Islamic University of Technology (IUT)

The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)

ME 4404
Mechanics of Materials Lab

Program: B.Sc. in IPE Credit: 0.75

Semester: 4th Lab: Applied Mechanics Lab

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List of Experiments
Exp Page
Title of the Experiment
No. No.
1. Torsion Test of metal specimen
2. Tensile Test of Metal Specimen
3. Bending Moment in a simply supported beam
4. Deflection of a simply supported beam for different materials
5. Determination of critical load in columns with different end conditions
6. Deflection of a Leaf Spring

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 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 2

Exp.
Torsion Test of metal specimen
01
Objectives
• To study the behavior of a metal specimen under torque.
• To study the relationship between the torque and the angle of twist.
• To plot Torque (T) versus angle of twist (θ).
• To compare theoretical and experimental result.

Apparatus
The following apparatus are required.
• Torsion apparatus along with angle of twist measuring attachment.
• Standard specimen of mild steel or cast iron.
• Steel ruler.
• Vernier Caliper.

Theory
Torsion is a twisting or rotational deformation that occurs in a structural element, typically a shaft or a
rod, when a torque or twisting force is applied to it. This force causes the material to twist around its
longitudinal axis.
For transmitting power through a rotating shaft, it is necessary to apply a turning force. The force is
applied tangentially and in the plane of the transverse cross-section. The torque or twisting moment
may be calculated by multiplying two opposite turning moments. It is said to be in pure torsion, and it
will exhibit the tendency of shearing off at every cross-section which is perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis. Torsion can be expressed in either pascals (Pa) or an S.I. unit Newtons per square meter, or in
pounds per square inch (psi). In contrast, torque is expressed in Newton-meters (Nm) or foot pound-
force (ft.lbf). In the object, some sections are perpendicular to the torque axis; in these sections, the
resultant shear stress is perpendicular to the radius.

Figure1. A cylindrical shaft under tension.

The Torsion constant is a fundamental geometric property associated with the cross-section of a bar. It
plays a crucial role in determining how the applied torque, acting along the axis of the bar, relates to

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the resulting angle of twist. This concept is primarily applicable when dealing with a bar made of a
uniform, homogeneous material.
In essence, the Torsion constant is a measure of a bar's resistance to torsional deformation and is a key
factor in understanding its behavior under torque. When considering the Torsional stiffness of a bar, it
is the Torsion constant, in conjunction with other properties like the bar's length, that comes into play.
The S.I. the unit of Torsion constant is m4.

What determines the direction of torsion in an object?

Torsion is consistently observed along the axis that is perpendicular to the plane where torque is applied.
This occurs because the application of force within a specific plane induces twisting along the object's
axis, particularly when one of its ends is securely fixed. This fixation is a critical condition for defining
torsion. In contrast, when torque is applied in any other direction, it doesn't lead to torsion within the
object. This is primarily because, in such cases, the opposite end of the object remains free to move
with the applied torque, preventing the torsional deformation. An illustrative example of this principle
can be seen in the axles of automobiles, where torque is applied perpendicular to the axis, ensuring the
axle's secure connection and the resulting torsion.

Torsion Equation
A uniformly sectioned circular bar, firmly fixed at one end and subjected to torque applied
perpendicular to its axis at the opposite end, undergoes a proportional twist in response to the applied
torque. This principle operates under the condition that the bar's stress does not exceed its elastic limit,
ensuring that it remains within its elastic range. This theory encompasses a range of formulas that enable
the calculation of twist angles and the determination of the maximum stress experienced in the bar. To
utilize these formulas effectively, several fundamental assumptions must be met:
• The bar should maintain a straight and uniform section throughout its length.
• The only force acting on the bar is the torque applied perpendicular to its axis.
• The bar is capable of sustaining stress levels that remain within its elastic limits.
• The material should be homogeneous and should have elastic properties throughout.
• The material should follow the theory of Hooke’s law.
• Every diameter of the material must rotate at the same angle.

The equation can be written as,

𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜏
= =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑅
Where,
𝑇 = Maximum twisting torque (Nm)
𝐽 = Polar moment of inertia (m4)
𝜏 = Shear stress (N/m2)
𝐺 = Modulus of rigidity (N/m2)
𝜃 = Angle of twist in radians
L = Length of shaft under torsion (m)

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Torsional shearing stress

Torsional shearing stress, resulting from the application of a twisting moment, is a fundamental concept
in mechanics. It can be determined using the following relationship:

𝜌
𝜏=𝑇
𝐽
Where:
τ represents the torsional shearing stress.
T is the twisting moment or torque applied.
 is any radial distance from the axis of a circular member.
J stands for the polar moment of inertia of the cross-section.
For a solid circular section with a diameter (d), the polar moment of inertia (J) can be calculated as:
𝜋𝑑 4
𝐽=
32
The maximum shearing stress occurs at the surface, where  equals the radius of the circular section,
which is half of the diameter (d/2). Consequently, the maximum shearing stress for a solid circular shaft
can be expressed as:
𝑇
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 16 3
𝜋𝑑
This relationship provides a means of calculating the maximum shearing stress experienced by a solid
circular shaft under a given twisting moment or torque, considering its diameter.

Torsional shearing strain

Shearing strain, represented by the angle γ (as seen in Figure), is defined as the angle between line OA
in its undeformed state and line OA' after experiencing deformation due to a twisting moment. This
measurement is typically expressed in radians. Shearing strain can be calculated as follows:
𝑟𝜃
𝛾 =
2𝐿
Where:
γ stands for the shearing strain, measured in radians.
r represents the radius of the circular member.
θ is the angular displacement caused by the deformation.
2L represents twice the length of the circular member.

