌𝑆 ቤ 𝑢 + 2𝐶L,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑢0 = 𝜌𝑆𝑢0 𝐶𝐿 𝑢 + 2𝐶L,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2 2 𝜕𝑢 trim 0 2
Or in coefficient form
𝐶𝑍𝑢 = − 𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑎 𝜕𝐶𝐿
Where 𝐶𝐿𝑢 = 𝑢0 =𝑀 . Assuming the Prandtl-Glauert correction that corrects the
𝜕𝑢 𝑎 𝜕𝑀
𝐶𝐿,𝑀=0
incompressible lift coefficient for the Mach number effects 𝐶𝐿 = (for M<1), therefore
1−𝑀2
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑀2
𝐶𝐿𝑢 =𝑀 = 𝐶
𝜕𝑀 1 − 𝑀2 𝐿,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚

The change in pitching moment with respect to the forward speed can be expressed as

𝜕𝑀 𝜕 1 2 1 𝜕𝐶𝑚 1 𝜕𝐶𝑚 1
= 𝜌𝑢0 𝑆𝑐𝐶𝑀 = 𝜌𝑆𝑐 ቤ 𝑢02 + 2𝐶𝑀,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑉𝑒𝑞 = 𝜌𝑆𝑐 ቤ 𝑢02 = 𝜌𝑆𝑐𝑢0 𝐶𝑚𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2 2 𝜕𝑢 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 2 𝜕𝑢 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 2
Where
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚𝑢 =
𝑢0 = 𝑀
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑀
The latter derivative is also affected by the elastic properties of the airframe.
46
Aircraft Equations of Motion – q derivatives
Stability coefficients 𝐶𝑍𝑞 and 𝐶𝑀𝑞 represent the change in the Z
force and pitching moment coefficients with respect to the
pitching velocity 𝑞.
Both the wing and the tail are affected by the pitching motion
of the airplane:
𝐶𝑍𝑞 = 𝐶𝑍𝑞 ,𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐶𝑍𝑞 ,𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙

The pitching rate 𝑞 causes a change in the (local) angle of

attack along the airplane

Usually the wing contribution is negligible if the wing sweep is

negligible. A preliminary estimation can be 10% of the tail
contribution.
At the tail’s aerodynamic centre, the change in the angle of attack is
𝑞𝑙𝑡 𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝛼𝑡 = tan−1 ≃
𝑢0 𝑢0

47
Aircraft Equations of Motion – q derivatives
𝑞𝑙𝑡
As the tail will experience an increase of the angle of attack Δ𝛼𝑡 ≃ , it will
𝑢0
result in a change in the lift force acting on the tail:
Δ𝐿𝑡 = 𝑄𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 Δ𝛼𝑡 ⇒
𝑞𝑙𝑡
⇒ ΔZ = −Δ𝐿𝑡 = −𝑄𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡
𝑢0
𝑍
Recalling that 𝐶𝑍 = , it can be rewritten as
𝑄𝑆

𝑆𝑡 𝑞𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝑍 = −𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡
𝑆 𝑢0
Now we should remember that the coefficients are nondimensional. Therefore, when we consider the
𝜕𝐶𝑍 𝑟𝑎𝑑
derivative , we need to consider a nondimensional value of the 𝑞 [ ]. Nondomensional time is
𝜕𝑞 𝑠
obtained considering a referecne (or characteristic) time according to the following conventions:
𝑐ҧ 1
• Longitudinal dynamics: 𝑡 ∗ =
2 𝑉∞
𝑏 1
• Lateral-directional dynamics: t ∗ =
2 𝑉∞

48
Aircraft Equations of Motion – q derivatives
Therefore, for longitudinal forces and moments
𝑞𝑐ҧ
𝑞ො = 𝑞𝑡 ∗ =
2𝑢0
𝑆𝑡 𝑞𝑙
Recalling that 𝐶𝑍 = −𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ,𝑡 𝑡 , the q-derivative (dimensionless!) is
𝑆 𝑢0

𝜕𝐶𝑍 𝜕𝐶𝑍 2𝑢0 𝜕𝐶𝑍 2𝑢0 𝜕 𝑆𝑡 𝑞𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡

