 etymology of the word “forensic” “in open court, public,”

 Forensic Science is defined as ‘The application of science to those criminal and civil laws that are enforced
in a criminal justice system by the police agencies’. The field of forensic science deals with the application of
scientific knowledge and technique to legal issues.
 fields, including biology, forensic chemistry, computer science, engineering, medicine, physics, and DNA
profiling are used in the examination of evidence.
 Forensic science applies natural, physical, and social sciences to legal matters, with a focus on investigating
and collecting evidence at crime scenes. Proper documentation, preservation, and evaluation of evidence
are essential for scientific event reconstruction. Maintaining evidence integrity through a chain of custody is
crucial. Forensic science encompasses various disciplines and plays a fundamental role in legal contexts,
using scientific methods to analyze and interpret evidence like bloodstains, human remains, and digital files.
Scene investigations involve documenting, preserving, and examining crime scenes and evidence.

 BACKGROUND:
 The field of forensic science in India traces its roots back to the
establishment of the Central Fingerprint Bureau in Kolkata in 1897,
which became operational in 1904.
 India demonstrated a commitment to advancing forensic science, with the formation of
the Indian Academy of Forensic Sciences (IAFS) in 1960 and the opening of the first
Forensic DNA Typing laboratory in Calcutta in 1998.
 Currently, there are 29 fingerprint bureaux, 37 state forensic science laboratories, and 7 central forensic
science laboratories in India. Additionally, Regional Forensic Science Laboratories and District Mobile
Forensic Units exist in some states. The Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology,
has established an advanced Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics (CDFD) in Hyderabad.
 DNA profiling, which was pioneered by Professor Alec Jeffreys in London in 1985, is now widely used by
police, forensic institutions, and wildlife departments to identify individuals and animals from biological
samples in criminal cases.
 Indian contributions to forensic science are notable, with Maharshi Charaka’s “Charak Samhita” discussing
disease diagnosis and treatment, as well as toxicology. Sushruta is regarded as the father of forensic
medicine and plastic surgery, with his work, the Sushruta Samhita, introducing surgical practices in ancient
Ayurvedic medicine. Forensic science’s early usage can be traced back to China in the 7th century, where
fingerprints and clay sculptures were utilized for identification purposes. India made significant
advancements in the 19th century, establishing chemical examination laboratories, anthropometry bureaus,
and government examiners of questioned documents.

Early Influences

1. Ancient Texts: References to forensic practices can be found in ancient Indian texts like the "Arthashastra" by
Kautilya (Chanakya), which discussed crime investigation techniques.

2. Mughal Era: During the Mughal period, some forms of forensic science were practiced, including the use of
medical examinations in criminal investigations.

Colonial Period

3. British Influence: The modern development of forensic science in India began during British rule. The
establishment of a structured legal system laid the groundwork for scientific crime investigation.

4. Formation of Institutions:

o In 1897, the Indian Evidence Act was introduced, providing a legal framework for the admissibility of
scientific evidence in courts.

o The Calcutta Medical College, established in 1835, became instrumental in forensic medicine
training.
 5. First Forensic Laboratory: In 1905, the first forensic laboratory in India was established in Kolkata, focusing
on chemical analysis and toxicology.

Post-Independence Developments

6. Establishment of Forensic Science Laboratories:

o After gaining independence in 1947, India saw the establishment of multiple forensic science
laboratories across states.

o The Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL) was set up in 1960 in Kolkata, followed by other
regional labs.

7. Advancements in Specializations: The scope of forensic science expanded to include various specializations
such as:

o Forensic Biology

o Forensic Chemistry

o Forensic Psychology

o Ballistics and Firearms Examination

o Digital Forensics

 A scientific discipline, which is direct/guide us to the recognition, identification, individualization and