Modulus of Rigidity
The modulus of rigidity, which characterizes how a material behaves elastically under shearing stress,
is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain. It is expressed as:
𝜏
𝐺=
𝛾

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Facilities

Figure 2. Torsion Apparatus

Pre-Work
• What is torque?
• What is torsion equation?
• What is flexural rigidity?
• Define Section modulus.
• What is modulus of rigidity?

Procedure
• Select the suitable grips to suit the size of the specimen and clamp it in the machine by
Adjusting sliding jaw.
• Measure the diameter at about the three places and take average value.
• Choose the appropriate loading range depending upon specimen.
• Set the maximum load pointer to zero.
• Carry out straining by rotating the hand wheel or by switching on the motor.
• Load the members in suitable increments, observe and record strain reading.
• Continue till failure of the specimen.
• Calculate the modulus of rigidity G by using the torsion equation.

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Data Collection:
Length of the specimen, L =
Average diameter of the specimen, D =
Polar moment of inertia, 𝐽 =
Modulus of rigidity, 𝐺 =

Datasheet
Angle of twist Angle of twist, 𝜃
No. of Obs. Torque, T (Nm)
(degree) (radian)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Post-Lab Analysis
• Plot the torque –twist graph (T vs θ).
• Comment on the nature of the curve.
• Discuss the relationship between torque and angle of twist.
• Find out the value of G and compare it with the theoretical value.

Assignment Question
1. A solid steel shaft in a rolling mill transmits 20 kW of power at 2 Hz. Determine the smallest safe
diameter of the shaft if the shear stress is not to exceed 40 MPa and the angle of twist is limited to
6° in a length of 3 m. Use G = 83 GPa.
2. To improve an engine transmission, a solid shaft will be replaced with a hollow shaft of better-
quality steel resulting in an increase in the allowable stress of 24%. To keep the existing bearings,
the new shaft will have the same outside diameter as the existing, solid shaft. Determine:
(a) the bore diameter of the hollow shaft in terms of outside diameter.
(b) the weight savings in percentage, assuming that the steel densities of both shafts are identical.
3. A turbine – generator transmission is rated for 3500 kW at 160 RPM. The shafts, 180 mm
diameter and 2 m long, are connected through a flanged coupling with 6 coupling bolts of 40 mm
diameter arranged on a pitch circle of 340 mm. If the shaft shear modulus is 85 GPa. Determine:
(a) the maximum shear stress in the shaft.
(b) the shear stress in the bolts.

Reference

1. Hibbeler, R. C. (1999). Mechanics of Materials: International Edition (4th ed.). Pearson.

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Exp.
Tensile Test of Metal Specimen
02
Objectives
• To study the deformation and fracture characteristics of metal specimen when they are subjected to
uniaxial loading
• To observe the load extension and stress-strain relationship in a metal specimen
• To determine Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

Apparatus
The following apparatus are required.
• Universal Testing Machine
• Digital Load Meter
• Extensometer
• Digital Displacement Indicator

Theory
Tensile testing is a fundamental way to understand how materials behave under the influence of
forces. In this test, a standardized specimen (often a cylindrical shape) is subjected to stretching forces
to investigate its mechanical properties.

Figure 1. Nomenclature of different parts of the specimen

No matter how little the force is, when a specimen is subjected to the action of a force, as illustrated in
the figure, it gets deformed. If the force causes the specimen to elongate, the specimen is said to be
under tension, and the force is referred to as tensile force.

The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has established standardized dimensions for test
specimens, but various other standards are also in use. Different specimen types are outlined in the
ASTM standard. These specimens are designed with a tapered diameter in the gauge length region to
prevent failure at the gripped portion. This transition is smoothed by using a fillet, which reduces stress
concentration due to abrupt section changes. While the specimen dimensions are standardized, the ends
can be adapted to fit testing machine grips, and specimens can have round, square, or rectangular cross-
sections. Round specimens are commonly used for metals when they can be machined, while flat

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specimens are preferred for sheet and plate stock. Round specimens may have plain, shouldered, or
threaded ends. The part over which elongation is measured, known as the gauge length, is marked by
two reference points. In the ASTM standard, the gauge length for a round specimen is typically
(50±0.10) mm, with a corresponding diameter of (12.5±0.25) mm, a fillet radius of 10 mm, and a
minimum parallel length of 60 mm.

Stress
When an external force is applied to a specimen, it generates an internal force to counteract the external
force. This internal force per unit area at any section is termed stress and is represented by the symbol
σ. In equation form, stress is defined as:

σ is stress in N/mm² (MPa), F is the force in Newton (N), and A is the cross-sectional area in mm².

Strain ( )
When a force is applied to a specimen, it deforms. In the case of tensile force, the specimen elongates.
The elongation per unit length is referred to as strain and is represented by the symbol ε. It can be
calculated using the equation:

ε is strain, ΔL is the deformation over the length L in mm, and L is the gauge length in mm.

Stress-strain Curve
A stress-strain curve is a crucial tool for understanding how a material responds to external forces,
offering insights into its strength, stiffness, ductility, and limits of failure. To illustrate, imagine
dropping a glass marble and a rubber ball. The glass marble shatters upon impact, while the rubber ball
bounces back. These distinct behaviors are precisely explained by stress-strain curves.

Now, why do we use stress and strain instead of force and displacement to define material properties?
The key lies in the intrinsic nature of these properties. Force and displacement depend on the amount
of material, making it impractical to characterize a material based on a force-displacement relationship
as this would not yield a consistent mechanical property. In contrast, stress and strain are intrinsic to
the material, independent of the material's quantity. For instance, a 10mm diameter steel bar can bear
the same stress in tension as a 10 cm diameter bar. This distinction simplifies material characterization
and ensures consistent mechanical properties.

