TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION

What is communication?
Communication is the act of transferring information from one place or person to another.
In another terms
Communication can also be defined as the giving, receiving or exchange of information, opinions or
ideas by writing, speech or visual means – or any combination of the three – so that the material
communicated is completely understood by everyone concerned.
Or
Communication occurs when you send or receive messages, and when you assign meaning to another
person’s signals.

When people communicate they express their ideas and feelings in a way that is understandable
(common) to each of them. Each person has direct effect on the other person and on other subsequent
communication.

The reason why we study communication is because we are all involved in communication for such a
large amount of time, we need to make sure that we get it right- that we really do put across ideas and
information in a way that everyone involved can understand.

Social communication involves humans – humans are social beings and spend much of their time
together. We first learn to communicate in social setting usually with parents and relations and
throughout life much of our time is spent in social communication.

Business communication involves carefully organized, formal and more concerned with getting things
done than with exchanging pleasantries. For example in social communication, the telephone is an
instrument for having a chat while in business it is a way to convey information quickly and perhaps
cheaply.

Some of the reasons of communication are:

(i) Informing – to simply tell someone about something or be able to effectively pass a message to the
intended destination.

(ii) Influencing – to persuade someone to adopt a particular course of action or attitude towards
something e.g. in advertising.

(iii)Initiating action – to get the reader to do something by using the information so acquired
/communicated to make decisions.

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Communication can be categorized into:-
a) Written Communication – in which you read the meaning
b) Verbal Communication – in which you listen to a person to understand their meaning and
c) Non-verbal Communication – in which you observe a person and infer the meaning
d) Visual communication – something such as a picture, diagram, or piece of film that is used to
show or explain something

ROLE/ PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION

1. Managing the human resource. Communication is the tool with which we exercise influence on
others, bring about changes in the attitudes and views of our associates, motivate them and establish
and maintain relations with them. The primary element in the skills of management is competence in
communication.

2. Communication is central to the success of everything that we do in an organizations (objectives);

our family, school/college, office, hobby group, community group, our city/town are the organizations
in which we live and act. Our activities succeed or fail, and our goals are achieved or not achieved,
according to our ability to communicate effectively with other members.

3. Building positive interpersonal relation. Communication plays a foundational role in the

development of any healthy interpersonal relationship. It can strengthen a mutual sense of
commitment; it also helps to bridge the gap between people who have misunderstandings. Indeed,
communication plays a critical role in all phases of interpersonal relations, from creating a relationship
to maintenance of relationships.

4. Communication is the glue that holds an organization together, whatever its business or its size
(creates unity and harmony). Without communication an organization cannot function at all. Without
effective communication, information cannot be collected, processed, or exchanged; words and data
would remain isolated facts. With effective communication, multinational organizations which are
spread all over the world can function like a single unit.

5. Communication enables an individual to express ideas thoughts and feelings effectively in writing
and in speech. The most important foundation skill for anyone in the new world of work is the ability
to communicate; being able to express your ideas effectively.

6. Communication helps in team building and team-work. Owing to advances in information

technology, companies downsize and decentralize, and work is increasingly carried out by teams.
Team members must be able to work together to identify problems, analyse alternatives, and
recommend solutions. They must be able to communicate their ideas persuasively to others. Ability to
work well in teams, to manage your subordinates and your relationships with seniors, customers and
colleagues, depends on your communication skill.

7. Marketing the products and services. Communication in the form of advertisement and public
relations is needed in order to inform the public and to persuade potential customers to buy the
products. Production of goods is of no use if potential buyers have no information about the product.
Communicating to the public about the product is the essence of business.

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8. Delegation of work horizontally and vertically

9. Transacting business: through internal and external communication

10. Building positive public relations

ESSENTIALS/PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

(a) Sender – the person or the body responsible for sending the communication is known as the sender.
It is also referred to as the source.

(b) Message – having defined the information to be conveyed, the sender puts it into the best form in
a process called encoding. When the information has been encoded, it is known as the message.

(c) Encoding – this is the processing of transferring the information you want to communicate into a
form that can be sent and correctly decoded at the other end. A key part of successful encoding depends
on the sender knowing his/her audience: failure to understand who you are communicating with will
result in delivering messages that are misunderstood.

(d) Channel/medium – this is the medium selected to carry the message. Examples of communication
channels are face-to-face discussions, telephone calls, memos, e-mails, instant messaging (IMs), blogs,
newsletters, magazines, radio, and television. Not all channels have the same capacity to carry
information. The amount of information a channel can convey is referred to as channel richness. The
more codes a channel conveys, the higher its level of richness. In deciding which channel is most
appropriate, there are factors to consider namely:

• The importance of the message- important messages usually require the face- to- face channel.
• The needs and abilities of the receiver – some people are able to work from memos and phone
conversations, others are better at interpreting face-to-face messages.
• The amount and speed of the feedback required
• The cost of the channel.
• The necessity of a permanent record
• The formality or informality desired.

(e) Decoding – successful decoding depends on receiver taking time to read a message carefully,
listening carefully/actively, etc. Errors can arise in decoding if the receiver does not have enough
knowledge to understand the message.

(f) Receiver – the message is delivered to an individual or individuals in an audience. No doubt you
have in mind the actions or reactions you hope message will get from this audience

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(g) Feedback - is the verbal and visual response to a message. Feedback is also the only way we can
know whether messages we send are interpreted as we intend. Without feedback, all we can do is
assume that the messages have been received correctly.

NOTE: Noise – this interferes with your getting a message someone is sending. The noise may be
physical (others talking loudly, cars honking), psychological (preconceived ideas, closed-mindedness,
wandering thoughts) or semantic (misunderstood meanings through use of jargon or complex terms
not understood by the receiver). Technically noise is described as a disturbance in communication that
distorts the message.

Communication is effective only when both the sender and the receiver are focused on the act of
communication. While the sender must sharpen and improve skills of speaking and writing, the
receiver must improve skills of listening and reading. The qualities of communication which the sender
must achieve are called the C's of Communication because most of them begin with the letter C.
Correctness, Clarity, Consistency, Coherence, Concreteness, Conciseness and Courtesy.

1. Correctness
A letter must be correct in every respect:
(i) In spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and use of language.
Incorrect language spoils the message, distracts the receiver's attention, and creates a poor impression
of the sender; it may also convey a wrong meaning. All spellings must be checked; spelling of names
must be checked with extra care. Most people are offended if their name is wrongly spelt or
pronounced. There must be consistency in the use of numbers, units of measure, technical terms,
abbreviations, hyphens, grammar, spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. American and English
spelling vary. Hyphenation and punctuation and capitalisation do not have absolutely fixed rules.
Whatever you decide on, be consistent throughout the document.

(ii) In appearance and form of layout.

Poor and untidy appearance, with typing mistakes corrected in ink, uneven spacing or carelessness in
the layout, creates a poor impression of the company's efficiency in handling its work. Appearance
depends on placing the parts of layout correctly on the letterhead, even spacing between letters, words,
lines and parts of layout, and having proper margins on all sides. Similarly, shabby appearance of the
speaker and lack of attention to body language creates a bad impression.

(iii) In the information conveyed correct and accurate.

Communicating wrong or incomplete information is the most harmful thing; it leads to waste of time
in making corrections and will lead to loss of goodwill and loss of business. All dates and days, time,
numbers and facts must be in agreement. Nothing is more confusing than mismatched information.

(iv) Tone
In tone formality and style must be appropriate to the occasion, the content and the relationship
between the sender and the receiver. An overdone apology sounds childish or undignified; a grudging
or patronizing agreement to grant a request sounds unpleasant.

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2. Clarity
The message must be clear at the first reading so that it takes very little time to follow and understand.
Clearly written or spoken messages avoid misunderstanding and save time. Write and speak to express,
not to impress. Clarity depends upon five factors:

(i) Simple
Simple common everyday words which everyone can understand. Never send the reader to the
dictionary. Technical terms should be avoided unless absolutely needed and if you are communicating
within the profession.

(ii) Short and simple sentences.

Long sentences confuse the reader, and often confuse the writer also. Phrases and clauses should not
be added on to a sentence. Each bit of important information should be given in a separate sentence.

(iii) Proper punctuation and pauses.

It helps to provide pauses, stops and to break up groups of words into sensible units. Besides the full
stop, there are other, shorter pauses like the semi- colon and the comma which help to break up a
sentence into readable units.

3. Consistency
Consistency should be in the use of numbers, units of measure, technical terms, abbreviations,
grammar, spelling, punctuation and capitalization and dates. British or American spellings vary.
Hyphenation, punctuation and capitalization do not have absolutely fixed rules. Whatever you decide
on, be consistent throughout the document.

4. Coherence
Coherence is logical sequence of ideas. Making a clear plan for a presentation or a letter ensures that
the ideas are in logical order; coherence, that is, logical connection of ideas makes any composition
easy to understand. Consistency in numbering also helps in achieving coherence

5. Concreteness
Giving definite and concrete details with figures and names. Vague phrases like "in due course" or "at
your earliest convenience" are not useful as definite time phrases like in two weeks or within three
weeks, soon, good, any time. Use words and expressions which communicate exact and definite
information. It is better to use concrete words with a definite meaning, or to give concrete examples
and description. Words like good, bad, far, near, make sense only when you indicate the level of
efficiency or quality and say at what speed.

6. Conciseness
Conciseness means expressing much in a few words; in business communication it means keeping to
the point, using as few words as possible without sacrificing clarity or courtesy. It does not necessarily
mean being brief; it means making every word count. Conciseness can be achieved by:

(i) Making sure that only the necessary and relevant details are included. Using more words than
necessary confuses the idea.

