Electrical: Workbook 06

AC Power

CADE10003 Engineering Science A

Dr David Drury and Dr Alicia Gonzalez-Buelga

November 6, 2024

Contents
1 To Do 3

2 Power in AC Circuits 3
2.1 Real, reactive and apparent power and the power trianlge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Instantaneous Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.1 Visualising Instantaneous Power Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.2 Key Takeaways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Average Values of AC quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3.1 Standard average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3.2 Root-Mean-Squared (RMS) Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Power triangle for AC quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.1 Apparent power, S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.2 Real Power, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4.3 Reactive Power, Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Examples 14
3.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4 Key Formula 23

1
How to use this workbook
We are experimenting with using these workbooks to try and reduce the amount of time spent watching and
taking notes on long videos for this part of Engineering Science A and trying to focus on practicing examples.

As a result, our advice is to:

• Read through the work book using the tools and videos to improve your understanding. (≈1 hour)
• Use the examples at the end of the workbook as follows: (≈1.5 hours)
– Try the examples without using the solutions
– Use the answers listed after the questions to check you answers.
– Use the solutions to improve your understanding where you made mistakes.
• Attend the live session in the week and have a go at some more examples in real-time (≈1 hour)
• Attend drop-in sessions or use the discussion forums if you are still struggling to understand (≈0.5 hours)
• Use the equation key equation list at the end of the workbook to help you prepare for exams
• Use the links at the end of the work book to follow up anything that interested you

Conventions in the workbook

Reinforcing learning - VIDEO - Example Video (7 mins)
These pink boxes indicate that there is a short (normally around than 5 minutes)
video to support the material being discussed. There will be no material in the
video that is not in the workbook BUT the video will offer a different perspective
or demonstrate an idea best done in the video format.
Either click on the QR code or use your phone to follow it to get to the video.

Reinforcing learning - WORKED EXAMPLE - Worked Example explanation

These purple boxes will take you through the material just taught using a worked example.
These will be similar in nature and style to the examples at the end of the workbooks (for you
to do in your own time), the guided examples tackled in live sessions and question in an exam.
They will sometimes have a clickable QR code associated with them that links to a video of the
example being complete in real-time to help.

Reinforcing learning - TOOLS - Use tools to improve understanding

These green boxes will contain a link to an externally hosted tool/video to help
you understand this particular aspect of the course more easily.

RECALL KNOWLEDGE - Info from post 16 education or links to other modules

These yellow boxes will contain a piece of information/maths/science that we think you should
already know from your post-16 education sometimes with a link to where you can find more info on
this info. If you come across one of thee that you are certtain hasn’t been covered in your post-16
education let us know via the discussion boards.

OPTIONAL - IMPROVE UNDERSTANDING - Not essential for exams

These grey boxes are NOT REQUIRED FOR EXAMS and should only be read if you have time and
want to understand a particular aspect of the subject in more depth. They are not essential for getting
through this aspect of Engineering Science and if you are struggling for time IGNORE THESE and
focus on doing examples.

2
1 To Do
Welcome to workbook 6 where we’ll be covering power in AC circuits. Please complete this workbook before
the lecture. The objectives this week are:
1. Distinguish real, reactive and apparent power in AC circuits
2. Calculate instantaneous power for AC circuits
3. Calculate average and Root-Mean-Squared (RMS) quantities from AC periodic signals
4. Calculate and use power factor

2 Power in AC Circuits
2.1 Real, reactive and apparent power and the power trianlge
Recall that for an AC circuit, the load, or the impedance is a complex quantity that can be formed from a
combination of Resistance R, Capacitance C, and Inductance, L, and that we define the impedance of a load
formed from these components as shown in equation 2.1 and in figure 1a.

1 1
Z= R + j(Lω − ) = R + jLω + = R + jX = |Z|̸ (ϕz ) (1)
{z Cω } jCω
|{z}
Resistive element |
Reactive element
of impedance
of impedance

Power for an AC circuit is also a complex quantity that has three elements:
• Real Power, P [Watts, W]
• Reactive Power, Q [Volt Amperes Reactive, VAr]
• Apparent Power, S [Volt Amperes, VA]

where the reactive power is an imaginary component and we therefore define the relationship between the
elements as shown in equation 2.

S
|{z} = P
|{z} + jQ = |S|̸ (ϕS ) (2)
|{z}
Apparent Power Real Power Reactive Power

We can represent these elements on a power triangle (figure 1b), similar to the impedance triangle (figure 1a).
NOTE: For a single reactive load composed purely of series resistances, capacitances and induc-
tances, the impedance angle (ϕz ) and the power angle (ϕS ) will be the same as each other.

Reinforcing learning - VIDEO - The power triangle (3 mins)

Watch this video to get a quick explanation of real, reactive and apparent power.

er
ce ow
d an nt
P
e re
I mp jX, Reactance
pp
a jQ, Reactive Power
Z, A
S,
ϕz ϕS

R, Resistance P , Real Power

(a) Impedance Triangle (b) Power Triangle

Figure 1: AC impedance and power relationships

3
2.2 Instantaneous Power
Instantaneous power, p(t) in an AC circuit is calculated in the same ways as for a DC circuit:

p(t) = v(t) · i(t) (3)

For a DC system in the steady state, both v(t) and i(t) are constant, giving a constant value of p(t). However,
things are slightly more complicated for AC signals. Recall that in a simple, linear circuit (such as those we are
dealing with in this unit) both v(t) and i(t) will be sinusoidal (cosine functions) each with a fixed amplitude
(VM , IM ), the same angular frequency, ω and phase shift (ϕv , ϕi ):

v(t) = VM · cos(ωt + ϕv ) (4a)

i(t) = IM · cos(ωt + ϕi ) (4b)