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Figure2. Stress vs. Strain Graph for a Ductile Material

Proportional Limit
The proportional limit indicates the point on the stress-strain graph where the linear region ends,
forming a straight line. The slope of this line corresponds to the material's elastic modulus. In cases of
tensile and compressive stress, the slope in the segment where stress directly relates to strain is known
as Young's modulus, and Hooke's Law is in effect. As we move between the proportional limit and the
yield point, the reliability of Hooke's Law diminishes, and strain increases more rapidly.

The modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus)

This is a material constant indicative of a material’s stiffness. It is obtained from a specimen's stress
versus strain plot subjected to a uniaxial stress state (tension, compression, or bending). The elastic
modulus is used, along with other material constants, in constitutive equations that relate stress to strain
in more complex situations. The bending test is performed on a beam by using the three-point loading
system. According to Hook's law, within the elastic limit, stress is proportional to the strain of the
material. Thus,

or,
E is the modulus of elasticity of the material which can be expressed by the following equation

Yield Point
The yield point is a significant location on the stress-strain curve, marking the boundary between elastic
behavior and the onset of plastic deformation. Yield strength, or yield stress, is the stress level at which
a material initiates plastic deformation. The yield point signifies the start of nonlinear deformation,
encompassing both elastic and plastic behavior. Before crossing the yield point, the material responds

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elastically, returning to its original shape when stress is removed. However, beyond this point, a portion
of the deformation becomes permanent and irreversible.

It's important to note that certain materials, including some steels, display a phenomenon known as the
yield point, where there's an abrupt shift from linear elasticity to a blend of elastic and plastic behavior.
Yield strengths can exhibit substantial variation, ranging from 35 MPa for low-strength aluminum to
1400 MPa for extremely high-strength steel.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

The ultimate tensile strength represents the highest point on the engineering stress-strain curve,
signifying the maximum stress a structure can endure under tension. It's often simply called "tensile
strength" or even referred to as "the ultimate." Sustaining this stress leads to fracture. Typically, this
value surpasses the yield stress significantly, sometimes by as much as 50 to 60 percent for certain types
of metals. When a ductile material reaches its ultimate strength, it undergoes necking, resulting in
localized reduction of the cross-sectional area. After reaching the ultimate strength, the stress-strain
curve generally does not contain stresses higher than this point, even though deformations might
continue to increase. Ultimate tensile strength is an intrinsic property, meaning it doesn't depend on the
size of the test specimen. However, it is influenced by other factors such as specimen preparation, the
presence of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material. Ultimate tensile
strengths can vary widely, from 50 MPa for aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa for extremely strong
steels.

Fracture Point
The fracture point is the stage of strain where the material physically breaks apart. At this juncture, the
strain reaches its maximum value, resulting in the material's actual fracture, even if the corresponding
stress might be less than the ultimate strength at this point. In ductile materials, the fracture strength is
lower than the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). However, in brittle materials, the fracture strength
matches the UTS. If a ductile material reaches its ultimate tensile strength in a load-controlled scenario,
it continues to deform with no additional load until it ruptures. Yet, in cases where the loading is
displacement-controlled, the material's deformation may relieve the load, preventing rupture.

Ductile vs. Brittle Behavior in Stress-Strain Curves

In the world of materials, we encounter two distinct types of behavior when subjected to stress: ductile
and brittle. These behaviors are reflected in the stress-strain curves and can be used to categorize
materials into two broad groups:

Ductility is the property of a material to stretch or elongate when exposed to tension. Ductile materials
display a remarkable ability to deform and elongate more than their brittle counterparts. Prior to
fracturing, ductile materials undergo substantial plastic deformation, often seen as necking where
localized narrowing occurs. This type of fracture, known as ductile fracture or shear fracture, is
generally more desirable because it involves a slower propagation of cracks and a significant absorption
of energy before ultimate fracture. Ductility is particularly valuable in applications involving high
temperatures and pressures, such as in reactor plants, where it helps prevent brittle fractures caused by
additional stresses on the materials.

In contrast, brittle materials exhibit a different response when subjected to stress. They break with
minimal elastic deformation and do not undergo significant plastic deformation. Brittle materials absorb

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relatively little energy before they fracture, even if they possess high strength. In cases of brittle fracture,
often referred to as transgranular cleavage, there's little to no apparent plastic deformation before
fracture occurs. Cracks propagate rapidly in brittle materials.

In summary, ductile materials can deform extensively before breaking, which is ideal in situations
where safety and energy absorption are critical. On the other hand, Brittle materials fracture quickly
without significant deformation, which may be less desirable in certain applications. Understanding
these behaviors is crucial when selecting materials for various engineering and structural applications.

Universal Testing Machine

A typical universal testing machine, depicted in the figure, lives up to its name by serving various
purposes. This versatile machine can conduct tests like tension, compression, and bending. It features a
movable lower cross head that's adjustable using an electric motor and drive screw to accommodate the
specimen's required space. On the upper end, there's a fixed cross-head securely bolted to the table,
ensuring it moves in tandem with the table's motion. Loading can be applied hydraulically, allowing for
upward movement of the table and upper cross-head, depending on whether a tension or compression
test is being performed.

Figure 3. Universal Testing Machine

Extensometer
An extensometer is a crucial tool used to measure the elongation or deformation of a specimen during
testing. These devices come in different types, each designed with specific gauge lengths tailored to
their intended use. While many extensometers typically employ a 50mm gauge length, some are
adaptable, accommodating gauge lengths ranging from 50 to 200mm. The degree of extension
amplification provided by an extensometer can vary, with some instruments offering linear
amplification anywhere from 200 times to as much as 2000 times, depending on the specific needs of
the test.