Conciseness and clarity are closely related; giving clear and definite details often reduces the length
of a sentence. Readers are thankful for precise and clear messages. Irrelevant ideas and going out of
point confuses the listener.

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7. Courtesy
Courtesy is consideration for other people's feelings. It is seen in an individual's behaviour with others.
A well-mannered and courteous person shows consideration and thought for others. In a letter, the
style, the manner and the choice of words reflect the courtesy of the writer. Some simple rules for
courtesy are:

(i) Use the courtesy words please, thank you, excuse me and sorry as the situation requires.

(ii) Express appropriate feeling according to the situation. For example, sympathy when someone
suffers, good wishes when someone begins something new, and congratulation when someone
achieves something.

(iii) Make the other person feel comfortable. This is an important factor of courtesy. Care and
consideration for the reader is reflected in the letter. The opening sentence itself shows the courtesy of
the writer:
• We appreciate your promptness in sending the goods.
• Thank you for sending your quotation so promptly.
• We are sorry to learn that you were inconvenienced.
Requests must also be made courteously:
• We would appreciate it very much if you could send your cheque within three days of receiving
our bill.
• Will you please look into the matter at once?

(iv) Be attentive and prompt in responding. Every message, written or oral should be answered within
twenty-four hours. If it is a letter of complaint, the response should be immediate; a courteous company
makes a phone call or sends a fax message immediately on receiving a complaint or hearing about a
problem. Everyone appreciates prompt attention.

(v) Let the tone, the choice of words and the style of the message reflect your consideration for the
feelings and needs of the receiver. This is particularly important if the message to be 'conveyed is
likely to be unpleasant for the reader. A courteous letter has the best chance of getting a favourable
response. Seeing the situation as the reader sees it, and taking care of his/ her needs, is courtesy. You
must have an awareness of how the words sound to the receiver.

8. Completeness
The message communicated should be complete with all necessary details and information are given
to enable proper understanding and response by the receiver.

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ROLE OF ICT IN COMMUNICATION:
ORGANIZATION REQUIREMENT FOR WRITTEN AND ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATION METHODS

As depicted here, ICT involves the use of computer user and the internet in communication, including
the internet-enabled mobile phone.

Effects of Communication Technology on Business Productivity

1) Business productivity has increased dramatically with mobile communication tools. The mobile
telephone and the mobile PC have freed the business person from the desk and made it possible to
work from anywhere, anytime. With instant messaging, the capabilities of communication have
become even more powerful. Regular Instant Messaging users have increased the number of people
they contact and the frequency of such contacts, while decreasing the number of e- mail and phone
calls they initiated.

2) It builds customer and partner relationships. Clients and business partners get instant access to the
company contacts they need, right when they need them. They do not have to waste time waiting for
the operator or the EPBX system to put them through to the person they need to talk to.

3) It increases employee productivity since on-the-spot responses means that work gets done faster
and more efficiently, right from your desktop.

4) It increases flexibility and decreases downtime. There is no need to spend time just waiting for
information to be located and transmitted by some other person. Direct access to the needed
information means ability to take decisions on the spot. Within the organization, rigid and time
consuming procedures of getting information through the organizational channels can be avoided.
Using wireless connectivity gives users more flexibility to work from a variety of locations, resulting
in productivity gains and efficiency savings. With instant messaging it is possible to reply to urgent
queries, eliminate the need to make copies, eliminate travel in many cases. Productivity gains are
measured by the amount of additional time available that is used to perform business tasks.

5) An important development is the portability of the cellular telephone and of the laptop computer,
so that an individual has the power to contact anyone at any location from any location. The instrument
is no longer tied to the transmitting equipment because of developments in wireless technology
combined with telephone for the cellular (mobile) telephone.

6) The laptop and other portable computers and the mobile telephone have freed the person from the
office and the desk.

7) The mobile telephone has acquired a large number of capabilities besides transmission of voice; it
has become capable of storage.

8) Data which might be needed at important meetings at a faraway location can be carried in
compressed form in a mobile telephone, a laptop computer, palmtop computer or pocket computer.
This data can be in the form of text, graphics or voice and sounds.

9) The instrument is also capable of taking instant pictures and storing or transmitting them; these can
then be transferred to other instruments like the desktop computer.

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10) It allows access to the internet, thus making information search possible from any location. The
instrument allows the user to carry out some editing of the stored data.

11) Ability to hold one-on-one conferences online and hold "virtual meetings" where others can join.

12) Offers opportunity for online marketing and online business transactions. Employees and
customers can discuss sales deals on-the-spot.

13) Information communication is fast, enabling immediate answers to urgent questions and staying
in close touch with employees who are on the road. The management can also send personal, timely
congratulatory notes to boost staff morale.

14) It has capacity for mass storage of information. All data about the organization can be located in
one place.

15) It enables quick and ready access to information from many sources at any time.

16) Provides reprographic services in communication.

17) Enables social networking through the social media.

Challenges posed by the use of ICT in communication

1. Increase in cyber-crime
2. Internet fluctuations.
3. High cost of purchasing and installing communication gadgets.
4. Proper usage of ICT needs technical knowledge and skills
5. Mobile phone and social media have led to spread of fake news, hatred and defation

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 TOPIC 2. COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication as a process is moving, continually changing, with no beginning or end. In our

definition, communication is a process – something that is continually changing. Individual words,
sentences, and gestures have no meaning in isolation. They make sense only when viewed as parts of
an on-going, dynamic process. To fully understand the process of communication, we must notice how
what we say and do influences and affects what the other person says and does. We must pay attention
to the changes we experience and how these changes influence and affect our perception,
interpretation, and interactions with others, from moment to moment, year to year, and decade to
decade. Similarly, we also need to be sensitive to the on-going changes in those we communicate with
because they are changing too. Communication is alive, and to fully appreciate it requires that we view
it as a dynamic, fluid, and continually changing process.

COMPONENTS OF THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

There are seven elements or factors which make up the process of communication:
1. Source /Sender, is the one who initiates the action of communicating
2. Audience /Receiver is the person(s) for whom the communication is intended
3. Goal/Purpose is the sender's reason for communicating, the desired result of the communication
4. Message/ Content is the information conveyed
5. Medium /Channel is the means or method used for conveying the message
6. Feedback is the receiver's response to the communication as observed by the sender
7. Environment /Context is the background in which the communication takes place.

1. Source
Source is the originator of the message. It is the person who want to communicate a message to another
person or a group of people. The source of a message can be an individual speaker addressing a group,
a child asking for candy, a couple sending out invitations to a family reunion, or person writing a letter.

2. Encoding
Once the source has decided on a message to communicate, he must encode or convert that idea,
thought, or feeling into verbal and nonverbal symbols that will be most effectively understood by the
receiver. This encoding process can be extremely creative because there are unlimited ways for the
source to convert the idea or feeling into words and behaviours.

3. Message
Message is the idea, thought, or feeling that the source wants to communicate. This message is encoded
or converted into verbal and nonverbal symbols that will most likely be understood by the receiver.

4. Receiver
Receiver is the recipient of the message. The receiver can be an individual or a group of people. Once
the receiver hears the words and receives the nonverbal cues from the sender, she must interpret or
decode them if communication is to occur.

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5. Decoding
Decoding is the process of making sense out of the message received. The receiver must decipher the
language and behaviours sent by the source so they will have meaning. After the receiver decodes the
message, the receiver can encode a return message and send it back to the other person.

6. Channel
A channel is the medium by which the message is communicated. The source can utilize the channels
of sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. For instance, if you want to communicate affection for another
person, you can utilize a variety of channels or combination of channels. You can say, “I like you”
(sound). You can give a hug (touch). You can wink an eye (sight). You can send cookies that you
baked (taste). Or you can deliver a dozen roses (smell). You can creatively select the channels of
communication to productively communicate your message.

7. Context/Environment
All communication occurs within a certain context. The context is made up of the physical
surroundings, the occasion in which the communication occurs, the time, the number of people present,
noise level, and many other variables that can influence and affect the encoding and decoding of
messages. The context plays an important role in the communication process.

8. Feedback
The receiver also feels a reaction to the message; this reaction may be conscious or unconscious; it
may cause some change in the receiver's facial expression. It definitely leads the receiver to think. The
receiver may take some action, if required. He may also reply to the message. The response and/or
reply is feedback. Receiver's functions complete one cycle of the process of communication.

9. Goal/Purpose
This is the sender's reason for communicating, the desired result of the communication

STAGES OF COMMUNICATION

1. The sender conceptualises and encodes the message.

2. The sender chooses the channel and sends the message to the receiver
3. The receiver receives and decodes the message.
4. The receiver chooses the channel and sends the feedback.

Sender Message Receiver

Encoding Decoding

Feedback

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BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Commination is not always successful. Several things can prevent the message from reaching ' the
intended recipient or from "having the desired effect on the recipient.

1. Physical Barriers
Obstacles that prevent a message from reaching the intended recipient may be outside and beyond the
control of the persons concerned. Some can be controlled by the management; some cannot be
controlled because they are in the environment.

(a) Defects in the Medium

Defects in the devices used for transmitting messages are external, and usually not within the control
of the parties engaged in communication. The telephone, the postal system, the courier service, or
electronic media may fail. Messages can get delayed, distorted and even lost while being transmitted.
A partial failure of the mechanical equipment is more harmful than a total failure because a partial
failure may carry an incomplete or distorted message. A fax message can be wrongly delivered as a
wrong number can get dialed on the telephone. The printout may not be clear at all. It is advisable to
call up and check that the fax has been received.

(b) Noise
Noise is any disturbance which occurs in the transmission process. In face-to face communication
which is carried by air vibration, the air may be disturbed by noise such as traffic, factory work, or
people talking. In a factory, oral communication is very difficult because of the noise of the machines.
Organizations that can afford sound-proof rooms can overcome this barrier to some extent.