Multiplying these two time varying quantities together we get the following function:

p(t) = VM · IM cos(ωt + ϕv ) cos(ωt + ϕi ) (5)

RECALL KNOWLEDGE - Trig Identity

Remembering the trigonometric identity:

1
cos ϕ1 · cos ϕ2 = [cos(ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) + cos(ϕ1 + ϕ2 )] (6)
2

we get an expression for the instantaneous power that is:

VM · IM
p(t) = [cos(ϕv − ϕi ) + cos(2ωt + ϕv + ϕi ) ] (7)
2 | {z } | {z }
constant twice the supply frequency

Reinforcing learning - WORKED EXAMPLE - Instantaneous Power

Question: Determine the function that represents the instantaneous power
for a resistive and reactive load whose total equivalent impedance is repre-
sented by the phasor Z = 2̸ (30◦ )[Ω] that is in series with a voltage source, v(t) = 4 cos(ωt + 60◦ )

v(t) = 4 cos(ωt + 60◦ )[V ] as shown in figure 2.

Answer: First we must find the current i(t) that flows through the load, Z:
i(t)
v(t) 4̸ (60◦ ) 4
i(t) = = ◦
= ̸ (60◦ − 30◦ )
Z ̸
2 (30 ) 2
(8)
= 2̸ (30◦ )
Z = 2̸ 30◦ Ω
= 2 cos(ωt + 30◦ )[A]
Figure 2: Simple
Now we can calculate the instantaneous power, p(t): AC Load

VM · IM
p(t) = [cos(ϕv − ϕi ) + cos(2ωt + ϕv + ϕi )]
2
4·2
= [cos(60◦ − 30◦ ) + cos(2ωt + 60◦ + 30◦ )]
2 (9)
= 4 cos(30◦ ) + 4 cos(2ωt + 90◦ )
= 3.46 + 4 cos(2ωt + 90◦ )[V A]

4
2.2.1 Visualising Instantaneous Power Function

Notice that the expression has two distinct parts representing the two elements that contribute to AC apparent
power:

• a constant part ( VM2·IM cos(ϕv − ϕi )) - REAL POWER

• a part at twice the supply frequency VM ·IM

2 cos(2ωt + ϕv + ϕi ) - REACTIVE POWER

If we plot this power function for an AC voltage waveform with amplitude, VM = 1[V], frequency, fv = 1Hz
and phase angle ϕv = 0◦ and an AC current waveform with amplitude, VM = 2V, frequency, fi = 1Hz (shown
in figure 3a and phase angle ϕi = 60◦ it looks as shown in figure 3b. Note that:

ϕi = 60◦ p(t) = v(t)i(t)

IM = 2
2 2 VM ·IM
2 =1
Voltage,Current [V, A]

VM = 1

Inst. Power [VA]

0 ϕv = 0 ◦ 0

ϕv + ϕi = −60◦

−2 v(t) −2 VM ·IM
2 cos(ϕv − ϕ) = 0.5
i(t)

−0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Time [Seconds] Time [Seconds]

(a) Voltage and current waveforms, v(t) and i(t) (b) Generic instantaneous power function, p(t)

Figure 3: AC waveforms for voltage (VM = 1, ϕv = 0◦ ), current (IM = 2, ϕi = −60◦ ) and inst. power,
current lags voltage by 60◦ )

• the frequency of the the instantaneous power waveform (fp = 2Hz) is double that of either the voltage or
current waveform (fv = fi = 1Hz)

• the magnitude of the AC component of the instantaneous power is half of the product of the voltage
magnitude and the current magntiude ( VM2·IM = 1)

• the average value of the function (or the y-offset) is equal to VM ·IM
2 cos(ϕv − ϕi ) = 1 × cos 60◦ = 0.5

• the cosine waveform is offset horizontally from the x-axis by the sum of the current phase angle and the
voltage phase angle (ϕv + ϕi ) = −60◦

Reinforcing learning - VIDEO - Understanding instantaneous power (4 mins)

Watch this video to see the impact of the phase angle difference between voltage
and current on the instantaneous power. Note it uses the Geogebra pge linked to
below.

Reinforcing learning - TOOLS - Interactive Tool for Instantaneous Power

Use this resource to interactively explore the relationship between voltage and
current amplitudes and phase differences and instantaneous power.
https://www.geogebra.org/m/zp89u7eb

5
 Reinforcing learning - WORKED EXAMPLE - Power in RC Load
v(t) = 10̸ 60◦ , ω = 10rads−1

Question : For the circuit shown in figure = 4, calculate the: i(t)

VC
1. total average power absorbed by the entire load VR

2. voltages across the resistor, VR and the capacitor VC

R = 2Ω
3. average power absorbed each element, PRAV E and PCAV E XC = −j2Ω

Figure 4: Simple Resistive,

Capacitive (RC) Load

Answer, Part (i): First we have to find the current (elements in series so will be the same in
each element):

v(t) 10̸ 60◦ 10̸ 60◦ 10̸ 60◦

i(t) = = =p −2 ◦ = √
2 − j2 22 + (−2)2 ̸ tan−1 2



ZR + ZC 2 2̸ (−45◦ )
10
= √ ̸ (60◦ − (−45◦ )) = 3.53̸ 105◦
2 2

So we know that VM = 10, ϕv = 60◦ , IM = 3.53, ϕi = 105◦ , ω = 10. Hence we can find the
instantaneous power:

V M · IM
p(t) = [cos(ϕi v − ϕi ) + cos(20t + ϕv + ϕi )]
2
35.3
= [cos(60◦ − 105◦ ) + cos(20t + 60◦ + 105◦ )]
2
= 17.65(cos(−45◦ ) + cos(20t + 165◦ )
= 12.48 + 17.65 cos(20t + 165◦ )