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Procedure
1. Connect up and switch on the DL1 Digital Load Meter and allow it to warm up the strain gauges.
2. Use your pump to fully raise the ram. If you are to use VDAS, select the 'Tensile test experiment.
3. Take the specimen and accurately measure its overall length and the diameter of its thinnest part
(gauge area). Record the specimen type and dimensions into your results table. If you are to use
VDAS, enter the dimensions into the software.
4. Mount the tensile test specimen on the universal testing machine.
5. Fit the optional Extensometer. The Extensometer has two parts that slide against each other. Push
them firmly together to give the correct gauge length of 50 mm.
6. Fit the Digital Displacement Indicator to the front left column. Slide the whole assembly up the
column until the magnet clamps underneath the loading platform. Hold the display carefully and
adjust the assembly to give at least 60 mm of upward movement.
7. On the Digital Load Meter, press the button to zero the display. If you need to record the
maximum force, press the Peak hold' button.
8. In steps of 0.5 KN, increase the ram force slowly - never decrease the force, as your results will
become wrong. At each step, record the load, and the readings from both the Displacement
Indicator and the Extensometer. If you are to use VDAS, select the 'Record Data Values' button to
record the results at each step.
9. Continue increasing the ram force until you note that the specimen has started to Yield' (above its
elastic limit) - the specimen still stretches, but the force only changes by a small amount.
10. Remove the Extensometer and re-fit the guard around the machine. Refit the transit bar in the
Extensometer to keep it together while it is not used.
11. Continue to 'stretch' the specimen, but you will find it is more sensible to take results at set values
of displacement instead of force (for example: 0.5 mm). As you do this, study the specimen, and
look for the 'necking effect of the specimen before it fails.
12. Continue until the specimen fails.

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Data Collection

Specimen Type:
Specimen Dimension:

Force (KN) Digital Extensometer Stress Strain

Displacement Reading (mm)
Indicator
Reading (mm)

Results
Draw the stress-strain curve and from the slope within the elastic limit find out the value of modulus
of elasticity. Then compare the result with the original value for the given specimen.

Discussions
1. What are possible sources of error?
2. Were your errors within reasonable limits (< 10%)?
3. Why is the failed specimen shaped as it appears?

Pre-Work
1. What is the Modulus of Elasticity?
2. Is the Modulus of Elasticity a material property?
3. What are the various regions on a stress/strain curve?
4. What is Hooke’s Law?
5. What is a ductile and a brittle material?

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Assignment Questions
1. Define Proportional Limit, Modulus of Elasticity, Elastic Limit, Yield Point, Yield Strength,
Ultimate Strength, Breaking Stress, and Ductility.
2. If the tensile specimen is not cylindrical rod-shaped but a flat rectangular plate, how do you expect
necking to occur in this type of specimen?
3. Both yield strength and ultimate tensile strength exhibit the ability of a material to withstand a
certain level of load. Which parameter do you prefer to use as a design parameter for a proper
selection of materials for structural applications? Explain.
4. Discuss the stress-strain curve in the case of a brittle specimen with an example.

Reference

1. Hibbeler, R. C. (1999). Mechanics of Materials: International Edition (4th ed.). Pearson.

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Exp.
Bending Moment in a simply supported beam
03
Objectives
• To comprehend the action of moment of resistance in a beam.
• To measure the bending moment at a normal section of a loaded beam and to check its agreement
with the theory.
• To draw the bending moment diagram.

Apparatus
The following apparatus are required.
• Bending Moment Assembly.
• Load Hangers.
• Weights.

Theory
A bending moment exists in a structural element when a moment is applied to the element so that the
element bends. Moments and torques are measured as a force multiplied by a distance, so they have as
unit newton-metres (N·m), or foot-pounds force (ft·lbf). “The Bending Moment at the 'cut' is equal
to the algebraic sum of the moments caused by the forces acting to the left or right of the cut."

Figure 1. Reaction forces and moments of a simply supported beam.

While calculating the bending moment at a cut or section, the end reactions must also be considered
along with other external loads. The forces and moments on either side of the section must be equal in
order to counteract each other and maintain a state of equilibrium.

Figure 2. Positive (at the left) and negative (at the right) bending moment.

The bending moment at various sections of a beam can be characterized as follows. It is considered
positive when the bending moment tends to create a curvature with the concave side at the top, as shown
in Figure 1. Conversely, when the bending moment tends to produce a curvature with the convex side
at the top, as shown in Figure 1, it is considered negative. The positive bending moment is often referred
to as a "sagging moment," while the negative bending moment is termed a "hogging moment."

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To clarify, a positive bending moment occurs when it acts in an anticlockwise direction to the right, and
a negative bending moment occurs when it acts in a clockwise direction. Furthermore, a bending
moment is said to be negative when it acts in a clockwise direction to the left and positive when it acts
in an anticlockwise direction. It's important to note that when calculating bending moments or shear
forces at a section, the beam is assumed to be weightless for simplification.

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

Shear force and bending moment can be numerically calculated at specific cross-sections of a beam.
However, there are times when we want to understand how these values change along the length of the
beam. This can be achieved by creating diagrams with shear force or bending moment on the vertical
axis and the position of the cross-section on the horizontal axis. These diagrams clearly represent how
shear force and bending moment are distributed along the beam. When drawing shear force or bending
moment diagrams, positive values are depicted above the baseline, while negative values are shown
below it.