𝐶𝑍𝑞 = = = = −𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 = −2𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 = −2𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 𝑉𝐻
𝜕𝑞ො 𝑞𝑐ҧ 𝑐 ҧ 𝜕𝑞 𝑐 ҧ 𝜕𝑞 𝑆 𝑢0 𝑆 𝑐 ҧ
𝜕
2𝑢0
The pitching moment due to change in lift on the tail (due to the pitch rate 𝑞) is:
𝑙𝑡 𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑞𝑙𝑡 𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝑀 = −𝑙𝑡 Δ𝐿𝑡 ⇒ Δ𝐶𝑀 = − ΔC𝐿,𝑡 = −𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 = −𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡
𝑐ҧ 𝑐ҧ 𝑆 𝑢0 𝑢0
The stability coefficient 𝐶𝑚𝑞 for the tail contribution can be expressed as:
𝜕𝐶𝑚 2𝑢0 𝜕𝐶𝑚 2𝑢0 𝑙𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝑚𝑞 == =− 𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 = −2𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡
𝜕𝑞ො 𝑐ҧ 𝜕𝑞 𝑐ҧ 𝑢0 𝑐ҧ
Also know as a “damping derivative”.

49
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝛼ሶ derivatives
𝐶𝐿
There are essentially 2 main effects due to change 𝛼:
• Hysteresis (when 𝛼ሶ ≫ 0, flutter, insects or birds) 𝐶𝐿2
• Lag in downwash

𝐶𝐿1

𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼
Legenda
𝛼ሶ ≃ 0
𝛼ሶ > 0 with stop in 𝛼1 e 𝛼2
𝛼ሶ > 0 with no stops

50
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝛼ሶ derivatives
There are essentially 2 main effects due to change 𝛼:
• Hysteresis (when 𝛼ሶ ≫ 0, flutter or birds)
• Lag in downwash

Lag in downwash
As the wing angle of attack changes, the circulation
around the wing will be altered. The change in
circulation alters the strength of the wing tip vortices
and, consequently, the induced angle of attack 𝜖.

The perturbed condition will travel with a forward velocity 𝑢0 , therefore the perturbed condition will
reach the tail after the time
Δ𝑡 = 𝑙𝑡 /𝑢0

51
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝛼ሶ derivatives
Lag in downwash
The tail will experience the perturbed condition at time 𝑡 = 𝑡0 + Δt:
𝛼𝑡 𝑡 = 𝛼𝑊 𝑡 − 𝜖 𝑡0 − 𝑖𝑊 + 𝑖𝑡 =
= 𝛼𝑊 𝑡 − 𝜖 𝑡0 − 𝑖𝑊 + 𝑖𝑡 + 𝜖 𝑡 − 𝜖 𝑡 =
= 𝛼𝑊 𝑡 − 𝜖 𝑡 − Δ𝜖 𝑡 − 𝑖𝑊 + 𝑖𝑡
where
Δ𝜖 𝑡 = 𝜖 𝑡 − 𝜖 𝑡0
Therefore, at time 𝑡:
𝛼𝑡 𝑡 = 𝛼𝑊 𝑡 − 𝜖 𝑡 − 𝑖𝑊𝐵 + 𝑖𝑡 + Δ𝜖 𝑡 ⇒ Δ𝛼𝑡 ቚ = Δ𝜖
𝛼ሶ

𝜕𝜖 𝜕𝜖 𝜕𝛼 𝑙𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝑙𝑡
Δ𝛼𝑡 ቚ = Δ𝜖 = Δ𝑡 = = 𝛼ሶ
𝛼ሶ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝑡 𝑢0 𝜕𝛼 𝑢0
As done for the q-derivatives, the change in the lift force can be expressed as
Δ𝐿𝑡 = 𝑄𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ,𝑡 Δ𝛼𝑡 ⇒
Δ𝑍 Δ𝐿𝑡 𝑄𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝑙𝑡
⇒ Δ𝐶𝑍 = =− =− 𝐶 𝛼ሶ = −𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 𝛼ሶ
𝑄𝑆 𝑄𝑆 𝑄𝑆 𝐿𝛼,𝑡 𝜕𝛼 𝑢0 𝑆 𝜕𝛼 𝑢0