So the average power absorbed by the combined impedance is the dc offset which is 12.48[W]
Part (ii): We can find the voltage across each element using the potential divider equations.
First for the resistor, RL :

ZR 2̸ 0◦ 20
VR = v(t) · = 10̸ 60◦ · √ = √ ̸ (0◦ + 60◦ − (−45◦ )) (10)
ZR + ZC 2 2̸ − 45◦ 2 2
= 7.07̸ 105◦ [V ] (11)

Do the same for the capacitor:

ZC 2̸ (−90◦ ) 20
VC = v(t) · = 10̸ 60◦ · √ = √ ̸ (−90◦ + 60◦ − (−45◦ )) (12)
ZR + ZC 2 2̸ − 45◦ 2 2
= 7.07̸ 15◦ [V ] (13)

VM ·IM
Part (iii): Finally we use the fact that the average power, PAV E = 2 cos(ϕv − ϕi ) to
calculate the average power abosrbed by each element.

7.07 · 3.53
PRAV E = cos(105◦ − 105◦ ) = 12.48 cos 0◦ = 12.48[W ] (14)
2
7.07 · 3.53
PCAV E = cos(15◦ − 105◦ ) = 12.48 cos(−90◦ ) = 0[W ] (15)
2

So all of the power is absorbed through the resistor.

6
2.2.2 Key Takeaways

The key takeaways here are

• The y-offset of the instantaneous power function tells us the amount of real power being consumed or
produced (power being gained by or lost from the electrical circuit)

• The oscillating component tells us how much energy is being ”bounced” or ”reflected” between reactive
components and sources and is the reactive component of the power.

2.3 Average Values of AC quantities

There are two ”types” of average that we are interested in when looking at electrical signals:

1. Linear or standard average

2. Root-mean-squared average (often referred to as RMS)

2.3.1 Standard average

This is the way of calculating the average that you should already by familiar with. We find the average value
(YAV E ) for an AC quantity (Y (t)) by finding the integral of that quantity over a single full AC cycle and then
divide the time that the cycle takes (find the area under the graph for a cycle and divide by the time the cycle
takes):
Z tend
1
YAV E = Y (t)dt (16)
tend − tstart tstart

Applying this to the instantaneous power signal, p(t), we see that:

Z tend
1
pAV E = v(t) · i(t)dt (17)
tend − tstart tstart

Looking at the function in figure 3b, it should appear obvious that the sinusoidal component of the function
will always average to zero over a single AC cycle, meaning that:

the standard average value of the instantaneous power function represents the REAL
POWER lost from or gained to the electrical circuit.

Hence the average value of power (an many other quantities) normally captures the real part only of a signal
and ignores the reactive part. If we need this missing average information to be captured for AC signals (which
we often do) we use the root-mean-squared (RMS) average instead.

Reinforcing learning - VIDEO - What is standard average of an AC signal? (3 mins)

Watch this video to better what the ”standard” average means when dealing with
AC signals such as voltage, current and power.

Reinforcing learning - WORKED EXAMPLE - Average power

Question: Calculate the standard average power for the previous example (figure 2).
Answer: We could do the integration directly, but based upon the power function calculated
in the previous example,

p(t) = 4 cos 30◦ + 4 cos(2ωt + 90◦ )[V A] (18)

We can determine the average power by inspection, it is the y-offset = 4 cos 30◦ = 3.46 [W]

7
OPTIONAL - IMPROVE UNDERSTANDING - PROOF - Average of inst. AC power, p(t)
We will assume that both the voltage and current are sinusoidal functions that have the same angular
frequency (ω) but different amplitudes (VM and IM ) and phase angles (ϕv and ϕi ).

If we substitute in the instantaneous power equation (4):

tend
VM · IM
Z
1
pAV E = [cos(ϕv − ϕi ) + cos(2ωt + ϕv + ϕi )]dt (19)
tend − tstart tstart 2
Z tend
V M · IM
= [cos(ϕv − ϕi ) + cos(2ωt + ϕv + ϕi )]dt (20)
2(tend − tstart ) tstart

We know that a full single AC cycle (0 → 2π) of either of the voltage or current functions will occur
1 1
every ω seconds (equivalent to 2π × ω radians). Therefore, as the power function has twice the AC
1
frequency we know that a full single AC cycle for power will occur in half that time (i.e. every 2ω
2π π
seconds or 2ω = ω radians).

π
We can therefore say that for the purposes of calculating the average, tstart = 0, tend = ω. Hence:
π
VM · IM
Z ω
pAV E = π [cos(ϕv − ϕi ) + cos(2ωt + ϕv + ϕi )]dt (21)
2( ω − 0) 0
π
ω · VM · IM
Z ω
= [cos(ϕv − ϕi ) + cos(2ωt + ϕv + ϕi )]dt (22)
2π 0
  ωπ
ω · VM · IM 1
= t · cos(ϕv − ϕi ) + (sin 2ωt + ϕv + ϕi ) (23)
2π 2ω 0

Substituting in the start and end conditions:

 
ω · VM · IM π 1  π
PAV E = cos(ϕv − ϕi ) + sin 2ω + ϕv + ϕi
2π ω 2ω ω
 
1
− 0 · cos(ϕv − ϕi ) + sin(2ω · 0 + ϕv + ϕi ) (24)
2ω

which simplifies to:

  
ω · VM · IM π 1
PAV E = cos(ϕv − ϕi ) + sin(2π + ϕv + ϕi ) − sin(ϕv + ϕi ) (25)
2π ω 2ω

We know that sin(2π + ϕv + ϕi ) = sin(ϕv + ϕi ) because these are the values of a sin function, one full
cycle apart, therefore we get the final result:
 
ω · VM · IM π
PAV E = cos(ϕv − ϕi ) (26)
2π ω
VM · IM
= cos(ϕv − ϕi ) (27)
2

which is equal to the y-offset in the instantaneous power function and represents the REAL POWER
gained by or lost from the electrical circuit.