Relation between Loading, Shear Force, and Bending Moment

The shear force at the cross-section of the beam is defined as the unbalanced vertical force to the right
or left of the section. Understanding the relationships between loading, shear force, and bending
moment at specific points or between two sections of a beam is crucial. Here are some important points
to consider:
1. When there is a point load at a section on the beam, the shear force experiences a sudden change,
resulting in a vertical shear force line. However, the bending moment remains constant.
2. In cases where there is no load between two points, the shear force remains unchanged, leading to
a horizontal shear force line. The bending moment, on the other hand, changes linearly, forming an
inclined straight line.
3. When there is a uniformly distributed load between two points, the shear force changes linearly,
creating an inclined shear force line. In this scenario, the bending moment follows a parabolic law,
resulting in a parabolic bending moment line.
4. In situations involving a uniformly varying load between two points, the shear force changes
according to a parabolic law, resulting in a parabolic shear force line. The bending moment,
however, changes according to the cubic law, forming a cubic bending moment line.

Bending moment diagram of a simply supported beam

A simply supported beam is a beam that is supported at two points, creating a mechanism that allows
the beam to rest or pivot freely at these support locations.

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Figure 3. Simply supported beam with a point load

Consider a simply supported beam AB with a span of L, and it carries a point load W at its mid-point
C, as shown in Figure 2(a). Because the load is at the mid-point of the beam, the reaction at support A
(RA) can be calculated as RA = R = 0.5 W.

In this case, the shear force at any section between A and C (up to the point just before the load W)
remains constant and is equal to +0.5 W. This is illustrated in Figure 2(b). Similarly, the shear force at
any section between C and B (just after the load W) is also constant and is equal to -0.5 W, as shown in
Figure 2(b). Furthermore, the bending moment at points A and B is zero. The bending moment increases
linearly and reaches its maximum at the center of the beam, where the shear force changes its sign, as
depicted in Figure 2(c).

Therefore, the bending moment at C,

𝑊 1 𝑊𝑙
𝑀𝑐 = × =
2 2 4

Description of the experimental setup

Figure 1 shows the Bending Moment in a Beam experiment. It consists of a beam, which is "cut' by a
pivot. To stop the beam from collapsing, a moment arm bridges the cut onto a load cell, thus reacting
(and measuring) the bending moment force. A digital display shows the force from the load cell. A
diagram on the left-hand support of the beam shows the beam geometry and hanger positions. Hanger
supports are 20 mm apart and have a centre slot that positions the hangers. The moment arm is 125 mm
long.

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Figure 4. Bending moment in a beam experiment

Figure 5. Bending moment of a beam experiment in the structures frame

Procedure
• Check the Digital Force Display meter reads zero with no load.
• Carefully load the beam with the hangers in a position away from the cut, using the loads
indicated Record the Digital Force Display reading in a table as in Table 2. Convert the force
reading into a bending moment by the following equation,
• Bending moment at the cut (in Nm) = Displayed force
• Calculate the support reactions ( and ) and calculate the theoretical bending moment at the
cut.

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• Repeat the procedure with the beam in different loading conditions. Comment on how the results
of the experiments compare with those calculated using the theory.

Data Collection

No. of Load Force Experimental RA RB Theoretical

observation W1 W2 W3 Reading(N) Bending (N) (N) Bending
(N) (N) (N) Moment Moment
(Nm)

Results
For each loading arrangement calculate the Bending Moment at the section, draw the bending moment
diagram and compare the measured value with it.

Discussions
1. What are possible sources of error?
2. Were your errors within reasonable limits (< 10%)?
3. Based on your knowledge of statics, what factors should affect the end reaction of the beam? Did the
experimental data support this?

Pre-Work
1. What is a bending moment, and how does it differ from the shear force in structural analysis?
2. How is a shear force diagram related to a moment diagram for a beam?
3. What are the fundamental sign conventions for shear force and bending moment in structural
engineering?
4. Can you explain how to determine the reactions at the supports of a simply supported beam?

Assignment Questions
1. What is the significance of the area under a shear force diagram or a moment diagram?
2. How do you calculate the maximum bending moment and shear force in a simply supported beam
with various loads?
3. Describe the typical shapes of shear force and bending moment diagrams for common types of
beams.
4. What are the essential steps in drawing a shear force and moment diagram for a loaded beam?
5. How do concentrated loads, distributed loads, and moments affect shear and bending in beams?
6. Why are shear force and moment diagrams important in structural design and analysis?

Reference

1. Hibbeler, R. C. (1999). Mechanics of Materials: International Edition (4th ed.). Pearson.

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 20

Exp. Deflection of a simply supported beam for different

04 materials

Objectives
• To observe that the deflection depends on different materials, thickness, and lengths
• To prove that the beam thickness is proportional to stiffness
• To plot deflection vs. load curve
• To plot thickness vs. stiffness curve
• To compare theoretical and experimental data

Apparatus
The following apparatus are required.
• Two load cells
• One digital indicator
• One weight hanger
• Set of weights
• All the beams

Theory
The simply supported beam is one of the most basic structural configurations, consisting of only two
supports, one at each end. These supports typically include a pinned support and a roller support. In this
setup, the beam can rotate at both of its ends, but it's constrained from any vertical movement. The roller
support also allows the beam to expand or contract axially, although it cannot move horizontally freely
due to the other support. This type of beam is considered a determinant structure, also known as critical.
It means that if any of the supports is removed or an internal hinge is inserted, the beam loses its ability
to carry loads and becomes a mechanism, which is a structure that can move freely under loading.