(c) Information Overload

When there is too much information, some of it is blocked in transit and may not reach the intended
audience. Advertising and sales information is an example of overload; so much communication about
products floats through so many media that a good deal of it-does not reach the potential buyer.

2. Semantic and Language Barriers

Semantic means pertaining to or arising from the different meanings of words or other symbols. First
of all, many words have multiple meanings. Just look into a good dictionary and see how many
meanings you can find for some commonly used words like "charge", "spring", "check", "suit" ring".
The meaning that comes to your mind first depends on your occupation ("charge" may mean electrical
charge to an engineering student, but fee/rent to a commerce student).
Words like "minute" and "wind" are pronounced in two different ways to mean two entirely different
things. Some words like "present", "transfer", "record" are used as verb and as noun with a difference
in stress in speaking, but no difference in spelling. A person may be present at a function and receive
a present (stress on pre-), and present (stress on -sent) some thoughts on the budget. Similar sounding
words like "access" and "excess", "flour" and "flower", "cite", "site" and "sight" can cause
misunderstanding in speech. Many people confuse "week" and "weak," "steal' and "steel" in writing.

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Emotional and cultural attitudes towards something can evoke different responses in people; for
example, "dog" will evoke responses according to a person's past experience with the animal as well
as cultural attitudes towards the animal.

Phrases can be tricky; 'a red and a blue carpet' signifies two carpets: one red and one blue. 'A red and
blue carpet' is one carpet in two colours. Sentences can convey entirely different meanings depending
on how they are spoken. Consider the sentence, "What can I do for you?" It means something different
with every shift of emphasis from one word to another in oral communication.

Technical terms can also be a barrier to communication when used with an audience who are not
members of that profession. Often, these words have other meanings in ordinary language, and are
differently understood by people who do not belong to that occupational group. Consider the new
meanings given to ordinary words by computer technology such as "mouse".

More importantly, semantic barriers arise because words mean different things to different persons. It
is' said, "meaning” is in people, not in “words." Age, profession, education, cultural background and
many other factors influence the meaning we give to words.

A dialect for example would identify a person geographically and identically certain slang would
reveal the cultural or group orientation of the persons speaking it. The same are then barriers, if spoken
in situations and with people, who may not be able to relate to them.

3. Organizational Barriers
Editing and filtering: A great deal of loss of information occurs as a message moves from senior
management to lower levels. Each person through whom it passes edits it, filters it, and simplifies it
for the understanding and needs of the next person who is to receive it. Loss or distortion of information
as it moves downward may be caused by misinterpretation, lack of understanding, and neglect of
messages by some of the members of the organization.

Loss of information also occurs as messages move from subordinates to higher levels of authority.
Messages are filtered at every level. There may be deliberate suppression of information out of self-
interest and jealousy; a supervisor may suppress or change a good suggestion from a subordinate so as
to take the credit personally; a senior officer may prevent information about discontent in the
department from reaching the manager because it reflects on his/her human relations skills.

Deliberate withholding of information from peers who are perceived as rivals becomes a barrier in
horizontal communication. A common barrier to horizontal communication is organizational politics;
one manager may withhold information from another since possession of information usually has
benefits and advantages.

Over-dependence on written communication: Too much dependence on written communication is one

of the reasons for communication gaps. Circulars, bulletins, notices and even letters are not always
read carefully. Many employees are unable to read and understand long messages. Even better
educated persons at higher levels do not always give proper attention to all written communication.

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Oral communication has to be used to supplement written communication when the message is
important.

4. Cultural Barriers
When we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the behaviour patterns
of the group. These are the behaviours that the group accepts as signs of belonging. The group rewards
such behaviour through acts of recognition, approval, and inclusion. In groups which are happy to
accept you and where you are happy to conform, there is a mutuality of interests and a high level of
win-win contact. Where, however, there are barriers to your membership of a group, a high level of
game-playing replaces good communication.

5. Gender Barriers
There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a woman which may
create misunderstanding between genders. Global studies suggest that a woman speaks between 22,000
and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks between 7,000 and 10,000. In childhood, girls speak
earlier than boys and at the age of three, have a vocabulary twice that of boys. The reason for this lies
in the wiring of a man's and woman's brains. When a man talks, his speech is located in the left side
of the brain but in no specific area. When a woman talks, the speech is located in both hemispheres
and in two specific locations. Scientifically speaking, a man talks in a linear, logical and
compartmentalized way, which are the features of left-brain thinking; whereas a woman talks more
freely, mixing logic and emotion, features of both sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk
for much longer than men each day.

6. Socio-Psychological Barriers
People have personal feelings, desires, fears and hopes, likes and dislikes, attitudes, views and
opinions. They form a sort of emotional filter around the mind, and influence the way we respond to
messages that we receive and to new experiences. Factors like the time, the place and the circumstances
of a particular communication also influence our understanding and response. Problems of
understanding, interpretation and response to communication arise partly from our socially-learnt
attributes and partly from our personal attributes. These are called socio-psychological barriers:-

(a) Self-centred Attitudes: We tend to see and hear everything in the light of our own interests and
needs and desires. We pay attention to messages which are useful to us, and often do not pay enough
attention to those messages which do not interest us.

(b) Group Identification: Our values and opinions are influenced, in some matters, by the group to
which we belong, like family, the larger family of relatives, people of our locality or city, our religion
or language group, gender, age group, nationality, economic group and so on. We tend to reject an idea
which goes against the interests of the group.

(c) Self-Image: our idea about what we are, what we look like and what impression we make. It is
quite difficult to accept any idea which goes against it

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(d) Selective Perception: we see, read or hear selectively according to our own needs, interests and
experience may not perceive some of the aspects and information content of the message.

(e) Filtering: Filtering is the process of reducing the details or aspects of a message. Each person who
passes on a message reduces or colours a message according to his/her understanding of the situation.

(f) Status Block: A "boss" who is conscious of status finds it difficult to receive any suggestions from
subordinates as they feel that they know everything about how to run the business. They do not agree
that a junior may have some good ideas and many good ideas are wasted only because they come·
from junior employees who are considered to be too young and inexperienced. Social distance
sometimes makes workers too shy or frightened to speak to their senior bosses.

(g) Resistance to Change: Some people strongly resist new ideas which are against their established
opinions or traditions or social customs. They may avoid new ideas because they feel insecure or afraid
of changes in methods or situations.

(h) Closed Mind: Limited intellectual background, limited reading and narrow interests can cause a
person's mind to be narrow and limits the ability to take in new ideas. Young employees with bright
ideas and fresh approach feel frustrated by the closed mind of the senior people in an organization.

(i) Poor Communication Skills: Lack of skill in writing and in speaking prevents a person from framing
the message properly. Oral communication can be handicapped by a number of problems; nervousness
in facing an audience may affect a person's clarity in speaking. Even excitement about an achievement
or a new idea may make a person's speech incoherent. Lack of skill in reading and in listening is also
common.

(j) State of Health: Pain or fever certainly makes a person disinclined to engage in communication; but
even if the general state of health is poor, communicating ability is reduced. The mind is not
sufficiently alert; there will be gaps in attention while reading or listening; there is lack of energy to
think clearly and to find the right words. Perception is low when the state of health is poor. Emotions,
which play an important part in successful communication, are easily disturbed.

(k) Experiential barriers

The difficulty in understanding matters not personally experienced. Our past experience may also
negatively influence our perception and understanding related to those experiences.

(l) Perceptual barriers

The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. The
selectivity/exposure filters that are developed on the basis of experience or lack of it play their part. A
bad experience would perceptually block out unpleasant things. This could be in the shape of avoiding
it and if that is not possible by altering the behaviours i.e., response types in different ways. Similarly,
retention filters out things that feel good, and gives the tendency to forget those things that are painful.

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(m) Emotional barriers
It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of others
lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to others. "Don't
speak until you're spoken to"; "Children should be seen and not heard". As a result, many people hold
back from communicating their thoughts and feelings to others because they feel vulnerable. While
some caution may be wise in certain relationships, excessive fear of what others might think of us can
stunt our development into effective communicators and our ability to form meaningful relationships.
Emotions influence both our speech and our listening. In many cases emotions may stop us from saying
many things and in other instance may make us say things that we never wanted to say.

(n) Hidden agenda

Hidden Agendas serve two functions:
(i) Individual’s strategy for poor self-esteem. This is mostly in cases where the personality is a
submissive one. In such cases the communication can turn sly and manipulative as one does not have
the courage to communicate openly. This is particularly the case as one is always apprehensive of
others differing point of view and is fearful of annoying the other person, not being confident of
handling a communication situation if there was one requiring assertive handling.
(ii) Promote ulterior motives and needs. If a person is known to promote one’s ulterior motives and
needs either by being aggressive or by being covertly submissive; sooner or later it would become a
major communication barrier. It generally creates a win-lose situation and does not work in
establishing trust, which is a basic premise for effective and purposeful communication.

(o) Stereotypes
Stereotypes are mental images and expectations. Stereotypes provide a shortcut to form an opinion of
someone. We tend to get opinionated sooner or later and it becomes difficult to change opinions.
Opinions give us a base to relate to others. Humans are very diverse by nature whereas stereotyping
them in categories with specific characteristics is very common and therefore it also becomes one of
the most common barriers to communication.

(p) Defensiveness:
If we feel threatened by a message, we become defensive and respond in such ways that reduce
understanding. This is a particularly harmful barrier in handling complaints and grievances and in
resolving conflicts.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS

(i) Persons in positions of authority, as well as subordinates, can be helped to overcome these barriers
by training in effective communication. Periodical review and reorganization of communication
networks is also needed to ensure that information reaches people in time.