This makes sense as the cosine function has the same area above and below the y-offset and hence the
average reactive power over an AC cycle always equals zero.

8
2.3.2 Root-Mean-Squared (RMS) Average

We calculate root-mean-squared values of AC quantities in a similar way to the standard except that we find
the average of the SQUARE of the function and divide then find the square root (hence the name). This means
that quantities that AC quantities that average to zero, no longer do so and appear as a component of the RMS
average.

The formal definition of a root-mean-squared average of a function X(t) is:

s Z tend
1 2
YRM S = [Y (t)] dt (28)
tend − tstart tstart

Reinforcing learning - VIDEO - RMS values in AC signals (3 mins)

Watch this video to see the why we use RMS values when dealing with AC signals
such as voltage and current on the instantaneous power.

2.3.2.1 Special Condition for RMS Calculation

If the signal being measured, Y (t) is purely sinusoidal with amplitude YM , and a y-offset of zero, i.e. Y (t) =
YM cos(ωt + ϕ) then the RMS value of that signal is simply:

|YM |
YRM S = √ (29)
2

YRM S
2
Y(t)

YAV E
−2

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Time [Seconds]

Figure 5: Average and RMS values of an AC waveform

Reinforcing learning - WORKED EXAMPLE - RMS values of simple signals

Question: Calculate the RMS value of the AC voltage and current waveforms given below:
(i) v(t) = 145 sin(134ωt + 23◦ )
(ii) i(t) = −34 cos(2π · 50t − 65◦ )
(iii) vDC = 5

Answer:
The first two waveforms are purely sinusoidal, hence we can find the RMS using the simple
relationship given in equation 29.
|145|
(i) vRM S = √
2
= 102.5[V ]
|−34|
(ii) iRM S = √
2
= 24.0[A]
Waveform (iii) is DC and the equivalent RMS value of a DC waveform is simply the DC value.
(iii) VDCRM S = VDC = 5[V ]

9
 OPTIONAL - IMPROVE UNDERSTANDING - RMS Value for sinusoidal function
Let’s find the value of the RMS quantity for a sinusoidal function Y (t) = YM cot(ωt + ϕy ):
s Z tend
1 2
YRM S = [YM cos(ωt + ϕy )] dt (30)
tend − tstart tstart

We can see from the definition of y(t) that the AC angular frequency of the waveforms is ω[rads−1 ].
Hence, if we invert the angular frequency we get the time it takes for a single radian of the AC cycle
to occur:

rad 1
ω[ ] = Number of radians of the AC cycke that occur each second = Time for a single radian
s ω
(31)
2π
we know that a single full cycle of the AC waveform will take ω seconds. So the RMS expression
becomes:
s s
2π 2π
Z
YM2ω Z
1 ω
2 cos2 (ωt + ϕ )] dt =
ω
YRM S = 2π [YM y [cos2 (ωt + ϕy )] dt (32)
ω −0 0 2π 0

1+cos 2θ
which, based upon trigonometric identity cos2 (θ) = 2 :
s
2π
YM2ω Z ω
YRM S = 0.5 + cos(2[ωt + ϕy ])dt (33)
2π 0

We can now perform the integration:

s
2ω
  2π
YM 1 ω
YRM S = 0.5t + sin(2[ωt + ϕy ]) (34)
2π 2ω 0

and inserting the limits of integration:

s
2ω
    
YM π 1 2π 1
YRM S = + sin 2[ω + ϕy ] − 0 + sin(2 [0 + ϕy ]) (35)
2π ω 2ω ω 2ω
s
2
 
YM 1 1
= π + sin(4π + 2ϕy ) − sin(2ϕy ) (36)
2π 2 2

The last two terms in the equation are equal to one another as they are 2 full cycles (4π radians) apart.
Therefore the equation simplifies to:
r r
2
YM YM2
YM
YRM S = [π] = = √ (37)
2π 2 2

10
2.4 Power triangle for AC quantities
With reference to figure 6a we can use the RMS voltages and current to calculate the values of Apparent Power
S, Real Power P and Reactive Power Q.

er
nc
e
Pow
da en
t
pe r
,I
m X, Reactance
p pa Q, Reactive Power
Z A
S,
ϕz ϕS

R, Resistance P , Real Power

(a) Impedance Triangle (b) Power Triangle

Figure 6: AC impedance and power relationships

2.4.1 Apparent power, S

We can use this special condition to calculate the value of apparent power, for an element in a circuit that has
a voltage across it of v(t) with current through it of i(t) (equations 4). We know that for these two signals that
the RMS quantities of voltage and current can be calculated as:

VM
v(t) = VM cos(ωt + ϕv ), VRM S = √ (38a)
2
IM
i(t) = IM cos(ωt + ϕv ), IRM S = √ (38b)
2

We then find the value of apparent power, S by multiplying the RMS values of voltage and current:

VM · IM VM · IM
S = VRM S · IRM S = √ √ = (39)
2· 2 2

We could also calculate apparent power as a complex quantity using the RMS current, IRM S and the complex
impedance, Z of the load:
2 2
S = IRM S · Z = IRM S · (R + jX) (40)

2.4.2 Real Power, P

We can calculate real power using the RMS current, IRM S and the resistive element, R of the impedance of the
load (similar to P = I 2 · R for DC resistive load):

2
P = IRM S ·R (41)

This is the value of power lost by or gained to the electrical circuit.

