 Workplace Health and Safety

Industrial Psychology
Reviewer by: Bry History Overview Of I/O Psychology

In 1903, Walter Dill Scott wrote “The

Theory of Advertising”, in which psychology
Industrial Psychology was first applied to business. In 1911, he
published Increasing Human Efficiency in
- A branch of psychology that applies
Business.
psychological theories, principles, and
research methods to the workplace.
1913, Hugo Munsterberg publishes
- focuses on understanding human behavior
Psychology and Industrial Efficiency
in organizations and how to enhance both
(German version published in 1910). The
employee well-being and organizational
term “industrial psychology” was seldom
performance
used prior to World War I. Instead, the
- I-O psychologists aim to improve work
common terms for the field were “economic
environments, employee satisfaction,
psychology,” “business psychology,” and
productivity, and organizational
“employment psychology” (Koppes &
effectiveness
Pickren, 2007).
Two Approaches In I/O Psychology
1917, Journal of Applied Psychology first
1. Industrial Psychology (Personnel published
psychology)- focuses on individual
employees and involves topics such as 1918, World War I provides I/O
recruitment, selection, training, performance psychologists with the first opportunity for
appraisal, and job analysis. It aims to match large-scale employee testing and selection.
individuals to suitable jobs and enhance (Army Alpha, for literate & Army Beta, for
their productivity and satisfaction. those who
can’t read)
2. Organizational Psychology- Focuses on
the broader organizational environment and John Watson, who is better known as a
deals with issues such as motivation, pioneer in behaviorism, served as a major in
leadership, job satisfaction, organizational the U.S. Army in World War I and developed
culture, and group dynamics. It aims to perceptual and motor tests for potential
improve the overall functioning and pilots.
effectiveness of organizations.
Henry Gantt, were responsible for
Major Fields In I/O Psychology increasing the efficiency with which cargo
ships were built, repaired, and loaded.
Organizational Psychology
Thomas A. Edison created a 150-item
Human Factors/ Ergonomics
knowledge test that he administered to over
Key Concept In I/O Psychology 900 applicants. Only 5% of the applicants
passed.
 Job Analysis
 Employee Selection and Assessment
Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth,
 Training and Development
one of the pioneer scientists to improve
 Performance Management
 Motivation productivity and reduce fatigue by studying
 Job Satisfaction and Employee Well-Being the motions used by workers.
 Leadership and Management
 Organizational Development and Change 1921, First Ph.D. in I/O psychology awarded
 Diversity and Inclusion to Bruce Moore and Merrill Ream at
Carnegie Tech.
1986, Society for Industrial and
1932, First I/O text written by Morris Viteles Organizational Psychology (SIOP) holds
first annual national conference separate
1933, Hawthorne studies were published, from APA meeting
conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the
Western Electric Company in the Chicago 1989, Supreme Court sets conservative
area, demonstrated that the interpersonal trend and becomes more “employer
interactions between managers and friendly”
employees played a tremendous role in
employee behavior. It was initially designed 1990, Americans with Disabilities Act
to investigate such issues as the effects of passed. SIOP membership exceeds 2,500
lighting levels, work schedules, wages,
temperature, and rest breaks on employee 1991, Civil Rights Act of 1991 passed to
performance. Employees changed their overcome 1989 conservative Supreme
behavior and became more productive Court decisions
because they were being studied and
received attention from their managers 1997, SIOP celebrates golden anniversary
(Hawthorne effect.) at its annual conference in St. Louis

1937, American Association for Applied 2000, SIOP membership exceeds 3,600
Psychology established. 2005, Office of Federal Contract
Compliance Programs (OFCCP) and Equal
1945, Society for Industrial and Business Employment Opportunity Commission
Psychology established as Division 14 of (EEOC) become more aggressive in fighting
APA with 130 members systemic discrimination