52
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝛼ሶ derivatives
Lag in downwash
As done for the q-derivatives, we should consider the non dimensional
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝛼,ሶ 𝛼ሶ = , so we can use the characteristic time for longitudinal dynamics:
𝑠
𝛼෠ሶ = 𝛼𝑡
ሶ ∗
The 𝛼-derivative
ሶ of the Z force coefficient is

𝜕𝐶𝑍 𝜕𝐶𝑍 2𝑢0 𝜕𝐶𝑍 2𝑢0 𝜕 𝑆𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝜕𝜖

𝐶𝑍𝛼ሶ == = = −𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 𝛼ሶ = −2𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼 ,𝑡 = −2𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼 ,𝑡 𝑉𝐻
𝜕𝛼෠ሶ 𝜕
𝛼ሶ 𝑐ҧ 𝑐ҧ 𝜕𝛼ሶ 𝑐ҧ 𝜕𝛼ሶ 𝑆 𝜕𝛼 𝑢0 𝑆 𝑐ҧ 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼
2𝑢0
The pitching moment due to the lag in downwash field can be calculated as follows:
𝑙𝑡 𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝑙𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝑙𝑡
Δ𝑀 = −𝑙𝑡 Δ𝐿𝑡 ⇒ Δ𝐶𝑀 = − ΔC𝐿,𝑡 = −𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 𝛼ሶ = −𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 𝛼ሶ
𝑐ҧ 𝑐ҧ 𝑆 𝜕𝛼 𝑢0 𝜕𝛼 𝑢0
The stability coefficient 𝐶𝑚𝛼ሶ for the tail contribution can be expressed as:
𝜕𝐶𝑚 2𝑢0 𝜕𝐶𝑚 2𝑢0 𝑙𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝑙𝑡 𝜕𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝛼ሶ =
= =− 𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ,𝑡 = −2𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡
𝜕𝛼ො 𝑐ҧ 𝜕𝛼ሶ 𝑐ҧ 𝑢0 𝜕𝛼 𝑐ҧ 𝜕𝛼
Also know as a “damping derivative”.

53
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝑝 derivatives
The stability coefficient 𝐶𝑌𝑝 , 𝐶𝑙𝑝 and 𝐶𝑛𝑝 arise due to the rolling angular velocity, 𝑝. When an airplane rolls
about the longitudinal axis, the roll rate creates a linear velocity distribution (as in the figure) over the:
• Vertical tail
• Horizontal tail
• Wing
The velocity distribution due to roll will change the
lift distribution on the lifting surfaces.

In the figure, 𝑝 is negative

54
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐶𝑌𝑝 (EXTRA) 𝑋𝑆
𝑝 + 𝑉𝑒𝑞
If the airplane rolls about its longitudinal axis with a positive rolling rate,
the sideslip angle of vertical tail (reference section) will be perturbed as
follows:
𝑝𝑧 𝜕𝜎 𝑧 𝜕𝜎 𝑌𝑆
Δ𝛽 𝑧 = − tan−1 + 𝑝≃ − + 𝑝
𝑢0 𝜕𝑝 𝑢0 𝜕𝑝
𝜕𝜎
is usually negligible. 𝑙𝑉
𝜕𝑝
A suitable vertical distance 𝑧𝑉 is introduced such as: 𝐹𝑦 ቚ
ℎ𝑉
𝑝 𝛽 𝑉
𝑝 𝑝𝑧𝑉 𝑧𝑉
𝐹𝑦 ቚ = −𝑄𝜂𝑉 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑉 න 𝑐 𝑧 𝑧𝑑𝑧 = −𝑄𝜂𝑉 𝑆𝑉 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ,𝑉 = −𝑄𝜂𝑉 𝑆𝑉 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑉 2 𝑝Ƹ
𝑝 𝑢0 0 𝑢0 𝑏
Where the nondimaneional rolling rate 𝑝Ƹ is defined as
𝑝Ƹ = 𝑝𝑡 ∗ =
𝑝𝑏
and 𝑡 ∗ =
𝑏 𝑝ℎ𝑉
2𝑢0 2𝑢0
𝐹𝑦 ቚ
It can be shown that: 𝑝𝑧 𝑝
𝐹𝑦 ห𝑝 𝑌𝑆 𝑧𝑉
𝜕 𝑆𝑉 𝑧𝑉
𝑄𝑆
𝐶𝑌 𝑝 = = −2 𝐶
𝜕𝑝Ƹ 𝑆 𝑏 𝐿𝛼 ,𝑉