evaluation of physical evidence by application of the principles of natural science for the administration of
justice.
 THE SCOPE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
 Forensic science comprises the basic scientific disciplines as physics, chemistry, biology and their derived
subjects such as toxicology, serology, odontology and all to solve civil and criminal cases.
 In addition to all this subjects there are some branches which have been developed exclusively for the
forensic application, they are Ballistics, Finger prints, serology, Voice analysis, Psychology, or Narco analysis,
DNA profiling and Document examinations etc
 Forensic Biology/DNA:
 DNA profiling is the other often employed forensic method in criminal investigations in addition to
fingerprint analysis. Given that each person’s DNA is as distinctive as their fingerprints, forensic experts can
use DNA to authenticate an unidentified person’s identity or to eliminate suspects from a list of suspects.
Blood, saliva, semen, skin, urine, and hair are the biological samples that are most frequently used for DNA
profiling. DNA fingerprints aren’t typically used in a court of law as the only piece of evidence, though.
 Forensic Odontology:
 When a body has been left in an unrecognisable condition, forensic odontology aids in the identification of
the victims. This is accomplished by looking at their teeth, jaw alignment, and general mouth structure. By
studying the growth and architecture of the teeth, as well as any restorative dental adjustments like fillings,
forensic dentists or odontologists help in the comparative identification of a person. For bite mark analysis in
criminal investigations, it is frequently used.
 Forensic Toxicology:
 Analysing biological samples to look for the presence of medicines and toxins is the focus of forensic
toxicology. This area of forensic research is crucial in cases involving poisoning, sexual assault, and other
tragedies. The toxicology reports provide important details regarding the types of substances found in a
person in relation to an incident. It also establishes whether the number of drugs exceeds the allowable limit
or is normal according to a therapeutic dosage. This area of forensic science is constantly changing and need
for an up-to-date methodology because more advanced drug variations are created every day.
 Forensic Anthropology:
 In this, skeletons or compromised human remains are examined to ascertain their age, height, gender, and
ancestry. By locating and assessing any injuries, it also aids in determining the duration of life. Particularly in
situations where the remains are beyond recognition, these tests provide investigators with useful clues for
identifying victims.
 Forensic Pathology and Medicolegal Death Investigation:
 A subspecialty of pathology called forensic pathology examines a corpse to assist identify the cause of death.
Thus, forensic medicine entails the gathering and examination of medical samples in order to ascertain
information that can be used as evidence in court. For instance, recognising patterns in wounds can assist
identify the weapon that caused them. Furthermore, forensic pathologists can look at exit and entry wounds
in cases of shooting deaths or deaths involving other projectiles. Therefore, a forensic pathologist can make
important deductions about the cause of death—whether it was accidental, criminal, or natural.
 Impression and Pattern Evidence:
 Evidence that is produced when two things come into sufficient force to leave an “impression” is known as
impression evidence. A fingerprint or other two-dimensional or three-dimensional imprint, such as the
marks left by a gunshot, may be involved in this. Analysing pattern evidence entails locating and analysing
further data included within an impression. When combined, impression and pattern evidence can assist
make crucial connections between a suspect or tool and a crime scene.
 Trace Evidence:
 There are several types of trace evidence, including fibres, soil, hair, gunshot residue, wood, and pollen. Its
potential to be easily transferrable during a crime across objects, persons, or the environment gives rise to
its moniker. In many cases, trace evidence is crucial in forging a strong connection between a suspect and
the victim. For instance, a soil sample taken from the victim’s shoes can provide important hints about the
scene of the crime and help identify the offender.
 Cyber Forensics:
 In cyber forensics, evidence obtained on computers and other digital storage devices, such as hard drives
and pen drives, is analysed. Its main goal is to locate, save, recover, analyse, and provide information and
viewpoints regarding digital data. Although it is frequently utilised in civil trials, it is mostly used for
cybercrime investigations. Since the middle of the 1980s, cyber forensics has been employed in criminal
cases. Some prominent examples include the conviction of Dennis Rader, Dr. Conrad Murray, Michael
Jackson’s personal physician, and Joseph E. Duncan III.
 Ballistics:
  The velocity, behaviour, dynamics, angular movement, and impacts of projectiles like bullets, rockets,
missiles, explosives, etc. are the subject of the specialised forensic science known as ballistics. Ballistics are
mostly used in forensics for criminal investigations. When a bullet is examined, for instance, it can be
determined what kind of gun was used to fire it and whether it has any connections to earlier crimes. In fact,
a sizable database with information on ballistics is available to law enforcement organisations all around the
world.

LAWS GOVERNING FORENSIC SCIENCE IN INDIA:

Forensic science in India is governed by a number of laws and regulations at the national and state levels. The
following are some of the key laws that relate to forensic science in India:

 The Indian Evidence Act, 1872:

This law governs the admissibility of evidence in courts of law. It lays down the rules for the collection, preservation,
and presentation of evidence, including forensic evidence.

 The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973:

This law governs the conduct of criminal proceedings in India. It outlines the procedures for the investigation, arrest,
and trial of criminal suspects. Forensic evidence plays an important role in criminal proceedings, and the Code of
Criminal Procedure lays down procedures for the collection and preservation of such evidence.[13]

 The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985:

This law regulates the production, sale, and consumption of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in India. It
includes provisions for the testing and analysis of such substances by forensic laboratories.

 The DNA Profiling Bill, 2019:

This is a proposed law that seeks to regulate the use of DNA profiling in criminal investigations. The bill outlines
procedures for the collection, analysis, and storage of DNA samples, as well as the use of DNA profiles in criminal
investigations.

 The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012:

This law is aimed at protecting children from sexual abuse and exploitation. It includes provisions for the collection
and analysis of forensic evidence in cases of sexual offences against children.