1951, Marion Bills elected as first woman 2008, The journal Industrial and
president of Division 14 Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on
Science and Practice begins publication as
1960, Division 14 renamed as Society for an official journal of SIOP
Industrial
Psychology, membership exceeds 700 2009, Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act and
Americans with Disabilities Act Amendment
1963, Equal Pay Act passed Act (ADAAA) passed

1964, Civil Rights Act passed. First issue of 2010, SIOP membership exceeds 8,000;
The Industrial- SIOP members narrowly vote to keep the
Organizational Psychologist (TIP) published name Society for Industrial Organizational
Psychology rather than change the name to
1970, Division 14 membership exceeds the Society for Organizational Psychology
1,100
2013, OFCCP issues new regulations
1971, B.F. Skinner publishes Beyond affecting the hiring of military veterans and
Freedom and Dignity individuals with disabilities

1980, Division 14 membership exceeds 2014, SIOP membership exceeds 8,300

1,800
RESEARCH DESIGN IN I/O
1982, Division 14 renamed Society for PSYCHOLOGY
Industrial and Organizational Psychology
(SIOP)
 Before any training program begins, I-O
Research Designs psychologists conduct a needs assessment
to determine gaps in knowledge, skills, or
 Experimental abilities within the organization.
 Quasi-Experimental
 Correlational Research Three Types of Needs Assessment
 Longitudinal
 Cross-Sectional 1. Organizational Analysis
 Case Studies Identifying the company's goals
 Meta-Analysis and how training aligns with them.