In the figure 𝑢0 = 𝑉𝑒𝑞 𝑍55𝑆

Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐶𝑙𝑝
For a positive rolling rate, the right wing will go down and it
will experience an increase of the angle of attack:
𝑝𝑦 𝑝𝑦
Δ𝛼 𝑦 = tan−1 ≃
𝑢0 𝑢0
On the other side, the upward-moving part of the wing will
experience a decrease of the angle of attack.
The wing lift distribution is altered as in the figure.
Both right and left wing will contribute to 𝐶𝑙𝑝 < 0.
Considering to divide the wing in several infinitesimal slices of elemental surface 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑐𝑑𝑦 and the incremental lift force created by
rolling motion can be expressed as:
𝑝𝑦
𝑑 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝑄𝑑𝑆𝐶𝐿𝛼 Δ𝛼 = 𝑄𝑐𝐶𝐿𝛼 Δ𝛼𝑑𝑦 = 𝑄𝑐𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑑𝑦
𝑢0
The incremental rolling moment can be estiamted by multiplying the incremental lift by the moment arm 𝑦:
𝑝𝑦
𝑑𝐿 = −𝑄𝑐𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑦𝑑𝑦
𝑢0
The total roll moment can be calcualted by integrating the moment contribution across the wing:
𝑏/2 𝑏/2
𝑝 2 𝑝
𝐿=න −𝑄𝑐𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = −2 න 𝑄𝑐𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑏/2 𝑢0 0 𝑢0
In coefficient form
𝐿 2𝑝 𝑏/2
𝐶𝑙 = =− න 𝑐𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 56
𝑄𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑢0 0
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐶𝑙𝑝
From the previous slide:
𝑏
𝐿 2𝑝 2
𝐶𝑙 = =− න 𝑐𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑄𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏𝑢0 0
If we assume that the airfoil lift slope is constant and it is approximated by the wing lift curve slope, we
obtain:
𝑏
𝐿 2𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑤 𝑝 2 2
𝐶𝑙 = =− න 𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑄𝑆𝑏 𝑆𝑏 𝑢0 0
The roll damping derivative 𝐶𝑙 𝑝 is defined as
𝑏
𝜕𝐶𝑙 𝜕𝐶𝑙 2𝑢0 𝜕 2𝐶𝐿𝛼 ,𝑤 𝑝 2
𝐶𝑙 𝑝 = = = − න 𝑐𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 ⇒
𝜕𝑝Ƹ 𝑝𝑏 𝑏 𝜕𝑝 𝑆𝑏 𝑢0 0
𝜕
2𝑢0
𝑏
4𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑤 2
2
⇒ 𝐶𝑙 𝑝 = − න 𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑆𝑏 2 0
The latter is the sole wing contribution to the roll damping derivative. For conventional aircraft, this is
the most of the entire 𝐶𝑙𝑝 .
The tail contribution can be derived as done for the wing contribution but it is usually negligible. 57
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐶𝑛𝑝 (EXTRA)
The stability coefficient 𝐶𝑛𝑝 is one of the responsible for coupling of lateral and directional dynamics.
Three main contributions can be indentified:
• Wing 1 & 2
• Tail
• Tip suction

Wing 1 (increase of induced drag)

The right wing that rolls down will experience and increase
of the angle of attack and, therefore, an induced drag
larger than the left wing:
𝐶𝑛 𝑝 ቚ >0
𝑊1

Remark: favourable direction for a turn.