Classical beam theory

When estimating the deformations of a beam under transverse loading, various beam theories are
available, with the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory, often referred to as classical beam theory, being the
most widely adopted. This theory relies on two fundamental assumptions:
1. The first assumption is that the deformations experienced by the beam remain small.
2. The second assumption pertains to the cross sections of the beam under deformation. It assumes
that these cross-sections remain normal to the deflected axis, often referred to as the elastic curve.
This assumption is particularly valid for beams with certain characteristics:
i) The material properties of the beam are homogeneous and isotropic (having the same
properties in all directions).
ii) The cross-section of the beam is symmetrical, meaning that it is the same on both sides of
the neutral axis.
iii) The length of the beam is significantly greater than its cross-sectional dimensions. A
common rule of thumb is that the length should be at least 10 times greater than the largest
dimension of the cross-section.
This assumption of normal and plane cross-sections is not valid in situations where the beam does not
deform symmetrically, such as Short Beams, Sandwich-Type Cross-Sections, Slender Cross-Sections,
and Open Unsymmetrical Cross-Sections. In these cases, the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory may not

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 21

accurately predict the behavior of the beam, and more advanced theories or finite element analysis might
be required to provide accurate deformations and stress distributions.
Indeed, the classical beam theory, or Euler-Bernoulli beam theory, comes with several additional
assumptions, which include:
1. Linear Elastic Material: This assumption assumes that the material of the beam behaves linearly
within the elastic range. In other words, the stress and strain relationship is linear, and the material
returns to its original shape once the load is removed. This assumption is valid for many common
engineering materials like steel and aluminum.
2. Prismatic Beam: A prismatic beam has a constant cross-section along its entire length. This
simplifies the analysis because the properties of the cross-section, such as the moment of inertia,
do not change along the beam's length. It's an important simplification but doesn't account for beams
with varying cross-sections, such as tapered beams.
Under these assumptions, the classical beam theory provides a fundamental relationship between the
deflection (often denoted as "y") as a function of the distance along the beam ("x") and the bending
moment ("M").

where E is the modulus of elasticity and I the moment of inertia of the cross-section.
The theory of pure (elastic) bending of a beam shows that when a beam is loaded in such a way that it
bends only in the plane of the applied moment, the stress distribution and curvature of the beam are
related by:
𝑀 𝜎 𝐸
= =
𝐼 𝑦 𝜌
The curvature of the beam 1/ is given, to a close approximation, by the second derivative of the
deflection. If y is the deflection of the beam at a distance x from a chosen origin, then
𝑑 2 𝑦 1 𝑀(𝑥)
= =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜌 𝐸𝐼
Given that the bending moment diagram has been established in a prior stage of the static analysis and
𝑑2𝑦 𝑀(𝑥)
classical beam theory is being applied, the differential equation = can be employed to find
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼
both the deflections and the slopes across the beam. Upon one integration, the first derivative of the
𝑑𝑦 𝑀(𝑥)
deflection, which represents the beam's slope, can be obtained: =∫ 𝑑𝑥 . Further integration
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
yields the actual deflections. The direct integration method is effective only for simple cases.
You can use this equation to show that the deflection of a simple beam subjected to a point load in the
middle can be expressed in the form:

𝑃𝐿3
𝑦=
48𝐸𝐼

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 22

Second Moment of Area of a Beam (I)

The second moment of area for a regular cross-section beam is:
𝑏ℎ3
𝐼=
12

Stiffness
A stiffer beam will bend less for a given beam than a less stiff beam. This is similar to Young's modulus
of elastic strain, except that Young's modulus is a property of the material but depends on the beam's
material and its dimensions. While the beam bends within its elastic region, its stiffness(S) is simply a
ratio of the applied load and the deflection:
𝑤
𝑆 = (𝑁/𝑚)
𝑦

Facilities

Figure 1. Deflection Apparatus

Pre-Work
• Learn about different types of beams.
• What is deflection?
• Write the equation for the Slope for a cantilever beam with point load.
• Write the deflection equation for the simply supported beam with point load at the center.
• How many types of bending are there?

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 23

Procedure:
• Create three blank result tables (one for steel, brass, and aluminum each).
• Measure the overall length of the beam (L) and use a pencil to mark it at mid span and equal
distances (1/2) from the mid-point (for example: 350mm either side of the mid-point). Measure
the thickness and width of the beam.
• Choose a suitable reading near to the middle of the upper scale of the apparatus to match to the
mid span of the beam.
• Set up the beam and two load cells so that the load cells are at your pencil marks that are equal
distance from the mid-point of the beam. The mid span of the beam must be directly under the
scale reading you chose in step 3.
• Make sure the load cells have their locking pins fitted.
• The beam will now have an overhang each end.
• Hang one weight hanger at the mid-point of the beam (the cursor may press lightly against the
Scale)
• Put a digital indicator on the upper cross member so that its contact rests directly above the
weight hanger. Check that the stem is vertical and there is enough travel in the downward
direction. Zero the indicator.
• Apply loads to the hanger gradually. Each time you add a load, tap the apparatus very gently
and take readings of the deflection.
• Repeat for each of the beams.

Data Collection
Material-1 name:
b=
h=
I=
Deflection
y(mm)
Observation No. Load W (N)
Thickness 1: Thickness 2: Thickness 3:

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 24

Material-2 name:
b=
h=
I=
Deflection
y(mm)
Observation No. Load W (N)
Thickness 1: Thickness 2: Thickness 3:

Material-3 name:
b=
h=
I=
Deflection
y(mm)
Observation No. Load W (N)
Thickness 1: Thickness 2: Thickness 3:

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 25

Post-Lab Analysis
• Plot the deflection vs. load curves at various thicknesses.
• Comment on the nature of the curves.
• Compare the deflection of the beams at different point from experimental result with the
theoretical result.