 The Indian Penal Code, 1860:

This law defines criminal offences in India and lays down the penalties for such offences. Forensic evidence is often
used to establish the guilt or innocence of accused persons in criminal cases.

In addition to these laws, there are also a number of guidelines and standards that govern the practice of forensic
science in India. The Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, has issued guidelines for the accreditation and
functioning of forensic science laboratories in the country. The National Accreditation Board for Testing and
Calibration Laboratories (NABL) also provides accreditation to forensic laboratories in India.
Principles and Laws of Forensic Science

Edmond Locard gave the principle of exchange, according to which substances undergo exchange every time two
objects come into contact with one another.

Law of Individuality

It is the most basic one, and as per this, no two objects, whether naturally occurring or man-made, are similar or
have duplicate characteristics.

All objects present in this universe are distinct, and even if they appear alike, there are features that, if examined
minutely, will reveal the differences between them.

For example, firearms created in the same factory with the same machine, at the same time, by the same workers,
and using the same material are different from each other in their class and individual characteristics.

The same goes for coins. Coins of the same mint and denomination might look exactly alike to the naked eye but
acquire individuality during manufacturing that is not easy to observe but can be spotted if seen with high
concentration.

Several other pieces of evidence, like toolmarks, fingerprints, footprints, lip prints, etc., found at the scene of a crime
are examined based on this principle.

Law of Progressive Change

As per this principle, with time, everything undergoes progressive change. Whatever is present today will not remain
the same in the coming time, and its appearance will change.

The speed with which the change occurs may vary depending on the object or sample.

That is why it is advised to secure the crime scene immediately to protect evidence from natural calamities (like rain,
heat, and storms), human or animal intervention, etc.

The longer the delay, the greater the changes that affect the identification process during investigation as the main
identifying features of the sample wear out.

So if the evidence is not identified, preserved, and sent to the forensic lab at the right time, it will deteriorate and not
give the desired results upon investigation.

Similarly, a bullet might get rusted, tissue samples might get degraded if not preserved immediately, and criminals
might become unrecognizable if not apprehended in time, except for a few features like fingerprints that remain
unchanged.

Principle of Exchange

This was given by a French scientist, Edmond Locard. As per this principle, whenever two objects come into contact
with each other, a mutual exchange of material takes place between them.

Whenever a criminal or his weapon of crime comes into contact with the victim or the objects at the crime scene,
they leave behind some traces and also pick up traces from the victim or the surroundings, either knowingly or
unknowingly.

These traces, or physical evidence, later help investigators identify suspects. A forensic expert analyzes these traces
and helps in linking them to the original source, thereby developing a link between the criminal, the victim, and the
crime scene.
For example, an investigating officer might receive footprints, fingerprints, bullet residues, blood samples, soil, tools,
hair samples, skin, bodily fluids, cloth pieces, etc. to examine.

The officer is required to establish exactly the places and objects with which the perpetrator or tool came into
contact during the crime and the points of contact.

Principle of Comparison

From a lab analysis and examination point of view, this principle holds immense importance. As a result, only similar
things can be compared to each other, and different things cannot be used for comparison.

You need to have like samples and specimens to examine the questioned sample found at the crime scene for
authenticity.

For example, if a forensic lab expert receives a hair and a fiber sample for comparison, he cannot proceed as both
differ from each other in appearance, chemical composition, color, shape, size, biological characteristics, texture, etc.

Also, if human blood is discovered at the crime scene, then sending animal blood for comparison is useless.

If a firearm is used, then there is no requirement to send a knife to the lab for comparison.

Principle of Analysis

Investigating officers usually found various physical pieces of evidence from the crime scene that needed to be sent
to the forensic lab for analysis and a final opinion by the expert about the evidence.

However, to get the best results out of the examination, it is necessary to gather the correct sample, properly
preserve it, pack it using appropriate techniques, and transport it carefully to the lab.

This methodology of collecting samples will help in avoiding damage caused by tampering, contamination, and
sample degradation.

For example, a hard disk collected in a paper bag can get damaged due to a strong electromagnetic field if it falls
within its range.

Law of Probability

Probability refers to the likelihood of a specific event happening in a specific manner out of a number of ways in
which the event has an opportunity to occur or not occur compared to all possible outcomes.

For example, if a forensic scientist receives a biological fluid as physical evidence, the chances of it belonging to a
particular person will vary.

Also, if a bank is robbed by a gang, investigators need to calculate the probability that the gang could be held
responsible.

Principle of Linkage

As per this principle, facts don’t lie, but people can. The human statement might or might not be accurate, but
physical evidence recovered from the crime scene can easily help forensic experts link a suspect to a victim. Also, the
evidence found can sometimes link directly to the suspect and sometimes indirectly.