58
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐶𝑛𝑝 (EXTRA)
Wing 2 (Lift rotation)
The wing rolling down will be subject to
increased angle of attack and the direction of
the local velocity will rotate with respect to the
freestream velocity direction. From the figure,
the component Δ𝐿 will generate a yawing
moment
𝐶𝑛 𝑝 ቚ <0
𝑊2

Remark: unfavourable direction for a turn.

For subsonic wings, the second effect is
dominant:
𝐶𝑛 𝑝 ቚ <0
𝑊,𝑠𝑢𝑏
For supersonic wings, the second effect cannot
be realised:
𝐶𝑛 𝑝 ቚ >0
𝑊,𝑠𝑢𝑝
59
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐶𝑛𝑝 (EXTRA)
Vertical Tail
Recalling the suitable vertical distance 𝑧𝑉 , the vertical tail will produce a
yawing moment:
𝑙𝑉
𝑁ቚ = − 𝐹𝑦 ቚ 𝑙𝑉 ⇒ 𝐶𝑛 ቚ = − 𝐶𝑌 ቚ ⇒
𝑝,𝑉 𝑝,𝑉 𝑝,𝑉 𝑝,𝑉 𝑏
𝑙𝑉 𝑆𝑉 𝑙𝑉 𝑧𝑉 𝑧𝑉
⇒ 𝐶𝑛𝑝 ቚ = − 𝐶𝑌𝑝 ቚ =2 𝑎 = 2𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 𝑏 𝑆 𝑏 𝑏 𝑉 𝑏

Tip suction
The lift distribution will be nonsymmetrical: lift will increase
for the wing rolling down (the right one for positive 𝑝).
At the wing tip a suction is generated and it is larger for the
wing rolling down. According to the relative position with the
CG, the asymmetric wing tip suction will generate a yawing
moment.
Nota: this effect is highly affected by the wing tip shapes. If
the aircraft has rounded wing tip, or external tanks, this
phenomena is magnified.
60
Aircraft Equations of Motion: p-der. typical values

61
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝑟 derivatives
The stability coefficient 𝐶𝑌𝑟 , 𝐶𝑙𝑟 and 𝐶𝑛𝑟 arise due to the
yawing angular velocity, 𝑟. A yawing rate creates a linear
velocity distribution (as in the figure) over the:
• Vertical tail
• Wing
The velocity distribution due to a positive yaw rate will
change the lift distribution on the lifting surfaces.

In the figure, 𝑟 is negative 62

Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐶𝑌𝑟
If the airplane is animated by a positive yaw rate about its
vertical axis, the sideslip angle of vertical tail (reference
section) will be perturbed as follows:
𝑟𝑙𝑉 𝜕𝜎 𝑙𝑉 𝜕𝜎 𝑙𝑉 𝜕𝜎
Δ𝛽 = Δ𝛼𝑉 = − tan−1 + 𝑟≃ − + 𝑟 = −2 + 𝑟Ƹ
𝑢0 𝜕𝑟 𝑢0 𝜕𝑟 𝑏 𝜕𝑟Ƹ

𝜕𝜎
If is negligible (as first approxiamtion):
𝜕 𝑟Ƹ
𝑟𝑙𝑉
Δ𝛽 = Δ𝛼𝑉 ≃ −
𝑢0
A positive yaw rate will produce a negative sideslip angle
on the vertiacl tail. The side force created by the negative
sideslip angle is
𝑟𝑙𝑉
𝐹𝑦 ቚ = 𝑄𝜂𝑉 𝑆𝑉 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑉 Δ𝛽 = 𝑄𝜂𝑉 𝑆𝑉 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑉
𝑟 𝑢0
In terms of coefficient: In the figure 𝑢0 = 𝑈1
𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑉 𝑟𝑙𝑉
𝐶𝑦 = = 𝜂𝑉 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑉
𝑄𝑆 𝑆 𝑢0