Data Analysis Techniques 2. Task Analysis

 Descriptive Statistics Understanding the tasks
 Inferential Statistics employees need to perform.
 Factor Analysis
 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) 3. Person Analysis
 Multilevel Modeling Identifying which individuals or groups
 Content Analysis need training.
 Network Analysis
 Machine Learning and Big Data Analytics Objectives of Training and
Development:
EVALUATE AND DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR
EFFECTIVE PERSONNEL SELECTION Skill Acquisition and Enhancement
(INCLUDING JOB ANALYSIS AND DESIGN)
 Objective: Equip employees with the
Strategies for Effective Personnel Selection necessary technical, cognitive, or
interpersonal skills required to perform their
 Selection Strategies job effectively.
 Job Analysis  Explanation: This includes the acquisition
 Recruitment Tools (Psychometrics) of new skills or the improvement of existing
 Dual-Selection approach ones, ensuring that employees can meet
 Structured Interviews current job demands and adapt to new
 Legal Considerations
challenges. For example, in a customer
 Employee and Organizational Fit
 Technology service role, training might focus on
 Data Driven enhancing communication and problem-
 Strategic Alignment solving skills.
Behavioral Change and Application
Applications
 Objective: Encourage the application of
 Job Analysis
 Psychometrics learned knowledge and skills to improve job
 Legal Consideration performance and workplace behavior.
 Organizational Fit  Explanation: Training programs aim not
only to impart knowledge but also to
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT influence employees' behavior in the
- is a critical area of focus that aims to workplace. This includes fostering positive
improve the efficiency, performance, and attitudes, improving work habits, and
overall well-being of employees within ensuring that employees can transfer what
organizations. they've learned in training to real-world
- Rooted in the principles of psychology, it scenarios. For instance, leadership
applies scientific methods to understand development training might focus on
and enhance employee learning, skill
promoting decision-making and conflict
acquisition, and organizational growth.
resolution behaviors in managerial roles.
Needs Assessment These objectives ensure that training
contributes to both immediate performance
 improvements and long-term professional  Definition: The tendency to avoid using the
development. extremes of the rating scale and instead
rate all employees in the middle range.
Organizational Analysis  Example: An appraiser may give a score of
Organizational analysis aims to determine those 3 on a 5-point scale to all employees, even
organizational factors that either facilitate or inhibit if some clearly deserve a higher or lower
training effectiveness. rating.
 Impact: This diminishes the differentiation
Task Analysis between high and low performers and fails
To use job analysis methods to identify the tasks to provide meaningful feedback for
performed and the competencies needed to improvement or recognition.
perform the tasks under the identified conditions.
Recency Bias
Person Analysis
This is based on the recognition that not every  Definition: The tendency to focus on recent
employee needs further training for every task events or behaviors when assigning scores,
performed. rather than evaluating performance over the
entire appraisal period.
Person Analysis includes:  Example: An employee who performed well
1. Performance appraisal in the weeks leading up to the appraisal
Problems that might interfere with the use of may receive higher scores, even if their
Performance Appraisal Score performance was subpar for most of the
year.
Leniency Error  Impact: This leads to inaccurate
 Definition: The tendency to give higher- evaluations and may result in unfair rewards
than-deserved scores to employees. or missed developmental opportunities.
 Example: An appraiser may assign high Primacy Bias
ratings to all employees to avoid
confrontation or maintain harmony, even  Definition: The opposite of recency bias,
when some employees do not meet where the appraiser gives undue weight to
performance standards. performance at the beginning of the
 Impact: This leads to inflated scores, which evaluation period.
can result in poor performers receiving  Example: An employee who started the
undeserved rewards or promotions, and year strong but declined in performance
devalues the performance of high later may still receive a high score because
achievers. of their initial performance.
Strictness Error  Impact: This distorts the evaluation by not
considering the entire appraisal period,
 Definition: The opposite of leniency, where potentially rewarding poor long-term
the evaluator consistently gives lower performance.
scores than warranted. Similar-to-Me Error
 Example: An appraiser might assign low
ratings to all employees, believing that  Definition: The tendency to assign higher
giving high scores implies that no further scores to employees who are perceived as
development is needed. similar to the evaluator in personality,
 Impact: This can demoralize employees, as values, or background.
their efforts are not recognized, and might  Example: An evaluator may score an
lead to higher turnover due to employee higher because they share the
dissatisfaction. same educational background, hobbies, or