(ii) Health centers: Many organizations provide medical aid, gymnasiums and recreation for the staff
in an effort to keep down stress levels. Regulations like compulsory vacation after a certain number of
months/years are also meant to ensure that employees avoid stress and fatigue.

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(iii) You have to cultivate all the communication skills including getting feedback and non-verbal
communication.

(iv) The Management should ensure the channels must be kept in good working condition; the
intercoms, notice-boards, information on meetings must be kept up-to-date. Many companies which
can afford it, maintain soundproof rooms for meetings and take steps to reduce the noise level in the
office.

(v) Semantic and language barriers can be overcome only by being careful with the use of language,
and by using words which have clear meaning, by using short and simple sentences, and also by using
visual aid whenever possible. Whenever possible, feedback must be got and given to ensure that there
is common understanding of a message.

(vi) Personal barriers can be overcome only "by making a conscious effort, and by training for better
communication.

(vii) To reduce cultural barriers, it is better not to assume similarity with those from other cultures until
you are sure. It is safer to assume difference till you are sure of similarity. Depend on description rather
than evaluation or interpretation; persons from different cultures evaluate and interpret differently.

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 TOPIC 3: CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION

ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION

We define organizational communication as the ways in which groups of people both maintain
structure and order through their symbolic interactions and allow individual actors the freedom to
accomplish their goals. This definition recognizes that communication is the primary tool to influence
organizations and gain access to organizational resources.

(a) Internal vs external communication

Internal communication occurs within the organization while external communication is between an
organization and other organizations, customers or individuals who are external to the particular
organization. Internal communication networks are patterns of relationships through which
information flows in an organization. External communication must pass through the registry section
which keeps record of such communication. It involves communication with individuals and
organizations outside our organization.

(b) Formal vs informal communication

Formal communication consists of messages that follow prescribed channels of communication
throughout the organization. The most common way of depicting formal communication networks is
with organizational charts Organizational charts provide clear guidelines as to who is responsible for
a given task and which employees are responsible for others’ performance. Organizational charts
demonstrate that communication can flow in several directions: downward, upward, and horizontally.

1. Downward communication
Downward Communication occurs whenever superiors initiate messages to subordinates. Ideally,
downward communication should include such things as job instructions, job rationale, policy and
procedures, performance feedback, and motivational appeals. When abused, it can lead to dictatorship.

2. Upward Communication
Messages flowing from subordinates to superiors are labelled upward communication. Obviously,
effective decision making depends on timely, accurate, and complete information traveling upward
from subordinates.

3. Horizontal Communication
Messages between members of an organization with equal power are labelled horizontal
communication. Horizontal communication is important to organizational success when used to
coordinate tasks, solve problems, share information, and resolve conflict. Horizontal communication
receives much more attention in participatory organizational structures in which employees have more
opportunity to formally participate in decision making (such as quality circles or autonomous work
teams).

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 4. Diagonal Communication
Task frequently arise which involve more than one department and there is often no obvious line of
authority. Diagonal Communication often relies largely on cooperation, goodwill and respect between
the parties concerned.

The Grapevine Communication

Informal/grapevine communication has no definite route of communication for sharing information.
Information converges a long way by passing from one person to another leaving no indication from
which point it started. This is similar to the vines of grapes. This kind of communication is in the form
of :-
(a) Office gossip involving telling a number of persons in one’s group
(b) Single standard office stories to a trusted colleague who in turn tells another trusted colleague,
and so on
(c) Probability; an employee may become indifferent about whom he should pass the information
to. He/she may pass the information to anybody around him who may be interested to listen
(d) Cluster: in this case the person who has the information passes it to selected individuals who
also pass it on to selected individuals.

In every organization, some people have good liaison with other persons.
Informal communication is generally considered to be any interaction that does not generally follow
the formal structure of the organization but emerges out of natural social interaction among
organization members. Whereas formal communication consists of messages the organization
recognizes as official, informal messages do not follow official lines. The concept of emergent
organizational networks represents the informal, naturally occurring patterns of communication
relationships in organizations (Susskind, Schwartz, Richards, & Johnson, 2005). Moreover, effective
workplace communicators understand the nature of both formal and informal communication.
Managers who take time to develop and listen to sources of informal information are better equipped
to understand employees’ attitudes and concerns. When entering an organization, such as when you
start your first job, asking other employees about communication practices is smart because you not
only discover formal procedures but also make contact for informal sources of information

(e) Intrapersonal vs interpersonal communication

Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is the communication that occurs within your own mind. Intrapersonal
communication occurs, when you evaluate or examine the interaction that occurs between yourself
and others, but it is not limited to such situations. This form of communication occurs before and
during other forms of communication as well. For instance, you might argue with yourself during a
conversation in which someone asks you to do something you don’t really want to do: Before you
accept or decline, you mull over the alternatives in your mind. Intrapersonal communication also
includes such activities as solving problems internally, resolving internal conflict, planning for the
future, and evaluating yourself and your relationships with others.

Interpersonal Communications

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Interpersonal communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning between at least
two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening. Like
intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication occurs for a variety of reasons: to solve
problems, to resolve conflicts, to share information, to improve perceptions of oneself, or to fulfil
social needs, such as the need to belong or to be loved. Through our interpersonal communication, we
are able to establish relationships with others that include friendships and romantic relationships.
Dyadic and small-group communications are two subsets of interpersonal communication. Dyadic
communication is simply two-person communication, such as interviews with an employer or a
teacher; talks with a parent, spouse, or child; and interaction among strangers, acquaintances, and
friends. Small-group communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning in a small
group of people (Brilhart & Galanes, 1998). Small-group communication occurs in families, work
groups, support groups, religious groups, and study groups

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 TOPIC 4: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION:

VERBAL AND NONVERBAL

The communication process can take any of the four forms—verbal and nonverbal. Both forms usually
operate together in the majority of messages you send and receive. Spoken or oral and written are both
forms of verbal communication while nonverbal consists of visual and audio-visual.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION
1. Oral
2. Written
3. Visual
4. Audio visual

Types of verbal communication

1. Face to face communication: involves the speaker and the listener interacting face to face such as in
dyadic, small group or public speaking.

2. Telephone conversation: involve two people interacting by use of telephone though it is possible for
a small group by means of teleconferencing.

3. The radio: makes it possible to speak to a large number of people at the same time.

4. Written communication: involves use of written forms of communication such as letters, memos,
reports, circulars, etc.

Spoken and Written Communication

Oral communication is more natural and immediate; we speak to communicate in natural and informal
situations. We also speak in formal and official situations such as making a presentation or taking an
interview when the target audience is present. Written communication has to be used when the other
person is not present and is not available on the telephone. Long and complex messages are best
conveyed in writing.

Attributes/Features of Spoken and Written Communication

Oral and written communications have different attributes which have to be taken into account in
choosing which one to use in a particular situation.

(i) Speed: Written communication is slower in preparation, in conveyance and in reception; it

takes more time to draft, type, dispatch, and to receive and read a letter than it takes to
speak, and to hear, listen to, and understand an oral message. Feedback is also slower in
written communication.

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(ii) Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future reference. It
is a documentary proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Oral communication may be
taped for later ' reference, but the Authenticity of the voice can be questioned; moreover,
tapes can be edited and the message distorted. Written records and documents are more
reliable and acceptable.

(iii) Precision and accuracy: Written communication is more precise and accurate than oral.
Choice of precise words is possible in written communication because the writer has the
time to look for suitable words and phrases, and to revise the draft, if necessary. Accuracy
is necessary in written communication because the receiver is not present to ask for
clarification. In oral communication, it is not always possible to be so precise in the choice
of words. There is also no time to seek and consider words while speaking; however, the
receiver can seek clarification on the spot. Besides, oral communication has the support of
vocal ' tone and gestures and expressions which enrich the meaning of the words.

(iv) Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication. The situation of
oral communication requires some preliminary and closing remarks, while for written
messages there are standard formats for opening and closing which can keep the message
short.

(v) Expense: Written communication requires stationery, preparation, and transmission, all of
which cost money. Oral communication can also cost a great deal since it requires
simultaneous presence and attention of the two parties, and getting together costs money.
Costs will depend on the availability of the required person(s) at the particular place.

(vi) Body Language: Oral communication is supported by the speaker's body language and
paralanguage. The speaker can control the style of delivery, giving meaning to words and
sentences by voice inflexion and facial expressions and gestures. Written communication
is separated from the writer's bodily presence and is more in the control of the reader. The
reader can give to the words the sound, inflexion and stress as he chooses; and this may be
affected by the reader's mood and state of mind at the time of reading.

(vii) Feedback: Oral communication allows immediate feedback; the listener's face gives some
feedback and the speaker can modify the message on the spot. Clarifications can be sought
and given at once. A conversation can be brought to a satisfactory conclusion by continuous
exchange of ideas and views. In written communication the feedback is delayed; the
reader's facial expressions cannot be seen by the writer; the reader's response is known to
the writer only when the reader replies. The reader may give a cautious and guarded reply
without letting the other see the really felt reaction.

(viii) Formality: Spoken language tends to be less formal than written language. When a
language is spoken, there are abbreviations and dropping of some sounds, as in can't, won't,
don't, I'll, we'll. The vocabulary used in written English is also more formal than in spoken

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 English. Spoken English requires learning correct pronunciation English spelling does not
always indicate how the word is pronounced. We have to learn correct pronunciation so
that we can communicate with people in other parts of the world.