Example of direct linking

Fingerprints found at a crime scene are the most valuable piece of physical evidence to directly link a suspect to a
crime scene.

Toxicological evidence like animal and plant poison, chemical poison, viscera, etc. can be used to directly link a
person to the crime scene.

Example of indirect linking

Physical evidence like tool marks, tire marks, footwear impressions, etc. indirectly points toward the suspect.
The scope of forensic science is vast and continually evolving, encompassing various fields and applications in the
criminal justice system. Here are some key areas within the scope of forensic science:

1. Crime Scene Investigation

 Evidence Collection: Forensic scientists are involved in the meticulous collection, preservation, and
documentation of physical evidence from crime scenes, such as fingerprints, hair, fibers, and biological
samples.

 Crime Scene Reconstruction: Analyzing evidence to recreate the sequence of events during a crime, helping
to establish timelines and understand how the crime occurred.

2. Forensic Biology

 DNA Analysis: Using techniques such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction) and STR (short tandem repeat)
analysis to identify individuals based on genetic material.

 Serology: Analyzing bodily fluids (blood, saliva, semen) to provide information about a crime, including blood
type or the presence of specific markers.

3. Forensic Chemistry

 Toxicology: Testing biological samples for the presence of drugs, alcohol, or poisons to determine their role in
a crime or cause of death.

 Explosives and Arson Analysis: Identifying chemical residues to determine if a fire was set intentionally or if
explosives were used.

4. Forensic Anthropology

 Skeletal Analysis: Examining human skeletal remains to determine age, sex, ancestry, and possible cause of
death, which is particularly useful in cases of unidentified bodies.

 Trauma Analysis: Assessing skeletal injuries to differentiate between perimortem (around the time of death)
and postmortem trauma.

5. Forensic Odontology

 Dental Identification: Using dental records to identify human remains and analyze bite marks, which can be
crucial in cases of assault or homicide.

6. Forensic Psychology

 Criminal Profiling: Analyzing behavioral patterns to assist law enforcement in identifying potential suspects
based on psychological characteristics.

 Competency Evaluations: Assessing individuals’ mental state to determine their ability to stand trial or
comprehend legal proceedings.

7. Digital Forensics

 Cybercrime Investigation: Analyzing electronic devices, computer systems, and digital data to investigate
crimes such as hacking, identity theft, and online fraud.

 Data Recovery: Retrieving deleted or damaged data from computers, smartphones, and other digital media
as evidence in legal cases.

8. Forensic Engineering

 Failure Analysis: Investigating accidents or failures in structures, vehicles, or machinery to determine the
cause of incidents, which can be crucial in legal disputes or product liability cases.
9. Forensic Document Examination

 Handwriting Analysis: Examining handwriting samples to verify authenticity or identify authorship in cases of
forgery or disputed documents.

 Paper and Ink Analysis: Analyzing documents for alterations, counterfeit features, or the materials used.

10. Education and Training

 Forensic Science Education: Developing academic programs and training for professionals in forensic science,
law enforcement, and the legal field to ensure proper techniques and ethical practices are followed.

11. Legal and Ethical Considerations

 Expert Testimony: Forensic scientists often serve as expert witnesses in court, presenting findings and
explaining methodologies to judges and juries.

 Ethical Standards: Adhering to ethical guidelines and maintaining the integrity of evidence and processes
throughout investigations.

Conclusion

The scope of forensic science is interdisciplinary, integrating knowledge from various scientific fields to address
complex questions in criminal investigations. As technology advances and new methodologies emerge, the role of
forensic science continues to expand, playing a critical role in the pursuit of justice and public safety.

Types of Forensic Evidences

Forensic evidence is classified into two types: physical and biological. Physical evidence consists

of nonliving objects such as fingerprints, fibres, glass, drugs, and bullets. In contrast, biological

evidence includes organic substances such as blood, saliva, urine, sperm, and hair.

Fingerprint Evidence

Fingerprint evidence may be used to corroborate or reject a person's identification in criminal

investigations since no two individuals share a similar fingerprint. Even identical twins, who share

the same DNA, have unique fingerprints. Due to their uniqueness, fingerprints may be used in

various contexts, such as criminal investigations, biometric security, and other purposes.

Fingerprints have been recognised a standard for human identification in the forensic field.

Fingerprints are widely used to determine an individual's identification by analysing his or her

uniqueness (Fingerprints: A Forensic Tool For Criminal Investigation). Typically, no crime can

be committed without the help of the hands which is the the most important bodily component.

Biometrics are eternal and stay unchanged throughout an individual's lifetime. Moreover,

fingerprints are distinctive; they cannot be fabricated, reproduced, or changed to seem like those

of another person. Offenders typically cover their hands with gloves to hide their fingerprints from

the investigation officer or law enforcement agencies, but many crimes are 'opportunistic';

consequently, fingerprints are typically discovered. Fingerprint evidence is vital for detecting

culprits and confirming their appearance at the crime scene, mainly if they had no motive to be

there (Kingsly, 2015).