Central Tendency Error work style, even if the employee’s actual
performance is not superior.
 Impact: This results in biased appraisals,
where performance is not the key factor in
 scoring, undermining fairness and  Example: An employee who was a top
objectivity. performer in the previous year may continue
to receive high scores, even if their current
Contrast Error performance does not merit such ratings.
 Definition: When an employee’s score is  Impact: This diminishes the accuracy of the
influenced by a comparison with the current performance appraisal, potentially
performance of others rather than being leading to unfair rewards or development
evaluated against objective criteria. plans.
 Example: A mediocre performer might
receive a higher score if they are evaluated
Proximity Bias
after a very poor performer, or a lower score
if compared to a top performer.  Definition: The tendency to assign higher
 Impact: This shifts the focus from individual scores to employees who have more
performance and results in inconsistent and frequent or closer interactions with the
inaccurate ratings. evaluator, often seen in remote or hybrid
work situations.
Attribution Error  Example: Employees who work on-site or
have frequent contact with their manager
 Definition: The tendency to attribute
may receive higher scores compared to
success or failure to internal factors (e.g.,
remote workers, even if their performance is
effort, personality) rather than considering
similar.
external factors (e.g., resources, team
 Impact: This introduces unfair advantages
dynamics) that may influence performance.
for those who are physically present and
 Example: An employee struggling due to
can damage trust and morale in remote or
lack of support from their team may be
hybrid teams.
given a low score based on assumptions
about their personal shortcomings, rather
than considering the external challenges. Stereotyping
 Impact: This can result in unfair evaluations
and demotivation, as employees feel  Definition: The appraiser relies on
blamed for factors beyond their control. generalized beliefs about a group to inform
their scoring, rather than the individual’s
First-Impression Error actual performance.
 Example: An older employee might receive
 Definition: When the appraiser’s initial a lower score on learning new technology
impression of the employee, formed early in based on the stereotype that older people
the appraisal period, heavily influences the are less tech-savvy, even if they have
final score. shown proficiency.
 Example: If an employee made a strong or  Impact: This leads to unfair and biased
weak first impression at the start of the year, evaluations, limiting development
this may color the appraiser's evaluation, opportunities for those subjected to
even if later performance changes stereotyping.
significantly.
 Impact: This can skew the final appraisal
score, leading to inaccuracies in identifying Favoritism
actual performance levels.  Definition: Appraisers assign higher scores
to employees they personally favor,
Spillover Effect regardless of their actual performance.
 Example: A manager might give
 Definition: The tendency to let past consistently high ratings to a favored
performance, whether good or bad, employee who they get along with
influence current appraisal scores. personally, even if that employee’s work is
not superior.
  Impact: This can breed resentment among job
other employees, lower morale, and 4. Make the training interesting
contribute to a toxic work environment. 5. Increase the employee buy-in
6. Provide incentives
7. Provide food
Surveys
8. Reduce stress associated with training
Advantages 9. Motivating Employees to Perform Well in
• Eliminates rating errors Training
• Employees know their own strength and
weaknesses
Skill-Based Pay
• Can determine clear training needs
an employee participates in a training program
Disadvantages
that is designed
• Question about honesty of the respondents
to increase a particular skill an employee needs to
• Organizations may not afford training suggestions
either be
by the respondents
promoted or receive a pay raise.
Interviews-Interviews provide in-depth answers to a. Vertical Skill Plans are pays for skills in a
questions about training needs. particular job.
b. Horizontal Skill Plans refers to skills used across
Advantages multiple
• Feelings and attitudes of employees are revealed jobs.
clearly c. Depth Skill Plans are rewards for learning a
Disadvantages specialized skill.
• Data are more difficult to quantify and analyze d. Basic Skill Plans basic skill such as Math and
Skills and knowledge testing English.
Problems that might arise in Skills and Knowledge Motivating Employees to Use their Training on
test the Job
a. Few tests are available for this purpose CONDUCTING CLASSROOM TRAINING
b. Time consuming Initial Decisions
c. Expensive 1. Who will conduct the training?
2. Where will the training be held?
Critical Incidents 3. How long should the training be?
Critical Incident Techniques is a set of Massed versus Distributed Practice
procedures used for collecting direct observations • Distribute learning states that materials should be
of human behavior that have critical significance presented in small easily remembered chunks
and meet methodically defined criteria. Critical distributed over a period of time.
Incident Techniques present dimensions of good • Massed learning states that materials should be
and poor performance. presented all at once in a given time.