Assignment Question
1. A simply supported beam carries uniformly distributed load of 20 kN/m over the length of 5 m. If
flexural rigidity is 30000 kN.m2, what is the maximum deflection in the beam?
2. A simply supported laterally loaded beam was found to deflect more than a specified value.
Which of the following measures will reduce the deflection and why?
(A) Increase the area moment of inertia
(B) Increase the span of the beam
(C) Select a different material having lesser modulus of elasticity
(D) Magnitude of the load to be increased
3. A beam carries 4 m long simply supported at its ends, carries a point load W at its center. If the
slope at the ends of the beam is not to exceed 1°, find the deflection at the center of the beam.
4.
Reference

1. Hibbeler, R. C. (1999). Mechanics of Materials: International Edition (4th ed.). Pearson.

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 26

Exp. Determination of critical load in columns with different

05 end conditions

Objectives
• To study the effect of end conditions and Euler's column formula experimentally
• To draw load vs. deflection curve

Apparatus
• Strut apparatus
• Scale
• Struts

Theory
When a short bar experiences a compressive force along its central axis, it initially undergoes shortening
in accordance with Hooke's law until it reaches the elastic limit of the material. Beyond this point,
further increase in force can lead to failure, either through plastic distortion or actual rupture, depending
on the material's characteristics. For ductile materials like steel, failure typically occurs due to plastic
distortion, while brittle materials like cast iron or concrete tend to fail through actual rupture. However,
the scenario becomes more complex when the member is long and slender. In such cases, under axial
compressive loads, the member fails due to elastic buckling. When a compressive member is
sufficiently long to experience buckling, it is referred to as a column; otherwise, it's considered a simple
compression member.

As the axial force is progressively increased from zero, the member initially shortens, following Hooke's
law. Yet, at a specific load value, an unstable equilibrium condition emerges. This load is known as the
critical or buckling load. Below this critical load, the column remains stable. If subjected to a lateral
deflection, it returns to its original straight position when the lateral force is removed. However, at the
point of unstable equilibrium, even minor imperfections in the member, slight movements in the load
or support, or the presence of lateral forces can lead to the column's collapse through buckling.
Unfortunately, there is no clear demarcation line that distinctly separates a column from a simple
compression member.

According to Euler, the critical load is expressed as,

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 2
𝑙𝑒
Where, E is the modulus of elasticity, I is the least moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of the
𝐼
column and le is the effective length. By substituting, 𝑘 = √
𝐴
𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝜋2𝐸
=
𝐴 𝑙 2
( 𝑒)
𝑘
𝑃𝑐𝑟
Where, is the critical or buckling stress, k is the least radius of gyration of the cross-sectional area
𝐴
𝑙𝑒
of the column and is the effective slenderness ratio
𝑘

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 27

Figure 1. Strut Apparatus

Figure 2. Different end conditions of a beam; 1) Simple Pinned Ends, 2) Both Ends Fixed, 3)
One End Pinned, other end fixed 4) One End fixed, other end free

Load Type Critical Load Effective length, 𝒍

Simple Pinned Ends 𝑙=𝐿

Both Ends Fixed 𝑙 = 0.5𝐿

One End Pinned Other Fixed 𝑙 = 0.7𝐿

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 28

Figure 2 clearly illustrates that the end condition significantly influences the effective length, which
represents the distance between sections where the bending moment is zero. Hence, the end condition
has a noteworthy impact on the critical load.

Figure 3. Typical unit load vs slenderness ratio curve

In Figure 3, we can observe a graphical representation of the failure criteria for both simple compression
members and Euler's columns. When examining a member, its behavior depends on its slenderness
ratio. If a member is short, it will experience failure due to yielding, and the corresponding stress
developed is the yield strength. On the other hand, if the member is long, it will fail by buckling. For
any given slenderness ratio, drawing a vertical line will either intersect line AB, indicating a simple
compression member, where failure occurs due to yielding, or it will intersect line BC, signifying a
column, where failure takes place through buckling. This graphical representation helps distinguish the
behavior of members based on their slenderness ratio and the mode of failure.

Procedure
• Ensure the clamps of the specimen holders are tightened.
• Select the required column. Measure and record the cross section and length of the column. Adjust
the specimen beam to the correct position and insert dowel pin
• Turn the dial gauge so that the stem does not impede the insertion of the strut.
• Examine the column and carefully straighten it if necessary. Insert the column with its end in the
V-grooves of the specimen holders. The edges of the strut will rest against the bottom of the holders
• Adjust the position of the central cross member so that dial foot rests on the centerline of the strut
at the mid span
• Apply load to the strut and ensure the deflection is away from the dial gauge.
• Reduce the load to zero and adjust the bezel of the dial gauge reading for each of increment load
• Repeat the above procedure for various load condition.
• Plot graphs of loads vs. deflection and extrapolate the curves to obtain the experimental critical load
• Compare the experimental critical load with that of the theoretically predicted by Euler's equation.

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 29

Data Collection
Material of the specimen:
Thickness: Width: Length:
E= I=

End Condition Load, P (N) Deflection, mm

Both Pinned

One Pinned , One Clamped

Both Clamped

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 30

Discussions
• What are the possible sources of error?
• Were your errors within reasonable limits (<10%)
• Why are the failed specimens shaped as they are?

Pre-Work
• What is Moment of Inertia?
• What is buckling?
• What is the slenderness of a beam?
• What is the theory of Euler’s Critical Load?

Assignment Question
1. Discuss on column classification based on slenderness and their failure criteria in case of axial loading.
2. An 8” diameter timber pole fixed in a large concrete footing at grade and pinned at the top. E = 1.0 x
106 psi
Find the maximum height of the pole to support a 35 kip load.
3. Two C12 x 20.7 channel sections welded together to form a closed box section. Fy = 36 ksi; L = 20’
Top and bottom are pinned. Find: Allowable axial load, Pa.