Hair and Fibers

Many crimes require direct physical touch between the victim and the perpetrator, and when this

kind of contact happens, there may be an accidental transfer of hairs and fibres. Forensics experts

often examine hair as a piece of physical evidence in solving a criminal case. Because every person

has a distinct pattern of hair, and it is possible to clearly identify a suspect if the hair is found at

the crime site. Hair includes strands of DNA, which can't be cloned or fabricated, so it can be a

reliable source to prove the presence of the criminal (Kingsly, 2015). Hair may be used as

corroborating evidence for locating a suspect at a crime scene if it is properly taken and presented

to the science lab with a sufficient number of standard samples. When hairs are discovered on a

victim, they usually point to a suspect, and DNA analysis can clearly indicate the offender. In the

same way, fibres found on a victim's clothes or near the crime scene can lead investigators to a

particular suspect if he was wearing the cloth of a specific brand- shirt, sweater, coat etc.

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Computer Evidence

Evidence found in digital devices is known as computer evidence, such evidence is collected and

preserved with the help of security analysis, engineering, and legal procedure understanding.

Computer forensics is also called digital or cyber forensics. The procedure of digital forensics is

rigorous, and it takes a lot of time. To begin with, investigators search for evidence on

technological devices and store the information in a secure disc. After that, they examine and

record the data. Once it is prepared, the digital evidence is sent to the investigating agency

to identify the offender and punish him by the court. Computer forensics systematically

investigates and analyse data to establish what happened and who is responsible. It also helps to

maintain the reliability of digital evidence presented in legal proceedings. Digital proof and

forensic techniques are used to gather, preserve, and analyse digital evidence as computers, and

other data-collecting devices become increasingly widespread in every aspect of modern life. It is

now more critical than ever in solving crimes and other legal difficulties.

DNA Evidence

DNA contains genetic information and it is widely considered to be one of the most trustworthy

sources of evidence. DNA evidence is found in the collected blood, hair, skin cells. Moreover, it

can also be applied to solve crimes that occurred before DNA analysis technology was developed.

Since no two people have the same DNA, with the exception of identical twins, DNA is a valuable

tool in investigations, and the DNA evidence found at a crime scene may be used to link a suspect
to the crime or to identify a suspect (Understanding DNA Evidence: A Guide for Victim Service

Providers). Furthermore, DNA extraction is the initial step in any forensic DNA study. Typically,

one nanogram of DNA is adequate to produce a good result (Norrgard, n.d.). For instance, samples

taken from a crime scene may match the suspect's DNA. In addition, it may prove that the suspect

was present at the crime site, but it does not establish that the suspect committed the offence. A

prosecution's case will often depend on other evidence in addition to DNA evidence. It is most

helpful when DNA evidence is combined with other pieces of evidence, such as fingerprints,

footprints, a thorough investigation of the crime scene, and the testimony of eyewitnesses. Blood

splash patterns and microbiological data are two examples of further physical evidence that may

be obtained.

Autopsies

An autopsy or postmortem examination is an external inspection of the complete body, and an

internal examination comprises the removal and dissection of all thoracoabdominal and neck

organs, the opening of the head, and the removal and examination of the brain and preserving a

variety of materials for use in any specified further investigations. It is an entirely surgical

examination of the deceased person. And the primary goals of an autopsy are to establish the

identification of the deceased, identify the cause of death, confirm or deny the reported way of

death, and estimate the period since the death. Autopsies are classified into two types: forensic or

medicolegal autopsy and clinical or medical autopsy. A forensic or medicolegal autopsy is done

when the cause of death is suspicious, violent, or unknown and its purpose is to identify whether

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or not natural causes caused the death. The clinical or medical autopsy is done in the hospital with

the next of kin's permission to discover what caused the death and learn more about it.

Dentistry

Teeth are very vital evidence in criminal investigations; they are helpful for forensic investigation

because they are kept in the mouth's closed chambers, and in a dangerous situation, they create an

obstruction that may establish a link to the crime or death. Even in a highly decomposed or injured

body, teeth may preserve DNA content and provide post-mortem DNA evidence (Gaytmenn,

2003). Therefore, the process of applying dental evidence to the field of criminal law is known as

forensic odontology. This may involve detecting sexual abuse, identifying the deceased, and

determining the deceased person's age. Due to the fact that dental records may be used to identify

a person or provide authorities with the information necessary to establish the identification of a
case, forensic dentistry involves knowledge of a variety of disciplines (Adams et al., 2013). Expert

forensic odontologists can assist in determining the identity of a victim from bite marks and other

unidentified remains. The medical examiner or the police officer conducting an investigation may

seek the services of a forensic odontologist

Significance of Forensic Science

Forensic science is vital to police investigations and judicial proceedings. Forensic experts

evaluate evidence from crime scenes and other sources to help prosecute criminals and free

innocent people. Forensic science helps to identify the criminal and ensure justice. The

significance of forensic science is stated below:

Crime tracing

The computer, mobile phone, and email of the criminal who is suspected of committing the crime

may be tracked down with the assistance of computer forensic science. Besides, it is also possible

to track the criminals' IP address and identify the location from where he accesses the website.