Importance of verbal communication

i) Speed: Oral communication is fast with immediate feedback.

ii) Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future reference. It
is a documentary proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Written records and documents
are more reliable and acceptable.

iii) Precision and accuracy: Written communication is precise and accurate. Choice of precise
words is possible in written communication because the writer has the time to look for
suitable words and phrases, and to revise the draft, if necessary. Accuracy is necessary in
written communication because the receiver is not present to ask for clarification.

iv) Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication. There are
standard formats for opening and closing which can keep the message short

v) Body Language: Oral communication is supported by the speaker's body language and
paralanguage which enrich meaning.

vi) Feedback: Oral communication allows immediate feedback; the listener's face gives some
feedback and the speaker can modify the message on the spot. Clarifications can be sought
and given at once. A conversation can be brought to a satisfactory conclusion by
continuous exchange of ideas and views

vii) Formality: verbal communication allow for choice between being formal or informal.
Spoken language tends to be less formal than written language. The vocabulary used in
written English is also more formal than in spoken English.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication is all communication that is not spoken or written. Nonverbal

communication has a great impact and influence on the receiver’s decoding or interpretation of any
message.

Types of nonverbal communication

1. Body Movement (body language)
The study of body movement is known as kinesics and it deals with all the ways people use their bodies
to communicate or enhance their verbal communication. Body movement includes posture, gestures,
facial expressions, and eye contact.

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Posture – the way you position and move your body – can communicate a great deal about you. For
example, leaning toward or leaning away from someone in conversation can convey your degree of
interest, attentiveness, or involvement. Turning your back or standing to leave can convey a lack of
interest or signal the end to the conversation.

Gestures are any movement of the hands, fingers, or arms. Open arms can signify honesty and
openness. Facial expressions are the arrangement of facial muscles to communicate messages. They
include the mouth, cheeks, eyes, eyelids, eyebrows, forehead, nose, and chin. The face is probably the
most observed part of the body when we communicate with others, and this is not without reason. Our
face usually communicates our internal, emotional experience.

Eye contact can also communicate several different types of messages. Direct eye contact in our culture
can communicate involvement, intimidation, and intimacy. A diverted or downcast gaze
communicates a different message. Our eyes can also communicate dominance and submission. We
can “stare someone down” with a prolonged gaze that is not returned by the other person, or we can
avoid or break eye contact when talking with a superior, such as a boss or supervisor.

2. Paralanguage
Paralanguage is how we speak. Paralanguage includes pitch, volume, rate, and quality. Pitch refers to
the highness or lowness of our voice. The pitch of our voice is primarily determined by the physical
length and thickness of our vocal chords, but it can rise if we are frightened, anxious, or excited, and
it can lower if we are attempting to sound more powerful or authoritative.

Volume refers to the relative softness or loudness of our voice. We often speak in a characteristic
volume; some individuals talk loudly, whereas others talk in almost a whisper. We can also adjust our
volume to meet the requirements of the communication setting we are in. In a noisy, crowded room
we raise our volume and speak above the other voices, whereas during a movie or quiet dinner we
lower our voice.

Rate is how fast or slow we speak. People tend to have their own personal rate of speech. Some speak
fast, others slow. We tend to increase our rate of speech when we’re excited, frightened, or nervous,
and we tend to decrease our rate of speech when we’re uncertain, thoughtful, and sad.
Quality refers to the overall sound of our voice. Each human voice has a distinctive tone. The quality
of one’s voice may be characterized as soothing, harsh, strident, or calm. We each have a distinctive
quality to the way we sound. Can you recall your mother’s voice? Your father’s voice? Your best
friend’s voice? Often, when answering the telephone, we immediately recognize the caller by his or
her voice quality.

3. Personal Presentation
Our clothing is one of the most obvious and public displays of who we are and what we want to
communicate to others. The primary consideration is popularity, attractiveness, and status. We can
create a variety of public images simply by the clothing we wear.

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Our grooming can also reflect and communicate messages to the world. The length and style of our
hair, bathing routines, makeup, cologne and perfume, finger and toenail painting (even for men these
days), and many other grooming habits communicate a great deal about who we are and how we want
to be perceived.

Touching is the most intimate form of nonverbal communication behaviour. Touching behaviour, or
haptics, as it is called by social scientists, includes all behaviour that involves the skin. Primarily,
touching behavior deals with our hands and how we use them to communicate.

4. Proxemics
Proxemics, the study of our use of space, and was first introduced by anthropologist Edward Hall in
his book The Hidden Dimension. By observing conversations between people, Hall discovered that
our personal space could be broken down into four zones or distances:

✦Intimate distance (0 to 18 inches) is reserved for intimate activities include making love, holding
intimate or confidential conversations, hugging, kissing, and snuggling. This is often referred to as our
“personal bubble.” Only our most intimate relationships are permitted into this area. If an uninvited
person invades our personal bubble, whether it’s a stranger sitting next to us on an empty bench or a
person getting too close for comfort during a conversation, we usually move away slightly to maintain
our intimate distance.
✦Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet) is used for most conversations with family, friends, and most
acquaintances.
✦Social distance (4 to 12 feet) is the distance we feel most comfortable with transacting business,
sitting during committee meetings, and interacting with the hotel clerk, the supermarket cashier, or the
police officer giving us a ticket.
✦Public distance (12 to 25 feet) is used for public ceremonies, speeches, large group meetings, and
class lectures. If the distance between people is greater than 25 feet, communication is often limited to
shouting and exaggerated nonverbal gestures.
The distance of your personal space changes depending on the setting, the people involved, and how
you are feeling at the moment. Cultural factors also play an important role in determining proxemics
distancing and personal comfort.

5. Sign language
Sign language is a form of non-verbal communication commonly used for the hearing impaired. It
involves the use of hands to make symbolic gestures which have specific meanings. Sign language is
taught in formal learning institutions for communication with the hearing impaired such as the use of
braille. Communicating using sign language for the visually impaired may take the form of:
• Finger spelling
• Signing Exact English (SEE)
• Kenya Sign Language (KSL)

NB: find out what the three concepts entail

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.Importance of nonverbal communication

(a) Non-verbal methods have almost instant effect because of quicker grasp by the receiver. Speed in
conveyance and response makes non-verbal methods extremely useful in critical situations like traffic
signs and signals.

(b) Visual non-verbal methods aid verbal communication; maps, charts and graphs are necessary for
conveying information or plans related to geography, locations, data, and most of the sciences. A large
amount of complex data can be presented in a compact form; one page can convey information that
would need several pages of words. It makes information available conveniently, at a glance for
comparisons.

(c) Response to visuals and plain sounds is more powerful than to language. A cry of agony arouses
stronger response than a sad story; a film is more effective than a written story. TV news is more
interesting than on radio.

(d) It is the best method to convey information to illiterate people. Containers of poisons are marked
with a skull and cross-bones as a warning; illiterate drivers manage with the non-verbal traffic signals.
Films are used to explain processes to people who may not follow oral explanations easily. Non- verbal
communication can overcome the barrier of language.

(e) Sign language helps the hearing impaired to communicate, learn and be able to work like any other
physically normal persons.

Functions of non-verbal communication

a) Message reinforcement or complementation of verbal messages, for example, a warm welcome
and a firm handshake.
b) Negation of the verbal message.
c) Message substitution, i.e. using nonverbal without verbal communication such as pointing.
d) Message accentuation/intensification i.e. smiling as you say, “It is nice to meet you.”
e) Message regulation, i.e. lowering the voice to mark the end of a turn or eye contact to nominate
the next speaker

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VISUAL, AND AUDIO-VISUALCOMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION

Visual communication aids

It includes pictures, posters, graphs, diagrams, charts and billboards etc. Organization make extensive
use of pictures such a blue prints progress charts, maps, visual aids in training programmes, scale
models of products and similar devices. The use of such means of communication is increasing in
training and education as well as in organizational communication. Pictures can provide powerful
visual images as suggested by the proverb "A picture is worth a thousand words". In fact, many
companies have designed their advertisement copies in which only pictures are used; however pictures
should be combined with well-chosen words and action to tell the complete message.

Audio-visual communication aids

Audio-visual communication involves use of telecast films on the cinema, slides on a projector screen,
computer, television and video. It is the latest medium of communication. It is a combination of sight
and sound. Audio-visual communication is suitable for publicity, mass propaganda and mass
education. Large business firms frequently make use of this technique to educate their workers and to
popularise their products. The working of a new product can be effectively demonstrated through
audio visuals. Audio communication is suitable mostly tor mass publicity and mass educations.

Importance of audio, visual and audio visual communication aids

(i) Ability to record information for future reference
(ii) The computer and internet has enhanced search, processing and storage of information and
generally enhanced speed and efficiency in communication
(iii) Audio visual communication tends to have longer memorability due to use of multiple
channels which makes it suitable for teaching, learning and advertisement
(iv) The internet services through mobile phone and computer has improved social networking
through Facebook, What’s up, and Twitter
(v) Faster feedback due to speed in communication such as mobile phone
(vi) Audio, visual and audio visual communication is a source of entertainment, through music,
video pictures, and social chat with friends on Facebook, Twitter and WhatsApp

Weaknesses of visual and audio visual

(i) The mobile phone has enhanced coordination of crime while IT has enhanced cyber- crime
such as money laundering
(ii) The initial cost of buying and installing such communication devices and the operating cost
is generally high for most people
(iii) Communication process may be hindered due to failure in network reception such as
internet, radio and television
(iv) Illiteracy may hinder the use of communication gadgets since it need a good operating
knowledge such the use of computer.
(v) The use of audio visual communication has reduced the need for face to face interaction.
People now prefer to use the social media and calling which hinder close social interaction.