2.4.3 Reactive Power, Q

Finally we can calculate reactive power using the RMS current, IRM S and the reactive element, X of the
impedance of the load:
2 2 1
Q = IRM S · jX = IRM S · j(Lω − ) (42)
Cω
This is the value of the power being exchanged (and conserved) between the reactive elements of the load (e.g.
inductors and capacitors) and any power sources.

11
 Reinforcing learning - VIDEO - Power factor in an RLC load (2 mins)

Watch this video to see how using RMS quantities with AC circuits makes dealing
with power easier.

Reinforcing learning - WORKED EXAMPLE - Power in an RC load

Question : For the circuit shown in figure 8, calculate the values of real, reactive and apparent
power
v(t) = 10̸ 60◦ , ω = 10rads−1

i(t)
VC
VR

R = 2Ω
XC = −j2Ω

Figure 7: Simple Resistive, Capacitive (RC) Load

Answer, Part (i): Recalling the circuit from the worked example in section 2.2.1:

v(t) = 10 cos(ωt + 60◦ )[V ], i(t) = 3.53 cos(ωt + 105◦ )[A] (43)

Hence we can find the RMS average values of votlage and current in the circuit:

10 3.53
VRM S = √ = 7.07[V ] IRM S = √ = 2.5[A] (44)
2 2

We know that the same current is seen in each element. Therefore we can say:

2 2 2
P = IRM S · R = IRM S · R = 2.5 · 2 = 12.5[W ] (45)
2 2 2
Q = IRM S · X = IRM S · ZC = 2.5 · (−j2) = −12.5[VAr] OR 12.5 [VAr] Capacitive (46)
p
S = |R + Q| = 12.52 + (−12.5)2 = 17.7 [VA] Capacitive (47)

2.5 Power Factor

Looking at the power triangle (figure 6b) we can see that the real and reactive components can be found by
knowing the apparent power and the power angle, ϕS .

By inspection and using trigonometry we can see that the real and reactive powers can be calculated as:

P = |S| cos ϕS (48)

Q = |S| sin ϕS (49)

We know that for linear circuits of the type we are looking at the impedance angle, −90◦ <= ϕS <= +90◦ .

Looking at five conditions within these limits we see in table 1 that the proportion of apparent power that
appears as real power is proportional to the cosine of the power angle, ϕS . Hence we call the cosine of the power
angle (cos ϕS ) the POWER FACTOR and we know that if power factor is:
• Power factor = 1, load is fully resistive, all apparent power appears as real power
• Power factor = 0, load is fully reactive, no apparent power appears as real power
• Power factor is between 0 and 1 (or between 0 and -1), load is a mixture of resistive and reactive compo-
nents, some apparent power appears as real power.

12
 Power Impedance cos ϕS Real Power, P Reactive Power,
sin ϕS
Angle, ϕS [◦ ] (or Load) Type (Power Factor) [W] Q [W]
−90 Fully capacitive 0 -1 0 −S
Resistive and 1 1 S S
−45 − sqrt(2) − sqrt(2) √ √
capacitive 2 2

0 Fully resistive 1 0 S 0
Resistive and 1 1 S S
45 sqrt(2) sqrt(2)
√ √
inductive 2 2

90 Fully inductive 0 1 0 S

Table 1: Examples of impact of power angle ϕS (and cos ϕS ) on real and reactive power

Reinforcing learning - WORKED EXAMPLE - Power factor in AC circuits

Question: For the circuit shown in figure 8, calculate the power factor and power angle.
v(t) = 10̸ 60◦ , ω = 10rads−1

i(t) = 3.53̸ 105◦

VC
VR

R = 2Ω
XC = −j2Ω

Figure 8: Simple Resistive, Capacitive (RC) Load

Answer: We know that the power factor is the cosine of the angle between the real and
apparent power, hence:
  
−1 P P 12.5
Power Factor, P F = cos cos = = (50)
S S −17.7
= −0.707 = 0.707 (Capacitive) (51)

The “Capacitive” label indicates that the power factor is negative and hence a capacitive appar-
ent power. The power angle is the arc cosine of the power factor:

ϕS = cos−1 (P F ) = cos−1 (−0.706) = −45◦ (52)

NOTICE: Because the load is composed purely of a series resistors, capacitors and inductors,
the impedance angle (ϕz ) and the power angle (ϕS ) are the same for this example.

Reinforcing learning - VIDEO - Power factor with RMS quantities in AC circuits (5 mins)

Watch this video to see how we can use power factor to determine the various power
quantities in an AC circuit and describe the state.

13
3 Examples
3.1 Questions

Question 3.1.1: For the circuit shown in figure 9 calculate the instantaneous power AND average
power:
(i) Delivered by the voltage source to the load
(ii) Absorbed across the resistor, R1
(iii) Observed across the inductor, L1
Vs (t) = 20 cos(100t − 15◦ )

i(t)
VL (t) VR (t)

L1 = 120mH
R1 = 25Ω

Figure 9: Simple AC circuit

REFLECTION POINT:
What do your results tell you about the power/energy in the inductor?
Solution on page 16

Question 3.1.2: Figure 11 shows a simple resistive load being supplied in two separate conditions:
• by a DC voltage source on the left, and
• by an AC voltage source on the right.
For these circuits:
(i) determine the value of the AC voltage source amplitude, VS , that results in the average AC power
absorbed by the load in the AC circuit being the same as the power absorbed by the load in the
DC circuit.
(ii) calculate the RMS value of the AC voltage assuming that the voltage is purely sinusoidal?