63
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐶𝑌𝑟
From
𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑉 𝑟𝑙𝑉
𝐶𝑦 = = 𝜂𝑉 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑉
𝑄𝑆 𝑆 𝑢0
We can evaluate the stability coefficient 𝐶𝑦𝑟
𝜕𝐶𝑦 𝜕𝐶𝑦 2𝑢0 𝜕 𝑆𝑉 𝑟𝑙𝑉
𝐶𝑦𝑟 = = = 𝜂𝑉 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ,𝑉 ⇒
𝜕𝑟Ƹ 𝑟𝑏 𝑏 𝜕𝑟 𝑆 𝑢 0
𝜕
2𝑢0
2𝑙𝑉 𝑆𝑉
⇒ 𝐶𝑦𝑟 = 𝜂 𝐶
𝑏 𝑉 𝑆 𝐿𝛼,𝑉
𝑆𝑉
Where 𝜂𝑉 𝐶 = −𝐶𝑦𝛽 ,𝑉
𝑆 𝐿𝛼 ,𝑉

In the figure 𝑢0 = 𝑈1

64
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝑟-der. – Wing contribution
It is not easy to calculate the wing contribution to r-derivatives, especially in the presence of the sweep
angle. However, for a positive yaw rate, the left wing will experience increased airspeed.

65
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐶𝑛𝑟
The stability coefficient 𝐶𝑛𝑟 is the yaw damping derivative.
The most important contributions come from:
• Fuselage (negligible if “short”)
• Wing
• Vertical tail

Vertical tail
𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑉 𝑟𝑙
We demonstrated that the vertical tail will experience 𝐶𝑦 = = 𝜂𝑉 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ,𝑉 𝑉 for a positive yaw rate 𝑟.
𝑄𝑆 𝑆 𝑢0
The vertical tail will produce a negative yawing moment:
𝑙𝑉
𝑁ቚ = − 𝐹𝑦 ቚ 𝑙𝑉 ⇒ 𝐶𝑙 ቚ = − 𝐶𝑦 ቚ
𝑟,𝑉 𝑟,𝑉 𝑟,𝑉 𝑟,𝑉 𝑏

Pertanto, si dimostra che il contributo della coda è:

𝑆𝑉 𝑙𝑉 𝑙𝑉 𝑙𝑉
𝐶𝑛𝑟 ห = −2𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑉 𝜂𝑉 = −2𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑉 𝜂𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝑉 𝑆 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
or
2
𝑙𝑉
𝐶𝑛𝑟 ቚ = −2𝐶𝑦𝛽 ,𝑉
𝑉 𝑏
66
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐶𝑛𝑟 (EXTRA)
The stability coefficient 𝐶𝑛𝑟 is the yaw damping derivative.
The most important contributions come from:
• Fuselage (negligible if “short”)
• Wing
• Vertical tail

Wing
As seen before, for a positive yaw rate, the left wing will experience increased dynamic pressure and,
therefore, an increased lift, drag and induced drag with respect to the right one.
The left wing will be dragged backwards with respect to the right one: a negative yawing moment is
produced
𝐶𝑛𝑟 ቚ <0
𝑊
The value of 𝐶𝑛𝑟 ห is a function of the sweep angle, aspect ratio and taper ratio.
𝑊

67
Aircraft Equations of Motion – 𝐿𝑟 coefficients (EXTRA)
For a positive yaw rate, the right wing with lower airspeed
will generate lower lift than the right one: a positive rolling
moment:
𝐶𝑙𝑟 ቚ >0
𝑊
The value of 𝐶𝑙𝑟 ห is a function of 𝐶𝐿,𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 , sweep angle, aspect
𝑊
ratio and taper ratio.

𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑉 𝑟𝑙
We demonstrated that the vertical tail will experience 𝐶𝑦 = = 𝜂𝑉 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ,𝑉 𝑉 for a positive yaw rate 𝑟.
𝑄𝑆 𝑆 𝑢0
The rolling moment is
𝑧𝑉
𝐿ቚ = 𝐹𝑦 ቚ 𝑧𝑉 ⇒ 𝐶𝑙 ቚ = 𝐶𝑌 ቚ
𝑟,𝑉 𝑟,𝑉 𝑟,𝑉 𝑟,𝑉 𝑏
It can be demonstrated that:
𝑆𝑉 𝑧𝑉 𝑙𝑉
𝐶𝑙𝑟 ቚ = 2𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑉
𝑉 𝑆 𝑏 𝑏

68
Aircraft Equations of Motion: r-der. typical values

69