Physical Layer

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Introduction
 A transmission medium can carry information from a source to a
destination.

 In data communications the definition of the information and the

transmission medium is more specific.

 The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic

cable.

 The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data

from another form.

 In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad

categories: guided and unguided.
 Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

 Unguided medium (Wireless) is free space.

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Wireless media/communication
 For the mobile users, twisted pair, coax, and fiber optics are of no use.

 They need to get the required data for their mobile devices without being
bounded to the global communication infrastructure.

 For these users, wireless communication is the answer.

 Wireless has advantages for even fixed devices in some circumstances.

 For example, if running a fiber to a building is difficult due to the terrain

(mountains, jungles, swamps, etc.), wireless may be better.

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 Electromagnetic Spectrum

 When electrons move, they create electromagnetic waves that can

propagate through space (even in a vacuum).

 The number of oscillations per second of a wave is called its frequency,

f, and is measured in Hz (in honor of Heinrich Hertz).

 The distance between two consecutive maxima (or minima) is called the
wavelength, which is universally designated by the Greek letter λ.

 When an antenna of the appropriate size is attached to an electrical circuit, the

electromagnetic waves can be broadcast efficiently and received by a receiver some
distance away.

 All wireless communication is based on this principle.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.

 The electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for
wireless communication

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Types of Electromagnetic Radiation

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Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation

Low-frequency High-frequency Very High-frequency

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 Electromagnetic Spectrum
 In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the
transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet. Distance depends
on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the greater the
distance.

 In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the

ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they
are reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater
distances with lower output power.

 In line-or-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in

straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional,
facing each other, and either tall enough or close enough together not to be
affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of-sight propagation is tricky
because radio transmissions cannot be completely focused

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 Electromagnetic Spectrum
 In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed, no matter
what their frequency is.

 This speed, usually called the speed of light, c, is approximately 3 × 108 m/sec.
 In copper or fiber the speed slows to about 2/3 of this value and becomes
slightly frequency dependent.
 The speed of light is the ultimate speed limit. No object or signal can ever
move faster than it.
 The fundamental relation between f, λ, and c (in a vacuum) is: λf = c
 Since c is a constant, if we know f, we can find λ, and vice versa.
 As a rule of thumb, when λ is in meters and f is in MHz, λf ≈ 300.

 For example, 100-MHz waves are about 3 meters long, 1000-MHz waves are
0.3 meters long, and 0.1-meter waves have a frequency of 3000 MHz.
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Electromagnetic Spectrum

Used for transmitting information by modulating the

amplitude, frequency, or phase of the waves.

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 The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and
microwaves is divided into eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by
government authorities (ITU (International Telecommunication Union))

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Wireless transmission waves

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Radio waves
 Used for multicast communications, such as
radio, television, cordless phones, and
paging systems.

 They can penetrate through walls.

 Highly regulated.

 Use omnidirectional antennas that send out

signals in all directions.

 Based on the wavelength, strength, and the

purpose of transmission, we can have
several types of antennas.

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Microwaves
 Microwaves are used for unicast communication (since they are
unidirectional) such as cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless
LANs.

 Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls.

 Use directional antennas - point to point line of sight communications.

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Infrared signals
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.

 Used in short-range communications such as those between a PC and a

peripheral device. It can also be used for indoor LAN, remote controls,
security systems and thermal imaging cameras which detect people in the
dark.

 They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build but have a major
drawback: they do not pass through solid objects.

 Advantage: Against eavesdropping is better that means no one sitting at

next room or your neighbor can not interfere/control your devices.

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 Guided media
 A guided medium provides a physical channel from one device to another.

 Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and optical fiber are the most popular types
of guided media.

 A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium.

 Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept
and transport signals in the form of electric current.

 Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

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Guided media: Twisted pair
 A twisted pair cable comprises of two separate insulated copper wires, which
are twisted together and run in parallel. The copper wires are typically 1mm in
diameter.