Computer forensics may also retrieve his call record and SMS, which he uses to communicate with

others.

Suspect identification

At every crime scene, the criminal left behind some form of physical evidence, such as biometric

fingerprints, DNA, or other evidence. By analysing the physical evidence found at a crime scene,

forensic science can identify the criminal accurately.

Linking of crimes to the suspect

Trace evidence is used to establish the connection between the crime and the criminal. Trace

evidence is so small that it may be transmitted across surfaces unintentionally. And such evidence

recovered from crime scenes can provide powerful leads for the investigating officer. Trace

evidence may be transmitted between individuals, things, and the surroundings during a crime.

Determine the cause and manner of death

Forensic science can discover how and why someone died by doing an autopsy or postmortem

examination. The autopsy or postmortem examination comprises a thorough examination of the

person to look for signs of injuries, illness, poisoning or any other reasons that might disclose the

reason for death. To figure out what caused the death, forensics experts collaborate with police

investigators. In addition, forensic pathologists may consult with anthropologists or entomologists

to determine how and why someone died.

Determining child abuse extent and sexual assault

Forensic science is vital for determining child abuse, defensive wounds on a victim, and gunshot

wounds; injury patterns in victims of domestic violence, self-inflicted injuries, sexual assault, and

sperm semen persistence (Kingsly, 2015).

Identifying alcohol components

Forensic science can test criminal tissues for narcotics, as well as the quantity of those drugs and

their metabolites. It is identified by examining the blood, urine, or other biological samples that

were taken from the accused.

Establish the guilt or innocence of possible suspects

Without an eyewitness, it is challenging to establish beyond a reasonable doubt whether the suspect

did the act or was not engaged. But forensic science can ensure the presence or absence of the

suspected person in the crime. It is possible to use it to aid in the identification of a suspect as well

as to disclose substantial connections between the suspect and the crime. Thus it helps the court to

ensure the guilt or innocence of possible suspect.

Narrow the range of possible suspects

It is possible to operate forensic evidence to connect crimes suspected to be linked. For instance,

DNA evidence might connect a criminal to several crimes. This connection of crimes assists the

investigating officer in narrowing the number of possible suspects to identify and prosecute them.

EVIDENCE
The term Evidence derived from the Latin terms ‘Evident’ or’ evidere’ means to show clearly, to discover, to ascertain
or to prove. Evidence is a means of proof. Indian evidence Act provides the fact on which evidence can be produced
before the court. It also provides admissibility and inadmissibility of evidence. Once the evidence is proved, then
comes the question of the evidentiary value of the evidence produced before the Court. If the evidential value of the
evidence against the accused is strong enough to prove the guilt of an accused beyond a reasonable doubt then only
the court can convict the person. There are different types of Evidence that can be proved before the Court. Let’s
understand the types of Evidence as follows:

1. Oral Evidence

2. Documentary Evidence

3. Primary Evidence

4. Secondary Evidence

5. Real Evidence

6. Hearsay Evidence

7. Direct Evidence

8. Indirect Evidence or Circumstantial Evidence

1. Oral Evidence

Oral Evidence means all statements which the court permits or requires to be made before it by witnesses, in relation
to the matter of fact under inquiry. Section 59 of the Indian Evidence Act reads as ‘all facts, apart from the contents
of a document or electronic records shall be considered as oral evidence’. When it comes to recording statements,
most of the evidence is given orally hence everything in a way is oral evidence. Even if a witness cannot communicate
orally whatever they say in writing or any other format to the court will still fall under the category of oral evidence

2. Documentary Evidence:

Section 3 of The Indian Evidence Act provides that documentary evidence means all documents including electronic
records produced for the inspection of the Court; such documents are called documentary evidence. Documents are
divided into two categories, Public Documents, and Private Documents. The production of Documents in Court is
regulated by the Civil Procedure Code and the Criminal Procedure Code. The contents of documents must be proved
either by the production of a document which is called Primary Evidence or Secondary Evidence.