26
 (vi) There is a possibility of information leak when someone taps your communication. This is
common in mobile telephony. Young people may also get content meant for adults
(vii) Graphs, charts and posters take time to construct
(viii) Lack of feedback in the use of mass media such as radio and television.

Barriers to audio, visual, and audio visual communication

(i) The recipient must have communication gadget with compatible features as the sender to
be able to receive the message
(ii) The initial cost of buying and installing such communication devices and the operating cost
is generally high for most people
(iii) Network and airwave failure may hinder communication process over telephone, internet,
radio and television
(iv) Illiteracy may hinder the use of communication gadgets since it need a good operating
knowledge such the use of compute.
(v) Breakdown of communication gadgets; computers, cameras, slide projectors, video and
radio gadget may break down when they are needed for use
(vi) Lack of electric power may hinder use of electronic communication gadgets such as
computers, projectors, slide projectors and television
(vii) Language barrier: most mass media broadcast in official languages which many people
may not understand

Ways of overcoming the barriers to visual and audio visual communication

(i) In a business organization, the management should always ensure the audio, visual and
audio visual channels are always working properly
(ii) The management should always ensure that networks and airwave receptions are adequate
for proper communication
(iii) Always ensure that there is electricity or battery power and a proper back-up before
beginning to use audio, visual and audio visual communication gadgets
(iv) Your choice of medium should be dictated by the literacy level, physical location and
technological capacity of the receiver
(v) The choice of language should always depend on the linguistic knowledge and competence
of your receiver
(vi) Mass Media should broadcast in a variety of languages; the availability of channels
Broadcasting in local languages ensures this

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 TOPIC 5: CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Channel is the medium that carries the message from the source to the target audience. All channels
can be classified as:
i) Written – letters, memo, circulars
ii) face to face – meetings, seminars, conferences
iii) electronic – telephone, computers, fax, telex
iv) non-verbal – body movement, paralanguage, personal presentation, sign language

Choice of Communication Medium

You need to consider several aspects in choosing a medium for a particular message. The main aspects
are:
a) The type of audience you want to reach
b) The speed with which the message should be conveyed: The pressure of time and the distance
between the sender and the receiver influence the choice of the medium. Some media are faster
and can travel distances rapidly, like the telephone, the fax and the e- mail; these media also
have the advantage of being person to person
c) Need for confidentiality of the message is an important consideration. The choice will certainly
be influenced by requirement of secrecy; all media do not ensure the same secrecy of the
message. Messages like warning memo, report on a customer's credit standing, demand for
overdue payment, and so on, are confidential. They cannot be sent by media like telegram or
telex or fax even if they are urgent
d) Need for accuracy in transmission is not the same for all messages. If the content to be
transmitted is mainly data, you make the choice for accuracy and speed in transmitting
e) Need for reliability of the medium is an important factor. Sending a message by hand delivery
is more reliable than ordinary mail; registered post is more reliable than ordinary mail
f) Cost of the medium and its relative importance and urgency
g) Availability of a particular medium to the sender and to the receiver is obviously an affecting
factor. You can use only those media which both you and the intended receiver can access.
You may have a fax machine but if the receiver does not have one and has no arrangements for
receiving a fax message, you cannot use that medium
h) Feedback capacity of the medium: For some messages, you need immediate feedback; you
have to use a medium which will enable you to get it at once, like the telephone
i) Availability of hard copy for record
j) Formality of the medium must be suitable to content of the message. A letter of congratulation
is more formal and has a different effect from conveying the same message orally
k) Intensity and complexity of the message is a major factor. Many messages in an organization
have an emotional content, which influences the choice considerably; the emotional content is
not carried equally by all media.

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 TOPIC 6: OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY

Etiquette means conventionally accepted rules for formal relations and personal behaviour in a polite
society. It includes the code of ethical behaviour in relation to professional practice or action among
members of a profession in dealing with each other. Other words associated with etiquette are
decorum, which suggests dignity and a sense of what is appropriate for a person of good breeding, and
propriety, which implies established conventions of morals and good taste. Since communication is,
essentially, relationship, and includes the activity of establishing and maintaining contact with others,
knowledge and practice of rules of etiquette add to a person's effectiveness. Basic etiquette is an
important part of presenting a positive image to one's boss, colleagues, clients, customers and
acquaintances. A cultivated person is marked by behaviour that shows respect and courtesy to
everyone, regardless of position.

Importance of office etiquette

1. Good interpersonal relations with fellow staff
2. Good image of the company
3. Good image of individual employee
4. Customer satisfaction

Areas of official etiquette

1. Personal Behaviour
It is generally felt that if you cannot be trusted not to embarrass yourself in business and social
situations, you may lack the self-control that is necessary to be good at what you do. Greeting: It is
customary to greet others on entering, and acknowledge others' greetings either with a smile and a nod
or with formal greeting like "good morning" according to the occasion. Good posture is pleasant, and
can be developed by keeping both feet firmly on the floor, holding the back straight without slouching,
and not crossing the arms either while standing or sitting. Self-composure and a dignified posture make
a good impression and project an image of competence. Not being overweight or being in good shape
contributes to a presentable appearance. Sneezing or coughing: may be unavoidable, but can be dealt
with discreetly. If you sense a sneeze or cough or yawn coming on, cover your nose and mouth with
a handkerchief in your left hand, so as to leave your right hand clean for shaking hands, opening doors,
etc. Burping must be firmly controlled; hiccups can be avoided by being in good health and taking
care of what one eats. Grooming such as combing the hair or applying lipstick, should always be done
in the privacy of rest-rooms.

2. Greetings
Fragrances or perfumes of any kind should be applied sparingly, evoking a subtle scent. Strong and/or
cheap fragrance is often offensive and not appropriate in a professional setting. The style of greeting
varies from country to country. If in mixed religious company, it may be useful to keep to Western
style greetings. When receiving visitors from another country or visiting another country, it is better
to find out their style of greeting, both the verbal and the non-verbal gesture that accompanies it.
Between persons who know each other very well, it is customary to greet with "Hello! How are you?"
The response is "Hello! Quite well, thanks. And you?"

29
 3. Making an Apology
A simple apology is to say, "Sorry" or "I'm sorry." A somewhat more formal style is to say, "Pardon
me" or "I beg your pardon." This formal apology is also used if you do not catch or understand what
someone says to you, and you wish them to repeat what they said. A formal written apology uses the
words "I/We regret ... " Requirements and styles of apology vary between cultures. In India, a gestural
apology is required if your foot accidentally touches another person. In most Western cultures, an
apology is definitely required if you are late and keep someone waiting. Tone of voice and facial
expression are important while expressing an apology.

4. Expressing Thanks and Appreciation

A simple "Thanks" is quite informal; "thank you" is slightly more formal. "Thank you, James" sounds
very sincere; "thank you, Mr. Murthy" or "thank you, sir" is formal. In the USA many people say,
"Thanks. I appreciate your help," Or "Thank you. I appreciate it." The tone of voice and facial
expression should be appropriate. A written expression is formal; for example, “I/ We appreciate your
cooperation in ...” Or, "I/We thank you for your interest in our project." It is important not to sound
patronising while expressing appreciation

5. Conversation
In conversation, speak in a low voice, with controlled gestures. Make eye contact with the speaker.
Show him you understand his talk by nodding your head, maintaining an upright posture, and, if
appropriate, putting in an occasional comment such as "I see" or "that's interesting" or "really?" The
speaker will appreciate your interest and feel that you are really listening. It is not polite to interrupt
others; wait and listen politely till they complete what they are saying and speak only when they stop;
if by mistake you interrupt, stop at once and apologise.

Remember that you represent the company and not just yourself. Divulging company secrets or
speaking off the record is not acceptable.

The purpose of small talk is to find something in common and create a bond. A good way to do this is
to ask people about their interests.

Politics is a delicate topic but is of common interest to most people; it need not be avoided so long as
no arguments are raised. Business environment, cultural events, sports, are good conversation topics
on which one should be well-informed.

Using slang terms or swearing is not polite even in an informal social situation. People who have to
swear to make a point are often perceived as less intelligent.

6. Introductions
Introductions may appear simple but these are the few moments in which critical first impressions are
made on all sides. And you never get a second chance to make a first impression. Generally, personal
impressions are made within 20 - 30 seconds upon meeting someone. The person making the
introduction, and the two persons being introduced must all be able to do their parts well. Create a
warm, happy and cordial atmosphere while introducing.

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Business introductions: Business introductions are based on hierarchy; a person of lesser authority is
introduced to a person of greater authority. When introducing people, help the newly acquainted
persons to start and carry on a smooth, friendly flow of conversation. Comment briefly on the
background of each. A remark on a hobby or interest common to both helps to get a conversation
started.

Introducing yourself: If no one introduces you, or if the host or hostess of the function is too busy, just
introduce yourself to the other guests. Extend your hand, smile and say, "I'm Hilla Vakil,
David's partner." Avoid saying things like "Mr. Mehta works for me;" it sounds arrogant. Instead, say,
"Mr Mehta and I work in the same office."

Always use both, your name and surname when introducing yourself. Be clear and concise in your
introduction; it is poor manners to narrate your life history (or, worse, your problems or illnesses).

At a business function, it is appropriate to say where you work. Take care not to focus too much
attention on yourself with grand sounding statements. At functions that are not strictly business, it is
not necessary to give much job information, since many people feel that they are not defined by
employment.

At a special interest event like environmental protection work, you can mention your connection to the
organization that has organized the event. At any business meal, always introduce yourself to the
people sitting next to you to open the way for conversation. Not introducing yourself can cost you a
valuable business lead because few people want to deal with someone who appears to be aloof or not
able to follow the etiquette.

7. Shaking Hands
Shaking hands is a formal greeting gesture. Shake hands only when introduced to someone, or on
meeting an acquaintance. Hands are not shaken at parting; you do not shake hands with someone you
know very well.