Developing a Training Program Preparing for Classroom Training

Establishing Goals and Objectives 1. Adjusting for the Audience (know your audience)
1. Specific 2. Developing the Training Curriculum
2. Obtainable 3. Creating Handouts Delivering the Training
Motivating Employees Program
“For the training to be effective, employees must be 1. Introducing the Training Program
motivated 2. Using Icebreakers and Energizers
to attend training and perform well in training, and -Goals
apply their -Length of the training session
training to their jobs.” -Nature of the audience
1. Motivating Employees to Attend Training 3. Making the Presentation
2. Require them Using Simulation Exercises to Practice New Skills
3. Relate the training to an employee’s immediate Simulation exercises allow the trainee to practice
new skills. A new employee is assigned to an experienced
Practicing Interpersonal Skills through Role employee, who is told “show the kid the ropes”.
Play
Problems with coaching
- Role play allows the trainee to perform necessary
1. Good workers are not necessarily good trainers,
interpersonal skills by acting out simulated roles.
and good
- Increasing Interpersonal Skills through Behavior
trainers are not necessarily good workers.
Modeling
2. Diminishes worker’s productivity.
- Behavior modeling is similar to role play except
that trainees
- Role play ideal behavior rather than behavior they Professional Coaches
might normally perform. are similar to consultants, yet rather than working
Providing Individual Training through Distance with the
Learning organization as a whole, they are hired to coach a
Distance Learning allows the employees t learn particular
materials at their own pace, at a time and place that employee.
is convenient to them. Mentoring
Programmed Instruction A mentor is a veteran in the organization who
1. It is self paced. takes a special interest in a new employee and
2. Trainee is actively involved in learning. helps him not only to adjust to the job, but also to
3. Information is presented in small units. advance in the organization
Programmed Instructions Using Books, Videos, or
Interactive Video Performance Appraisal
Ensuring Transfer of Training
States that the more similar the situation is to the
Computer-Based or Web-Based Programmed actual job situation, the more effective training will
Instruction be.
Conducting On-The-Job Training Overlearning- thorough learning thru constant
practice.
On-The-Job Training or OJT is informal training by
experienced peers and supervisors that occurs on Putting It All Together
the job and during job tasks. “Employees must have the skills and abilities to
complete the training successfully.”
Learning by Modeling Others
“There should be minimal outside factors that might
also, social learning, states that employees learn by
distract the employee and keep him from
watching
concentrating on the training program.”
how other employees perform, or model, a
“Employees must be motivated to learn.”
behavior.
“The training method must be a good match for the
Characteristics of the Model
employees
Characteristics of the Observer
learning style, ability and personality.”
1. Attention
“The training method must be a good match for the
2. Retention
type of material being learned.”
3. Motivation
“The training program must allow goal setting,
4. Replication
positive feedback, distributed practice,
Learning through Job Rotation
overlearning, and the chance to practice and apply
Job Rotation (cross training) is a method in which
material learned.”
an employee performs several different jobs within
“There must be an opportunity and encouragement
an organization.
to use the newly acquired knowledge at work.”
Learning through Apprentice Training
Evaluation of Training Results
Learning through Coaching and Mentoring Research Designs for Evaluation
Evaluation Criteria
1. Coaching 1. Content Validity
Experienced Employees as Coaches 2. Employee Reactions
3. Employee Learning  Learning is facilitated by breaking down
4. Application of Training complex information into smaller chunks
5. Business Impact (e.g., chunking).
6. Return of Investment Application:
 E-learning programs that encourage self-
1. Behaviorism paced, problem-solving activities.
 Using visuals, mind maps, and case studies
 Key Concepts: Focuses on observable
in corporate training to help employees
behavior and how learning is shaped by
internalize concepts.
external stimuli (reinforcement and
 Teaching learners to reflect on their own
punishment).
thinking and learning processes.
 Major Theorists: B.F. Skinner, John Watson,
3. Constructivism
Ivan Pavlov.
 Principles:  Key Concepts: Learners actively construct
 Learning is a result of associations formed their own understanding of the world
between stimuli and responses. through experiences and reflection.
 Positive reinforcement strengthens  Major Theorists: Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky,
behavior, while punishment reduces John Dewey.
unwanted behavior.  Principles:
 Classical conditioning (Pavlov): Learning  Knowledge is constructed rather than
occurs through associations between an passively absorbed.
environmental stimulus and a naturally  Learning is an active, contextualized
occurring stimulus. process where new information is linked to
 Operant conditioning (Skinner): Learning prior knowledge.
occurs through rewards (reinforcement) and  Social constructivism (Vygotsky): Learning
consequences (punishment). is enhanced through collaboration and
Application: interaction with others.
 Use of reward systems in workplace training  The Zone of Proximal Development
(e.g., bonuses for reaching learning (ZPD) suggests learners benefit most from
milestones). challenges that are just beyond their current