Reference

1. Hibbeler, R. C. (1999). Mechanics of Materials: International Edition (4th ed.). Pearson.

2. Shigley, J. E., Mischke, C. R., & Budynas, R. G. (2003). Mechanical Engineering Design (7th
ed.). McGraw Hill Higher Education.

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 31

Exp.
Deflection of a Leaf Spring
06
Objectives
To evaluate the force and deflection characteristics of a leaf spring and measure its spring constant.

Apparatus
• Universal testing machine.
• Digital slide calipers.
• Steel scale.

Theory
Leaf springs provide a suspension system for vehicles. Originating in medieval times, they were first
called carriage or laminated springs. The leaf spring system is tried and true, used on almost all vehicles
up until the 1970s. Today, leaf springs are most useful for trucks and vans hauling heavy loads.

The design of a leaf spring is centered on the concept of maintaining uniform bending stress at any
section. In essence, they are beams of uniform strength. Leaf springs typically consist of slender, arc-
shaped pieces of steel stacked with smaller steel leaves and securely bolted together. These stacked
leaves form a reinforced bow-like structure, which is then affixed to both the rear axle and the chassis
of the vehicle. Their primary role is to provide crucial support, preventing the axle from collapsing
inward or snapping under the immense weight it may bear, especially loads beyond its original design
capacity.

Figure 1. A leaf spring

The overarching purpose of leaf springs in a vehicle extends beyond structural support. They
significantly contribute to the ride quality by absorbing road imperfections like bumps and potholes.
Leaf springs also play a pivotal role in axle location, controlling the height at which the vehicle rides,
and maintaining proper alignment of the tires on the road surface. In essence, leaf springs fulfill several
important functions:
• Exerting force to support the vehicle's weight.
• Serving as a flexible element within the vehicle's suspension system, enabling a smoother ride over
obstacles.
• Isolating and absorbing vibrations.
• Collaborating with shock absorbers to manage both vibration and impacts.

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 32

•
Figure 2. Leaf spring as suspension in a heavy-duty vehicle

Given these advantages, leaf springs continue to be in high demand, serving not only in everyday
transportation but also proving invaluable in heavy-duty applications for commercial vehicles like
trucks, SUVs, and vans. Their durability, reliability, and versatility make them a staple in the
transportation industry, especially where robust load-bearing capabilities are essential.

Deflection equation of a leaf spring

Leaf springs come in various designs, with the most common being the elliptical and semi-elliptical
shapes. The elliptical design consists of a single curved leaf, while the semi-elliptical design features
multiple curved leaves of decreasing length, stacked together. The choice of design depends on the
specific requirements of the vehicle and its intended use.

The semi-elliptical leaf spring is the most commonly used type of leaf spring, comprised of several flat
plates or leaves with a semi-elliptical shape. U-bolts and a center clip are employed to secure these
leaves together. To ensure leaf alignment and prevent lateral movement, rebound clips are utilized. The
ends of the longest leaf are bent to create "eyes," with this particular leaf being referred to as the "master
leaf," while the smaller leaves are known as "graduated leaves." In many cases, one or two extra full-
length leaves are included alongside the master leaf to enhance strength against transverse shear forces.

Figure 3. Semi-elliptical leaf spring

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 33

Now, this spring can be treated as a simply supported beam of length 2L, with load 2P (P=W) acting at
its centre or for simplification of analysis, half portion of it can be considered as a cantilever of length
L, with one end fixed (centre of the spring which is fixed with axle) and load P acting on the other. The
deflection equation for a semi elliptic leaf spring is given by

3𝑊𝐿3
𝛿=
8𝐸𝑛𝑏𝑡 3
where,
𝛿 = deflection of the beam
W = applied load
L = length of the leaf spring
E = modulus of elasticity of the material
n = number of leaves
b = width of each leaf
t = thickness of leaf spring

Facilities

Figure 4. Testing of a leaf spring in a universal testing machine.

Pre-Work
• How many types of springs are there?
• What is spring constant?
• What is a leaf spring, and how does it function in a vehicle's suspension system?
• What are the key components of a leaf spring assembly?
• How does the design of a leaf spring contribute to the distribution of weight in a vehicle?
• What are the main advantages of using leaf springs in automotive suspension systems?
• Can you explain the difference between a semi-elliptical leaf spring and a multi-leaf spring?

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT

 ME 4404: Mechanics of Materials Lab 34

Procedure
• Connect and switch on the digital load meter and allow it to warm up the strain gauges in the
force sensors.
• Use the pump to lower the ram.
• Accurately measure the center height of the spring and its initial unloaded length between the
centers of the rolling bearings (each end of the spring). Count the number of leaves that form
the spring leaf.

Data Collection
L= n= t=
E= b=

No. of Obs. Applied load, W (N) Deflection, 𝛿 (mm)

Post-Lab Analysis
• Plot the deflection vs. load curve.
• Comment on the nature of the curve.
• Compare the experimental deflection the theoretical result.

Assignment Question
1. What are the benefits of using leaf spring?
2. A Laminated steel spring 1m long is to support the central load of 5.8 KN. The thickness and width
of each leave of the spring is 8.33 mm and 80 mm respectively. If the maximum deflection of spring
is not to exceed 45 mm and maximum stress should not exceed 300 MN/m2., calculate the number
of leaves.

Reference

1. Hibbeler, R. C. (1999). Mechanics of Materials: International Edition (4th ed.). Pearson.

2. Shigley, J. E., Mischke, C. R., & Budynas, R. G. (2003). Mechanical Engineering Design (7th
ed.). McGraw Hill Higher Education.

© Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, IUT