3. Real Evidence

Real Evidence Real evidence, often called physical evidence, consists of material items involved in a case, objects and
things the Court can physically hold and inspect. Examples of real evidence include fingerprints, blood samples, DNA,
a knife, a gun, and other physical objects. Real evidence is usually admitted because it tends to prove or disprove an
issue of fact in a trial. Real evidence is usually involved in an event central to the case, such as a murder weapon,
clothing of a victim, narcotics or fingerprints.

4. Hearsay Evidence

Hearsay Evidence means the statement o witness not based on his personal knowledge but on what he heard from
others It is not direct evidence. Evidence that is not direct is what he heard from a third party who is not himself
called as a witness. The evidence of such a witness is inadmissible to prove the truth of the fact stated.

5. Direct Evidence

Direct evidence is evidence that will prove the point in fact without interpretation of circumstances.. It is any
evidence that can show the court that something occurred without the need for the judge to make inferences or
assumptions to reach a conclusion. An eyewitness who saw the accused shoot a victim would be able to provide
direct evidence.

6. Circumstantial Evidence or Indirect Evidence

Circumstantial evidence is an Evidence that relies on an inference to connect it to a conclusion of fact. such as a
fingerprint at the scene of a crime. Peter Murphy defines Circumstantial Evidence as “Evidence from which the
desired conclusion may be drawn. Evidence requires the court not only to accept the evidence presented but also to
draw an inference from it.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Physical Evidence is any object or item (physical, chemical or biological) in any state of matter (solid, liquid, gas) that
establishes that a crime has been committed or establishes a link between a crime and its perpetrator or crime and
its victim. Example – Documents, hair follicles, fingerprints, footprints, tyre prints, fibers, soil, blood, semen, odor of
perfume or smoke etc.

• Locard’s principle of exchange : Every contacts (living or nonliving) leaves traces.

Physical evidence, also known as real evidence or material evidence, is a tangible object which can tie the defendant,
the witness, or the victim to the crime scene. Physical evidence helps the examiner or investigator to recreate the
crime scene and infer the sequence of events that might have taken place. Physical evidence, being objective in
nature, can be used as a solid and reliable fact to prove or disprove statements from the individuals involved.

1. Paint – Paint chips or residue, when analysed as evidence can indicate its type or class, as saved in the
databases. Similarities between the paint substance found in two things can help establish a connection.
 2. Glass- Glass particles are found in various cases such as a hit and run or a murder. Once examined, it may
provide leads regarding the crime.

3. Explosives- Explosives when examined can lead the investigation to the type of explosive and the source.
Further, the traces of explosives found elsewhere or on anyone can provide useful clues.

4. Ballistics- Ballistics refer to gunshot residues, firearms, or ammunition. There are specialised tests used to
look into the details of such weapons used.

5. Dust and dirt- Dust, dirt, sand, or soil can be used to establish a connection between two different places and
may even help with understanding the time and weather when the incident took place.

6. Fingerprints- Fingerprint lifting or other methods are used to obtain the fingerprints and then using the
automated systems for fingerprint identification, it can identify suspects or accomplices.

7. Impressions- impression evidence includes tire tracks, shoe prints. etc. can be lifted, cast using a tape, or
photographed and compared with the suspect’s tires or shoes.

8. Fracture matches- Fracture matches in forensics are when an object is torn or broken, and its components
can be matched when placed next to each other. This can show how multiple components were once part of
the same object.

9. Questioned Documents- Documents found at the crime scene such as ransom notes or other materials can
be analyzed based on watermarks or the handwriting on it which may help with identifying the suspects.

Trace Evidence

The subtle type of physical evidence, trace evidence, is small but

measurable. It is typically noticed after a closer examination upon larger
pieces of physical evidence and can sometimes require a microscope or
other instrument.

Impression Evidence– There are 3 types of impression evidence: shoe prints and tire tracks, bite marks, and tool
marks. Each of these can use either one or a combination of the following collection tactics, such as photographs,
lifting with tape, or casting with plaster.

CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

It is a visual record and conveys all the details of the physical evidence, such as fingerprints, footprints, bloodstains,
location of the crime, etc., that can be presented in the court of law.

captures the scene of crime the way it is which gives important clue about the location and positioning of physical
evidences at a crime scene. This helps in refreshing the visual memory of Crime Scene Investigation and Scientific
Officers and aids in Crime Scene Reconstruction

he crime scene photography is done from various angles and distances in order to show:

1. Nature and location of a physical evidence at a crime scene

2. Relationship of a physical evidence with the overall crime scen

Overall Photographs

The primary aim of these photographs is to capture the crime scene, highlighting the scene's boundaries and
excluding any other location. As a forensic photographer, you capture the entire scene in two steps: outside the
boundary looking inside, and from the center of the scene, looking outside. In this case, the focus is on the whole
area rather than the individual evidence present.