 Behavior modeling and simulation in training abilities, with guidance from more
(e.g., customer service skills). knowledgeable individuals.
 Job performance feedback to reinforce Application:
desirable behaviors.  Interactive workshops and collaborative
2. Cognitive Learning Theory learning environments (e.g., team projects,
role-playing).
 Key Concepts: Focuses on internal mental
 Hands-on, problem-based learning where
processes such as thinking, memory,
employees tackle real-world business
problem-solving, and information
scenarios.
processing.
 Mentoring and peer learning programs that
 Major Theorists: Jean Piaget, Jerome
support learning through collaboration and
Bruner.
social interaction.
 Principles:
4. Social Learning Theory
 Learning involves the active processing of
information and constructing knowledge  Key Concepts: Emphasizes learning
based on experiences. through observation, imitation, and
 People learn by forming mental models modeling of others' behaviors.
or schemas to understand new information.  Major Theorist: Albert Bandura.
 Metacognition (thinking about one's own  Principles:
thinking) is critical for self-regulated  People learn by observing others' actions
learning. and the outcomes of those actions
(vicarious learning).
  Learning  They bring prior experiences into the
involves attention, retention, reproduction (a learning process, which can shape how they
bility to replicate the behavior), learn new information.
and motivation.  Adults are motivated by problem-
 Self-efficacy (belief in one’s own abilities) solving and prefer learning that is relevant
plays a key role in learning and and applicable to real-world tasks.
performance.  Learning should be goal-oriented and
Application: directly related to the adult’s life or work.
 Modeling desired behaviors in training Application:
sessions, such as leadership or conflict  Providing employees with autonomy over
resolution skills. their learning paths, such as choosing
 Encouraging employees to learn from courses or learning materials.
mentors or peers by observing their  Linking training content to practical, job-
techniques and strategies. related tasks to ensure relevance.
 Developing training programs that use video  Incorporating learners’ experiences into
demonstrations or real-life simulations. discussions or activities (e.g., case-based
5. Experiential Learning Theory learning).
7. Humanistic Learning Theory
 Key Concepts: Learning occurs through
experience, and individuals learn best by  Key Concepts: Emphasizes the emotional,
doing. psychological, and social aspects of
 Major Theorist: David Kolb. learning, focusing on the development of
 Principles: the whole person.
 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle involves  Major Theorists: Abraham Maslow, Carl
four stages: Concrete Rogers.
Experience, Reflective  Principles:
Observation, Abstract Conceptualization,  Learning is seen as a path to personal
and Active Experimentation. growth and self-actualization.
 Learners cycle through experiencing,  Individuals are motivated to learn when they
reflecting on that experience, feel safe, respected, and valued.
conceptualizing what they’ve learned, and  Teachers/trainers act as facilitators, guiding
applying it to new situations. rather than directing the learning process.
 Emphasizes the importance of reflection in  Learning environments should be open,
the learning process. supportive, and encourage self-expression.
Application: Application:
 On-the-job training where employees learn  Creating a positive and supportive learning
by performing tasks and reflecting on environment where employees feel
outcomes. comfortable taking risks and expressing
 Case study analysis and simulation their ideas.
exercises to allow learners to apply their  Focusing on personal development, self-
knowledge in a practical setting. reflection, and the holistic growth of
 Group discussions and debriefings after employees in training programs.
training activities to encourage reflection.  Encouraging intrinsic motivation by helping
6. Adult Learning Theory (Andragogy) learners understand how training
contributes to their personal and
 Key Concepts: Focuses on how adults learn
professional goals.
differently from children and highlights the
8. Connectivism
importance of self-directed learning.
 Major Theorist: Malcolm Knowles.  Key Concepts: Focuses on the role of
 Principles: technology and networks in learning,
 Adults are self-directed learners who want especially in the digital age.
to take ownership of their learning.  Major Theorist: George Siemens, Stephen
Downes.
  Principles:
 Knowledge is distributed across a network
of connections (e.g., social networks,
databases), and learning happens by
connecting with information sources.
 Learning is not just about acquiring
knowledge but also about knowing where to
find it and how to connect with others to
share and build knowledge.
 Lifelong learning is supported by the
continuous flow of new information through
digital and social networks.
Application:
 Using online learning platforms that allow
for interaction with experts and peers (e.g.,
forums, social media, virtual classrooms).
 Encouraging the use of networks,
databases, and communities of practice to
facilitate continuous learning.
 Supporting employees in developing digital
literacy and skills for navigating and
contributing to online knowledge networks.

Conclusion:
Each learning theory provides different
insights into how people learn. Understanding
these theories can help organizations design
training programs that cater to diverse learning
styles and optimize the transfer of knowledge and
skills in th workplace. Combining elements from
various theories often leads to more effective and
well-rounded training and development initiatives.