VDC = 100volt Vs (t) = Vs cos(125t + 45◦ )

−
+

i(t) i(t)

R1 = 10Ω R1 = 10Ω

Figure 11: Simple AC circuit

REFLECTION POINT:
What does this tell you about RMS quantities?
Solution on page 18

14
 Question 3.1.3: In the circuit shown in figure 13, the current source supplies an AC current to a
parallel RL (resistor + inductor) load, where R1 = 20[Ω], L1 = 1[H], and the soruce current is described
by the function:
is (t) = 5 cos(10t − 15◦ )[A] (105)

is (t)

Vs (t) R1 L1

Figure 13: Simple AC circuit

Calculate:
(i) Instantaneous power being deliver by the source
(ii) Average power being delivered by the supply
(iii) The apparent power being absorbed by the load (in complex form)
(iv) The real power being absorbed by the resistor
(v) The reactive power present in the inductor
(vi) Represent the answers to (iii), (iv) and (v) on a power triangle

REFLECTION POINT:
What does this tell you about the link between instantaneous power, average power and complex power?
Solution on page 19

3.2 Answers

Answer 3.1.1 Question on page 14, Solution on page 16

(i) P (t) = 7.22[cos(25.6◦ ) + cos(200t − 55.6◦ )][V A], PAV E = 6.516[W ],

◦ ◦
(ii) PR1 (t) = 6.516(cos(0 ) + cos(200t − 80.6 )[V A], PAV ER1 = 6.516[W ]
(iii) PL1 (t) = 3.126(cos(90◦ ) + cos(200t + 8.8◦ )[V A], PAV EL1 = 0[W ]

Answer 3.1.2 Question on page 14, Solution on page 18

VRM SS = 100[V ], RMS quantities in AC circuits are equivalent to DC values.

Answer 3.1.3 Question on page 15, Solution on page 19

(i) PS (t) = 111.8 cos(63.4◦ ) + cos(2t + 33.4◦ )[W ]

(ii) PAV ES = 50.1[W ]
(iii) S = 111.9̸ (63.4◦ )[V A] = 50.1 + j100.1[V A]
(iv) PR1 = 50[W ]
(v) QL1 = 100[V Ar]

15
3.3 Solutions

Solution of Exercise 3.1.1 on page 14:

Vs (t) = 20 cos(100t − 15◦ )

i(t)
VL (t) VR (t)

L1 = 120mH
R1 = 25Ω

Figure 17: Simple AC circuit

Part (i):

The angular frequency of the voltage source is ω = 100radians− 1, hence we can calculate the total
impedance of the load based on the given resistance, R1 and inductance, L1 :

ZT = ZR + ZL1 (143)
|{z} |{z}
25+j0 (0+j0.12×100)

= 25 + j12 (144)
  
p 12
= 252 + 122 ̸ tan−1 (145)
25
= 27.7̸ 25.6◦ (146)

We can now use the phasor representation of the impedance along with the phasor representation of the
voltage Vs (t) = 20̸ −15◦ to determine the current, i(t)

VS (t) 20̸ −15◦

i(t) = = (147)
Z 27.7̸ 25.6◦
20
27.2
= (148)
−15◦ − 25.6◦
= 0.722̸ −40.6◦ (149)
◦
= 0.722 cos(100t − 40.6 ) (150)

Now we have the source voltage and the current, we can calculate the total power delivered from the
source, p(t) :

P (t) = VS (t) · i(t) = 20 cos(100t − 15◦ ) · 0.722 cos(100t − 40.6◦ ) (151)

20 × 0.722
= [cos(−15◦ − −40.6◦ ) + cos(200t + (−15◦ + −40.6◦ ))] (152)
2
= 7.22[cos(25.6◦ ) + cos(200t − 55.6◦ )][V A] (153)

Hence the average power is the first term:

PAV E = 7.22[cos(25.6◦ )] = 6.516[W ] (154)

16
Part (ii):

This this part and part (iii) we need to determine the voltage across each component and apply the same
process. For the resistor, ZR1 = 25 + j0Ω. Hence, using the theory of potential dividers we can find VR1

ZR1 Z R1
VR1 = VS × = (155)
ZR1 × ZL1 ZT
25 ̸ 0◦
= 20̸ − 15c irc × (156)
27.7̸ 25.6◦
20 × 25
= ̸ (−15◦ + 0◦ − 25.6◦ ) (157)
27.7
= 18.05̸ −40.6◦ (158)

We can now use this voltage, VR1 to determine the power in this component:

PR1 (t) = VR1 (t) × i(t) = 18.05̸ −40.6◦ × 0.722 cos(100t − 40.6◦ ) (159)
18.05 × 0.722
= [cos(−40.6◦ − −40.6◦ ) + cos(200t + −40.6◦ + −40.6◦ )] (160)
2
= 6.516[1 + cos(200t − 81.2◦ )] (161)

We know that because the power in the resistor is a sinusoidal signal, that the average , PAV ER1 is the
constant part, therefore:
PAV ER1 = 6.516[W ] (162)

Part (iii):

We use a similar technique for the inductor L1 = 0 + j12Ω. Using the theory of potential dividers we
can find VL1

ZL1 ZL1
VL1 = VS × = (163)
ZR1 × ZL1 ZT
12 ̸ 90◦
= 20̸ − 15c irc × (164)
27.7̸ 25.6◦
20 × 12
= ̸ (−15◦ + 90◦ − 25.6◦ ) (165)
27.7
= 8.66̸ 49.4◦ (166)

We can now use this voltage, VL1 to determine the power seen in this component:

PL1 (t) = VL1 (t) × i(t) = 8.66̸ 49.4◦ × 0.722 cos(100t − 40.6◦ ) (167)
8.66 × 0.722
= [cos(−40.6◦ − 49.4◦ ) + cos(200t + −40.6◦ + 49.4◦ )] (168)
2
= 3.126[0 + cos(200t + 8.8◦ )] (169)

We know that because the power in the inductor is a sinusoidal signal, that the average , PAV EL1 is the
constant part, therefore:
PAV EL1 = 0[W ] (170)

REFLECTION POINT:
Average power is all lost by the resistor, none is lost through the inductor.