The physical connection you make when shaking hands with someone can leave a powerful
impression. When someone's handshake is unpleasant in any way, we often associate negative
character traits with that person. A firm handshake made with direct eye contact sets the stage for a
positive encounter.

Offer your hand turned (at a 90 degree angle) towards the floor; don't hold just the fingers or try to
crush the other person's hand with an iron grip. To shake hands properly, keep your thumb up and
touch webs (the space between your thumb and first finger) before wrapping the fingers around the
other person's hand. Ensure your grip is medium to firm, neither limp and weak nor bone- crushing.

Men and women are equals in the workplace. Do not wait for a woman to offer her hand to be shaken,
rather than automatically extending their hand to her.

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During cocktails, hold your drink in the left hand so that your right hand is free, and it is not wet and
cold from holding a glass.

At a conference or other function where participants use name-tags, wear the name-tag high on the
right shoulder so that it is easy to read when shaking hands.

8. Paying Compliments
A compliment is an expression of appreciation. If you can, make a complimentary remark on an
attractive neck-tie/ scarf, or brief-case handbag, a well-argued case, competent collection of data, a
well-planned meal, a well conducted meeting, a neatly turned out phrase. It goes a long way in creating
goodwill. A compliment should be given at the right time and place, for example, soon after meeting,
or before the business begins. It should be given immediately on noticing something or immediately
after a praiseworthy accomplishment. Compliments may also be paid during a meeting of after it if
someone made a very good point or spoke very well or performed anything very well. NB:

• A compliment should be moderate, not exaggerated as that is flattery which is in-genuine

• Compliments should have no other motive than to recognize someone for something special.
If compliments are given in order to get a compliment or a favour in return, people soon find
out the ulterior motive
• A compliment should never be sarcastic. Tone of voice and body language must express the
appreciation as much as the words. Sarcasm hurts the receiver, and it is not polite
• Remarks that could be construed as sexually provocative, racist or sexist should not be made
even if the atmosphere is relaxed
• It is not polite to ask where they bought it (whatever you appreciate) or how much they paid
for it

9. Responding to Compliments
When someone pays you a compliment, acknowledge it and thank the person graciously. A simple
'thank you' with an expression reflecting pleasure on the face is sufficient. Don't feel embarrassed or
rebuff the compliment saying "Oh! It's nothing" or "Sorry, I could not do much."

10. Agreeing and Disagreeing

Agreeing with someone is easier to express than disagreement. But overdoing it to win goodwill is not
sincere. It is sufficient to say cheerfully, "I agree" or ''Yes, that seems OK to me," or ''Yes, OK" when
it is informal. In a formal situation or when speaking to seniors, formal style is better; a remark such
as, ''Yes, I accept that," or

''Yes, I think that is all right," would be sufficient. Agreement must be graceful and cheerful, even if
the agreement is conditional. State the condition clearly and say, "I'll agree to that on one condition
...," or "I'll accept that on the condition that”.

If you disagree with someone's statement, in a discussion, you may feel tempted to express yourself
aggressively. An aggressive response such as, "I don't agree with you," can hurt or irritate those who

32
hear it. Also, an artificially polite statement like, "I beg to differ," is not friendly (it is a put-down). If
you are assertive, you can express disagreement without being offensive. When you disagree, instead
of not keeping silent or responding aggressively, try positive assertiveness. Listen carefully and
summarize what the other person has said then state your own position, and do it without attacking. It
is useful to say something like, "I would like to state another point of view."

11. Telephone Etiquette

Your voice is all you have got to make the telephone conversation lively and effective. Clear
articulation and correct pronunciation are necessary. But it is not advisable to try to put on an artificial
or borrowed accent.

Speed of speaking can affect clarity to some extent. Average speaking speed is about 150 words a
minute; talking very fast not only affects clarity, but may give the impression of being in a hurry; very
slow talkers give the impression of being dull. A high-pitched voice is un- pleasant and may appear
uncultured; an extremely low pitch can sound mechanical. People who have a loud voice appear to be
brash and overbearing; very soft speakers cannot be heard clearly, and may seem shy.
You need to find the right speed, pitch and volume that makes you sound clear and easy to follow.
Tone is the expressiveness of the voice. It carries 38% of the load of communication; you have to make
it count. A great deal of tone depends on the speaker's attitude and state of mind.

Making a call: Prepare in advance before making a call, and plan all questions and comments.
Collect all required information, files, papers that may be needed. Have paper and pen at hand.
Greet; as soon as the call is answered, return the greeting and identify yourself, and ask for the person
to whom you want to speak.

Concentrate; eliminate all distractions and pay attention only to the person you have called. Use simple
language. Never use slang. Say "yes" not "yah". Take notes; jot down names, addresses, telephone
numbers and other important points which need to be remembered and/or passed on to others and may
be needed later.

Ask questions; if something is not clear, ask for clarification or explanation and listen carefully. Use
conversation cues; saying "I see" or ''Yes'' at the proper time shows the speaker that you are listening,
and encourages him/her to continue speaking. Listen between the lines; tone of voice conveys a good
deal. Summarize; the main points should be repeated at the end to check the understanding of both
parties. End the call politely; say "thank you" for giving you time (or information or help), indicate the
next step, if required. Wish the time of the day pleasantly and replace the receiver gently. The person
who made the call should put down the receiver first; within the organization, the senior should end
the call; in case of a call to or from a customer, the customer should end the call.
.
Cellular Phone Etiquette
Cell phone should be used only in an emergency. If it is necessary to make or take a call, keep it short
and discreet.

33
If other people are present, excuse yourself. Attention to present company is always important; never
give the impression that speaking to someone else is more important than those present. Move to a
quiet corner so as not to bother others.

Switch off the cell phone when entering a meeting or a lecture hall; also in a theatre, or any other
public performance. Use a quiet method of call notification like vibrator or flashing light in a hospital
or in any place where the ring is likely to cause severe discomfort.

Placing Someone on Hold

There should be a very good reason for placing someone on hold; like pulling out the person's file or
answering another line. Ask permission before placing the person on hold and do so only after getting
the response; taking permission for granted is very impolite. Never keep a person on hold for more
than 60 seconds. If you find it will take longer, return and explain, and ask "May I call you back?"
And, of course, call back as soon as the other work is done. When you return, thank the person for
holding.

Leaving a Voice Mail

While leaving a voice mail (message on the answering machine) it is important to include your name,
telephone number, and company's name if you are calling on your company's behalf. Spell any unusual
name. Repeat your name and telephone number at the end of the message. Specify the purpose of the
call instead of just saying "please give me a call."

Indicate what would be the best time to return your call. If you are likely to be away, say when you
will be back or whom to contact in your absence.

Anticipate that you may have to leave a message, and prepare what you have to say.
This will prevent rambling.

NB: The four pillars of politeness in conversation are: Thank you, excuse me, sorry and please.

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 TOPIC 7: WRITING SKILLS

COURTESY IN WRITING

Courtesy in writing is achieved by the following.

(a) Appropriateness of format for that kind of writing.

(b) Appropriateness of content information
(c) Appropriateness of tone: This is created by the word choice and choice of content information,
i.e. what information is communicated versus what is left out. It also involves use the courtesy
words please, thank you, excuse me and sorry as the situation requires.
(d) Appropriateness of language use, ie. Word choice and expression that show respect and
recognition of the audience. It also involves formality or informality of language used.
(e) Expression of appropriate feeling according to the situation. For example, sympathy when
someone suffers, good wishes when someone begins something new, and congratulation when
someone achieves something.

PUNCTUATION MARKS

(a) Comma ,
(b) Colon and semicolon ;
(c) Exclamation mark !
(d) Full stop .
(e) Hyphen -
(f) Question mark ?
(g) Ellipsis …
(h) Brackets ()
(i) Quotation “

PARAGRAPHING

A paragraph is a set of related sentences dealing with a single topic. There is no rule about the length
of a paragraph. It varies according to the need. In a story or a novel, there are some long paragraphs
and some short ones. In a book that discussed concepts such as Economics, there may be long
paragraphs. In business letters, the paragraphs are short; in a report the paragraphs may be long.
A good paragraph has the following characteristics:

1. Topic sentence:

A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea the paragraph is going to deal
with. It includes the topic and a controlling idea. It may be in the form of a question. Look at these
sentences:
• Personal relationships such as parent-child, husband-wife, brothers and sisters suffer because
most people in cities have busy schedules.
• Talking to a sympathetic listener can have a great therapeutic effect.
• Skill in Public Speaking is not necessary for everyone.
• Shouldn't smoking in public places be made illegal?

35
2. Adequate development
Add supporting ideas to the topic sentence, to develop it fully and adequately. There should be 3 to 6
ideas to support the topic sentence. Of course, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on
your purpose. Add RENNS (reasons, examples, names, numbers, senses), which give details and
further explain the supporting ideas. Some methods to add supporting details are:

• Use examples and illustrations

• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details)
• Examine testimony (what other people say, such as quotes and paraphrases)
• Define terms in the paragraph
• Compare and contrast
• Evaluate causes and reasons
• Examine effects and consequences
• Analyse the topic
• Describe the topic
• Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

3. Concluding/ clincher sentence.

The concluding sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph. It should leave the reader with
something to think about. It can be written by restating the topic sentence in different words.

Look at these sentences:

• Being a sympathetic listener is therefore a satisfying experience.

• I think it is in the interest of public health to make it illegal to smoke in public places.
• Since there are many occupations that do not have any occasion for speaking in public,
everyone need not acquire public speaking skills.
Write a concluding sentence for each of the topic sentences given earlier.