 One of the wires is used to transmit data and the other is the ground
reference.
 Reason for Twisting
 All transmissions are prone to noise, interferences, and crosstalks.
 When the wires are twisted, some part of the noise signals is in the direction
of data signals while the other parts are in the opposite directions.
 Thus the external waves cancel out due to the different twists.
 The receiver calculates the difference in the voltages of the two wires for
retrieving data. Thus a much better immunity against noise is obtained.
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 Guided media: Twisted pair
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
 This has the ability to block interference and does not
depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for
telephonic applications.
 Advantages: Least expensive, Easy to install, High speed
 Disadvantages: Susceptible to external interference, Lower
capacity and performance in comparison to STP, Short
distance transmission due to attenuation
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
 This consists of a special jacket to block external interference.
It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data
channels of telephone lines.
 Advantages: Better performance at a higher data rate in
comparison to UTP, Eliminates crosstalk, faster
 Disadvantages: Comparatively difficult to install and
manufacture, More expensive
Guided media: Twisted pair
 Categories: The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed
standards to classify unshielded twisted-pair cable into seven categories.

 Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7 as the
highest. Each EIA category is suitable for specific uses.
 Category 1 − UTP used in telephone lines with data rate < 0.1 Mbps
 Category 2 − UTP used in transmission lines with a data rate of 2 Mbps
 Category 3 − UTP used in LANs with a data rate of 10 Mbps
 Category 4 − UTP used in Token Ring networks with a data rate of 20 Mbps
 Category 5 − UTP used in LANs with a data rate of 100 Mbps
 Category 6 − UTP used in LANs with a data rate of 200 Mbps
 Category 7 − STP used in LANs with a data rate of 10 Mbps

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Cables and connectors

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Guided Media: Coaxial cable
 Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair cable.
 It has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper)
enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
 The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as
the second conductor, which completes the circuit.
 This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole
cable is protected by a plastic cover

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Guided Media: Coaxial cable
 Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode
(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split
into separate ranges).
 Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
 Advantages: High Bandwidth, Better noise Immunity, Easy to install and
expand, Inexpensive
 Disadvantages: Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
 Categories of Coaxial Cables
 Coaxial cables are categorized into three types as per radio government
(RG) ratings −
 RG – 59: Has impedance of 75W and used in cable TV
 RG – 58: Has impedance of 50W and used in thin Ethernet
 RG – 11: Has impedance of 50W and used in thick Ethernet
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Guided Media: Coaxial cable
 Applications of Coaxial Cables
 In analog telephone networks: A single coaxial network can carry
about 10,000 voice signals.
 In digital telephone networks: A coax has a data rate of 600 Mbps.
 In cable TV networks
 In traditional Ethernet LANs
 In MANs
 BNC (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) connectors are used.

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 Guided Media: Fiber Optic
 Fiber-optic cables are composed of a glass or plastic inner core surrounded by
cladding, all encased in an outside jacket.
 Fiber-optic cables carry data signals in the form of light.
 The signal is propagated along the inner core by reflection and is popular due
to its noise resistance, low attenuation, and high-bandwidth capabilities.
 It is used for transmission of large volumes of data.
 It is used in backbone networks, cable TV networks, Data centers, and Fast
Ethernet networks.

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Guided Media: Fiber Optic
 It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering
called the cladding.

 Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Light weight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
 Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
 Unidirectional, ie, will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional communication
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Types of Fiber Optic Cables
 The basis on refractive index OFC is of two types:

 Step Index Fibers: In these, the refractive index of the core is constant and
undergoes an abrupt change at the interface with the cladding..

 Graded Index Fibers: The refractive index of the optical fiber decreases as the
radial distance from the fiber axis increases.

 Based on materials, OFC is of 2 types:

 Plastic Optical Fibers: The poly (methyl methacrylate) is used as a core

material for the transmission of light.

 Glass Fibers: It consists of extremely fine glass fibers.

 Based on the mode of propagation of light, OFC is divided into:

 Single-Mode Fibers: Used for long-distance transmission of signals.

 Multimode Fibers: Used for short-distance transmission of signals.

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Connection of Optical Fibers
 Fiber optic cables need to be connected so that there is no leakage of light
signals. There are three types of connectors −
 Subscriber Channel (SC) Connector: push-pull connector, used in cable TV

 Straight – Tip (ST) Connector: bayonet locking features, used for connecting to
networking devices

 Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack (MT – RJ Connector: similar to RJ

connector used in Ethernet networks

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