17
Solution of Exercise 3.1.2 on page 14:
VDC = 100volt Vs (t) = Vs cos(125t + 45◦ )

−
+
i(t) i(t)

R1 = 10Ω R1 = 10Ω

Figure 18: Simple AC circuit

Part (i):

First we will determine the power being absorbed by the resistor in that circuit:

PDC = VDC × iDC (171)

2
VDC VDC
= VDC × = (172)
R1 R1
1002
= = 1000[W ] = 1[kW ] (173)
10

To find the expression for the average power in the AC circuit, we need to determine the current in the
AC circuit as PAC (t) = VAC (t) × iAC (t). Hence:

VAC (t)
iAC (t) = (174)
Z
VS cos(125t + 45◦ )
= (175)
10 + 0j
VS 45◦
̸
= (176)
10̸ 0◦
= 0.1VS ̸ 45◦ (177)
◦
= 0.1VS cos(125t + 45 ) (178)

So we can now calculate the power PAC (t):

PAC (t) = VAC (t) × iAC (t) (179)

◦ ◦
= VS cos(125t + 45 ) × 0.1VS cos(125t + 45 ) (180)
0.1VS2
= [cos(45◦ − 45◦ ) + cos(250t + 45◦ + 45◦ )] (181)
2
= 0.05VS2 [cos(0◦ ) + cos(250t + 90◦ )] (182)
= 0.05V 2 +0.05VS2 cos(250t + 90◦ ) (183)
| {z S}
Average AC power

and now we can use this expression with that for the DC power to determine the AC voltage magnitude

18
that makes the DC and AC average power equal:

PDC = PAV EDC (184)

1000 = 0.05VS2 (185)
20000 = VS2 (186)
√
VS = 20000 = 141.4[V ] (187)

Part (ii):

We now need to convert this voltage into an RMS equivalent. This is simple as the waveform is a pure
sinusoid. Hence:
141.4
VSRM S = √ = 100[V ] (188)
2
REFLECTION POINT:
If we determine the current of the AC waveform we see that:

iAC (t) = 0.1VS cos(125t + 45◦ ) (189)

◦
= 0.1 × 141.4 cos(125t + 45 ) (190)
= 14.14 cos(125t + 45◦ ) (191)

And use this to find the RMS of the current waveform

14.14
iACRM S = √ = 10[A] (192)
2

and now use this with the RMS voltage to determine the power, PAC we see that:

PAC = VACRM S × iACRM S cos(0◦ ) = 100 × 10 × 1 = 1000[W ] = 1[kW ] (193)

Which is very similar to the calculation for the DC circuit:

PDC = VDC × iDC = 100 × 10 = 1000[W ] = 1[kW ] (194)

Hence we see that power quantities derived using RMS values of voltages and current are as close as we
can get to equivalent DC quantities in an AC system.

Solution of Exercise 3.1.3 on page 15:

is (t)

Vs (t) R1 L1

iR (t) iL (t)

Figure 19: Simple AC circuit

Part (i) and (ii):

19
We know the following:

is (t) = 5 cos(10t − 15◦ ) = 5̸ − 15◦ [A] (195)

◦
ZR = R1 + j0 = 20 + j0 = 20̸ 0 [Ω] (196)
ZL = 0 + jL1 = 0 + j(1 × 10) = 0 + j10 = 10̸ 90◦ [Ω] (197)

To determine the power begin delivered by the source we have the current so the first thing that we
need to do is determine the total source voltage, VS = is × ZT . Hence we need to determine the total
equivalent impedance of the inductor and resistor in parallel:

1 1 1 1 ZR + ZL ZR · ZL
= + , = , ZT = (198)
ZT ZR ZL ZT ZR · ZL ZR + ZL

We can use the complex representation to sum the to impedances and the phasor representation to do
the multiplication quickly.

20̸ 0◦ × 10̸ 90◦ (20 × 10)̸ (0◦ + 90◦ ) 200̸ 90◦

ZT = = = (199)
(20 + j0) + (0 + j10) 20 + j10 20 + j10
200̸ 90◦
=√ (200)
202 + 102 ̸ (tan−1 ( 10
20 ))
̸ ◦
200 90
= (201)
22.36̸ 26.57◦
= 8.94̸ 63.43◦ OR 4 + j8 (202)

Using this total impedance, we can now determine the source voltage, VS :

VS = iS × ZT = 5̸ (−15◦ ) × 8.94̸ 63.43◦ (203)

◦ ◦
= 44.7̸ 48.43 = 44.7 cos(10t + 48.4 ) (204)

Finally, we can find the instantaneous power:

p(t) = VS (t) × is (t) = 44.7 cos(10t + 48.4◦ ) × 5 cos(10t − 15◦ ) (205)

44.7 × 5
= [cos(48.4◦ − −15◦ ) + cos(20t + 48.4◦ + −15◦ )] (206)
2
= 111.8 [cos(63.4◦ ) + cos(20t + 33.4◦ )] (207)
= 50.1
|{z} +111.8 cos(20t + 33.8◦ ) (208)
Average Power
from supply

Note that the answer to part (ii) is the first part of this expression (PAV E = 50.1[W ]). This function
and the average power are shown graphically on the figure 20 below.