Example:

For our government to be stable and effective, we must fight corruption. We should ensure that
leaders and government agents become answerable to the tax payer. In addition, the public should be
educated on the ills of corruption while those who have stolen public funds are made to return it and
face the full force of the law. Again, people known to have stashed money in foreign banks should be
forced to repatriate that money so as to improve cash flow in our economies. This is will put our
countries on the road to prosperity.

ESSAY WRITING

Like a paragraph, an essay also has introduction in which the essay topic is first introduce, the body
in which issues concerning the topic are discussed, and a conclusion which ties up your arguments
about the topic.

The following are types of essays.

(a) Descriptive (c) Narrative

(b) Explanatory (d) Argumentative

36
FUNCTIONAL WRITING

Business correspondences are forms of communication that are used within organization or from one
organization to another.

a) Business letters

• Letter of inquiry
1. Points included in the letters are:
2. Courteous request for information, giving its purpose
3. Statement of what is wanted (or a list of questions)
4. Request that the information may be given by a certain date

• Letter of complaint
The letter should include the following points:

1. Reference to the order, its date and number

2. Clear description of the mistake or deficiency
3. Clear statement of the inconvenience or loss caused, and the action the supplier should take
to lessen the inconvenience
4. Request for adjustment and/or investigation

• Letter of appreciation
The letter of appreciation should contain the following points:

1. Appreciation for the good done.

2. The benefits derived from that.
3. Urge to continue in that spirit.
4. Concluding remark

• Letter of recommendation
The letter of recommendation should contain the following points:

1. Statement of recommendation
2. Position you are recommending the person for
3. Positive attributes of the person such as personality and qualification
4. Assurance that the person will serve well if given chance
5. Concluding remark

• Letter of apology
The letter of apology should contain the following points:

1. Regret for the wrong done (saying ‘sorry’)

2. Acceptance of the wrong done
3. Commitment not to repeat or allow a repeat
4. Action you are taking to remedy the situation or to avoid there a repeat

37
 General Structure of a Business Letter

Almost all business messages can be written as a framework of four points.

• Opening/Introduction, Giving the required information, Action/Response from the writer or

the recipient, Closing remark.
Format of a business letter

• Block format, Semi-block format and Indented format

Opening Sentence

SAMPLE OF BLOCK FORMAT:

MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY OF KENYA

P.O. Box 15653 - 00503, Mbagathi, Nairobi Tel: +254 020 2071391, +254 020 724257083,
+254 020 735900008 Fax: +254 020 2071243 Email: info@mmu.ac.ke
(MMU is ISO 9001:2008 Certified)

REF: MMU/DVC AF&P/RA/ATTACHMENT/VOL.12

10th September, 2024

Mr………………………………………
Technical University of Mombasa
Dept. of Mechanical & Automotive Eng.
P O Box 90420 - 80100
MOMBASA

Dear Mr………………………………..

RE: ATTACHMENT

Your letter dated 27th February, 2024 on the above subject refers.

We appreciate your interest to do your attachment in our institution. However, the students will be on long
holidays from May to August 2024 hence no routine academic activities shall be done in the Chemistry
Laboratory until September 2024 Semester. We therefore, regret to inform you that your request has not been
approved.

Yours faithfully,

MR…………………………………………….
Registrar Administration & Planning

Copy to: Human Resource Manager

38
SAMPLE OF SEMI BLOCK FORMAT:

MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY OF KENYA

P.O. Box 15653 - 00503, Mbagathi, Nairobi Tel: +254 020 2071391, +254 020 724257083,
+254 020 735900008 Fax: +254 020 2071243 Email: info@mmu.ac.ke
(MMU is ISO 9001:2008 Certified)

REF: MMU/DVC AF&P/RA/ATTACHMENT/VOL.12 10th September, 2024

Mr………………………………………
Technical University of Mombasa
Dept. of Mechanical & Automotive Eng.
P O Box 90420 - 80100
MOMBASA

Dear Mr………………………………..

RE: ATTACHMENT

Your letter dated 27th February, 2024 on the above subject refers.

We appreciate your interest to do your attachment in our institution. However, the students will be on long
holidays from May to August 2024 hence no routine academic activities shall be done in the Chemistry
Laboratory until September 2024 Semester. We therefore, regret to inform you that your request has not been
approved.

Yours faithfully,

MR. ……………………………………………………..
Registrar Administration & Planning

Copy to: Human Resource Manager

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

39
SAMPLE OF SEMI INDENTED:

MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY OF KENYA

P.O. Box 15653 - 00503, Mbagathi, Nairobi Tel: +254 020 2071391, +254 020 724257083,
+254 020 735900008 Fax: +254 020 2071243 Email: info@mmu.ac.ke
(MMU is ISO 9001:2008 Certified)

REF: MMU/DVC AF&P/RA/ATTACHMENT/VOL.12 10th September, 2024

Mr………………………………………
Technical University of Mombasa
Dept. of Mechanical & Automotive Eng.
P O Box 90420 - 80100
MOMBASA

Dear Mr………………………………..

RE: ATTACHMENT

Your letter dated 27th February, 2024 in which you were requesting for attachment in our institution
refers.

We appreciate your interest to do your attachment in our institution. However, the students will be on
long holidays from May to August 2024 hence no routine academic activities shall be done in the Chemistry
Laboratory until September 2024 Semester. We therefore, regret to inform you that your request has not been
approved.

Yours faithfully,

MR. ……………………………………………………..
Registrar Administration & Planning

Copy to: Human Resource Manager

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The opening sentence has the important function of establishing good feeling and rapport, and
drawing a favourable response from the reader.

• We are glad to say that we can deliver your shelves a week earlier as you requested in your
letter of the 12th.

• We are extremely sorry to learn from your letter dated 23 September that you were not able to
get good photographs.
Showing interest in the reader's needs and paying attention to his/her feelings and desires creates
goodwill at the beginning of the letter. Avoid beginning with "Referring to your letter... "or "With

40
reference to your letter." These openings lead to a grammar mistake or an incomplete sentence unless
you have full command of these troublesome constructions.

b) Memos*

A memo (short for memorandum) is used only for communication within the organisation. It may be
from one person to another or to several persons. The purpose of a memo may be:

• To ask for information

• To request decision or action
• To convey information about action or decision

Memos have the name of the organisation, the title ‘Internal Memo, Ref. No., To., From.,

Date, Subject, Body, Name of Sender, Designation., CC

c) Circulars
With electronic communication within organisations, the difference between memoranda and
circulars is already blurred and may soon disappear. Circulars are used for sending instructions and
information about new procedures or policies to all branches of the organisation. They are addressed
impersonally like a memorandum "To all Branch Managers", or "To all Accounts Section staff for
information and immediate action" Circulars used for internal communication follow the same style
of layout as those sent out of the organisation. However, they are not personalised and are written in
the same precise, informative style as memoranda and office orders.

Contents: Name and Logo of organisation, Ref. No., Date., Circular No., To., Regards., Body.,

Signature., Name., Designation., CC., Appendices (if any)

d) Public Notices
A notice is used when many people in the organization have to be given the same information. It is
the most common method of mass communication within an organization. A notice is short; the
language is simple, and the type is large and well-spaced for easy reading. A notice is put up on the
notice board. A copy may also be circulated among staff for signature. A notice is often called an
office circular. A notice must be drafted in clear language. It must also be short so as to fit on a single
sheet. A notice is an announcement and does not have to give details of the topic. I f it is about a
complex topic, it may refer to detailed information available in the office for reference.

Contents: Name and logo of the organization, The title ‘Notice’., Content., Designation e)
Electronic mail

Content: To., Cc., Bcc., Attachment., Subject, salutation, body, complementary close, name

(and designation)

41
 f) Letter of application*
Content: In the cover letter, you should include how you found out about the position, your primary
reasons for being interested in the position, and how your specific qualifications (education, training,
work-related experiences, and skills) meet the needs of the organization.

g) Curriculum Vitae*/ résumé.

A résumé is a one-page or two-page summary of your training, skills, and accomplishments. The eight
most common components are.

1. Personal details. Provide your name, address, and telephone number(s), email, gender, age,
and optionally marital status, religion, nationality.
2. Job/career objective. Describe your goals in employment you are seeking.
3. Education. Begin with your highest degree and continue in reverse order.
4. Professional training. List any specialized training, courses, and so on.
5. Employment history. List both paid and unpaid work experience, beginning with the most
recent. Include employment dates, primary job responsibilities, and accomplishments and awards.
6. Professional affiliations. List professional groups to which you belong and any offices you
have held.
7. Special interests and skills. List interests and skills that are related to the job for which you
are applying.
8. Referees. These are individuals who know your work, your abilities, and your character.

NB: As you construct your résumé, think in terms of how your education, training, skills, and work
experience can fit the requirements of the advertised job. Present only those skills and
accomplishments that show you can do the job. Emphasize your strengths throughout the résumé, but
always be truthful. Above all, your résumé should be written with the company in mind—how can
you satisfy the company’s employment needs?

h) Press release
i) Advertisement
j) Minutes

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 TOPIC 8: SUMMARY WRITING

NOTE MAKING & SUMMARY WRITING

Summary means making a shorter version of a text which highlights the main contents of that text
and which is in prose form.

Importance

The study skill enables you to capture the key information in a spoken or written text for future
reference.

Steps in summarization

(i) Extract the main points onto a working space; you will then use these points to write your
first draft.
(ii) If the draft is longer than intended, identify the unnecessary words and expressions and
reframe your sentences. There could also be unnecessary points which you need to
eliminate.
(iii) If the draft is too short, you are likely to have left out some important material which you
need to include.
(iv) Write the final copy making sure it is of the intended length.

43