100
Y(t)

0
PAV E
−100

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Time [Seconds]

Figure 20: Instantaneous power from the source

Part (iii):

20
We can find the magnitude of the apparent power by multiplying the RMS values of the current and
voltage together. This is made simpler due to the fact that both the current and voltage waveforms are
sinusoidal:

VM IM
S = VRM S × IRM S = √ × √ (209)
2 2
44.72 5
= √ ×√ (210)
2 2
= 31.62 × 3.54 = 111.8 (211)
= 111.8[V A] (212)

Find complex form: So, we now know that the apparent power (hypotenuse of power triangle)
S = 111.8[V A] and that the real power (x- or real-axis of power triangle) for this problem, P = 50.1[W ],
hence the remainder of the apparent power but be the reactive power which will be on the y-axis or
imaginary axis of the power triangle.

S = R + jQ (213)
p
|S| = R2 + Q2 (214)
2 2 2 2 2
Q = |S| − R = 111.8 − 50.1 = 12499 − 2510 = 9989 (215)
Q = 100[V Ar] (216)
S = 50.1 + j100[V A] (217)

Note: It is possible to do this calculation using phasors but requires the use of the complex conju-
gate of the current AND the result needs interpretation (in terms of the resulting phase angle - NOT
RECOMMENDED FOR THIS COURSE)

Part (iv):

There are at least three different ways of approaching this type of question:
2
1. Use RMS values of voltage and standard power equations (P = VZ )
2. Find the current in the resistor, iR (t), find the instantaneous power, pR (t) and extract average
power
3. Use the power factor (or impedance angle) of the total impedance, ZT (from part i) and the
apparent power (from part (iii))

Route 1: This part (and part v) is easier that it might seem at first as because the resistor and inductor
are in parallel, they both see the same voltage, and it is the current that splits. Because we are only
interested in the magnitude of the RMS values we can use the same types of equations that we would
use for DC systems. Note that in these cases, the value of impedance that we use is the magnitude of
the impedance (which is equivalent to the RMS value of impedance). We know that

44.72
|VSRM S | = √ , |ZR | = |(20 + j0)| = 20 (218)
2

VS2 44.722 2000

PR = = = = 50[W ] (219)
|ZR | 2 × 20 40

Route 2: We could have achieved the same results by finding the current in the resistor and then
finding the average value of the power:

VS (t) 44.72̸ 48.4◦ 44.72

iR (t) = = = ̸ (48.4◦ − 0◦ ) = 2.24̸ 48.4◦ = 2.24 cos(10t + 48.4◦ ) (220)
ZR 20̸ 0◦ 20

21
the power is:

pR (t) = VS (t) × iR (t) = 44.72 cos(10t + 48.4◦ ) × 2.24 cos(10t + 48.4◦ ) (221)
44.72 × 2.24
= [cos 0◦ + cos(20t + 48.4◦ + 48.4◦ ))] (222)
2
= 50.1 + 50.1 cos(20t + 96.8◦ )[W ] (223)

The RMS value of a DC signal is value the value of the signal, therefore PR = PRAV E = 50.1[W ]

Route 3: Finally, given that we are trying the find the power in the resistor, which will be REAL
power only, we can use the expression:

PR = S cos ϕz = 111.8 cos 63.4◦ = 50.1[W ] (224)

Part (v):

We can use the same three approaches from part (iv), using the current or impedance or finding the
reactive power for the inductor, L1 :
Route 1: We know that

44.72
|VS | = √ , |ZL | = |(0 + j10)| = j10 (225)
2

VS2 44.722 2000

QR = = = = 100[VAr] (226)
|ZL | 2 × 10 20

Route 2: Find the current in the inductor, iL (t) and then finding the average value of the power:

VS (t) 44.72̸ 48.4◦ 44.72

iL (t) = = = ̸ (48.4◦ − 90◦ ) = 4.47̸ − 41.6◦ = 4.47 cos(10t − 41.6◦ ) (227)
ZL ̸
10 90 ◦ 10

the power is:

QL (t) = VS (t) × iR (t) = 44.72 cos(10t + 48.4◦ ) × 4.47 cos(10t − 41.6◦ ) (228)
44.72 × 4.47
= [cos 90◦ + cos(20t + 48.4◦ + −41.6◦ ))] (229)
2
= 0 + 100 cos(20t + 7.2◦ ) [VAr] (230)

therefore QL = 100[VAr]

Route 3: Finally, given that we are trying the find the reactive power in the inductor, which will be
reactive power only, we can use the expression:

QL = SRM S sin ϕz = 111.8 sin 63.4◦ = 100 [VAr] (231)

Part (vi):

Remembering (from part (i)) that the total equivalent impedance, ZT = 4 + j8[Ω] we see the impedance
and power triangles below. Note that the power and impedance angles (ϕz and ϕS ) are equal as the
load shown on the impedance triangle is the single equivalent impedance composed of a resistor and an
inductor in series, NOT the original individual resistor and inductance in parallel.

22
 ]

]
Ar

8[Ω
.8[V

+j
QL = 100[V Ar] ZL = 8[Ω]

111

=4
S=

ZT
ϕz ϕz

PR = 50[W ] ZR = 4[Ω]

Figure 21: AC impedance and RMS power relationships

REFLECTION POINT:

4 Key Formula

Instantaneous power p(t) = i(t) · v(t)

VM ·IM
Instantaneous power p(t) = 2 [(cos (ϕv − ϕi )) + cos (2ωt + ϕv + ϕi )]
AC Power S = P + jQ
RMS Amplitude if g(t) = G cos (ωt + ϕ), then gRM S = √G
(2)
2
2 VRM
Apparent Power, S S= IRM SZ = Z
S

2
2 VRM
Real Power, P P = IRM SR = R
S

2
2 VRM S
Reactive Power, Q Q = IRM SX = Q
P
Power Factor, PF PF = S

Power Factor, P F (capacitive or inductive)0 <= P F <= 1

Table 2: Key Formulae

23