Mid-range Photographs

A fixed object at the crime scene is selected, and all the physical evidence and spatial arrangement concerning the
object are captured. The photograph depicts the background, view, measurement, and exact position of the
evidence.

Close-up Photographs

These are the photographs of evidence found at the crime scene and clearly show all the features and markings that
evidence bears. Typically each image is captured twice; one without a scale and one with a scale depicting its
dimensions. You should ensure to align the image sensor of the camera parallel to the surface, eliminate shadows,
and the object must be within the camera frame.

CHAIN OF CUSTODY
Chain of custody refers to the process of maintaining and documenting the handling of evidence collected during a
crime scene investigation. It is critical to ensure that evidence is preserved in its original state and can be reliably
linked to the investigation and legal proceedings. Here are the key elements of chain of custody:

1. Collection of Evidence

 Evidence must be collected using proper techniques to avoid contamination or alteration.

 Each item should be documented with details such as the time, location, and circumstances of its collection.

2. Documentation

 A chain of custody log is maintained, recording every person who handles or examines the evidence.

 Each entry should include the date, time, and the individual’s signature.

3. Storage

 Evidence must be stored in secure, tamper-proof containers to protect it from contamination or loss.

 Access to the evidence storage area should be limited to authorized personnel only.

4. Transfer of Evidence

 When evidence is transferred (e.g., to a lab for analysis), it must be documented, noting the date, time, and
purpose of the transfer.

 The recipient should sign for the evidence, confirming their receipt.

5. Analysis

 Forensic analysis must also be documented, including who performed the analysis, methods used, and
results obtained.

 Any changes to the evidence during analysis should be recorded.

6. Presentation in Court

 The chain of custody must be clearly established when presenting evidence in court.

 Any gaps in the chain can lead to challenges regarding the evidence’s integrity and admissibility.

Importance of Chain of Custody

 Integrity of Evidence: Ensures that evidence remains unchanged and reliable.

  Legal Protection: Protects against claims of evidence tampering or mishandling.

 Accountability: Establishes a clear record of who handled the evidence and when, which is crucial for legal
proceedings.

In summary, maintaining a strict chain of custody is vital for the credibility of the evidence and the overall integrity of
the investigation process.

CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION

Crime scene investigation (CSI) is a systematic process used by law enforcement and forensic experts to collect,
preserve, and analyze evidence from a crime scene. The goal is to reconstruct events, identify suspects, and provide
reliable evidence for prosecution or defense in court. Here’s a detailed overview of the crime scene investigation
process:

1. Initial Response

 Arrival at the Scene: First responders (usually police officers) secure the area, ensuring safety for all
personnel involved.

 Assessment: Evaluate the scene to determine the nature of the incident, whether there are any victims, and
potential hazards.

2. Securing the Scene

 Establishing Perimeters: Set up a cordon around the crime scene to prevent contamination or interference.

 Control Access: Limit entry to authorized personnel only, using barriers, tape, or other means to keep the
public away.

3. Documentation

 Photography: Take comprehensive photographs of the scene from various angles, including overall shots and
close-ups of specific evidence.

 Sketching: Create a rough sketch of the scene, noting the positions of evidence, landmarks, and
measurements. This helps in visualizing the layout.

 Field Notes: Record detailed observations, including weather conditions, time of day, and descriptions of the
scene and evidence.

4. Evidence Collection

 Identification: Identify potential evidence types (e.g., fingerprints, DNA, weapons, digital evidence).

 Collection Techniques: Use appropriate methods for different types of evidence:

o Biological Samples: Collected using gloves, sterile containers, and proper packaging to prevent
contamination.

o Physical Evidence: Utilize tools like tweezers, bags, and boxes for items such as clothing, weapons, or
trace evidence.

o Digital Evidence: Secure electronic devices carefully, using imaging techniques to preserve data
without altering it.

 Chain of Custody: Maintain a clear chain of custody for each piece of evidence, documenting who collected
it, when, and how it was handled.

5. Forensic Analysis

 Laboratory Examination: Submit evidence to forensic labs for detailed analysis, including:
 o Fingerprint Analysis: Comparing prints to known databases.

o DNA Analysis: Using techniques like PCR (polymerase chain reaction) to analyze biological samples.

o Ballistics: Examining firearms and bullets to determine their origins and trajectories.

o Toxicology: Testing for drugs or poisons in biological samples.

6. Reconstruction of Events

 Analysis of Evidence: Use the collected evidence to piece together the sequence of events leading to the
crime.

 Expert Consultation: Engage specialists (e.g., blood spatter analysts, crime scene reconstruction experts) to
provide insights based on the evidence.

7. Reporting

 Comprehensive Reports: Prepare detailed reports summarizing findings, including photographs, sketches,
and laboratory results.

 Testimony Preparation: Prepare investigators and forensic experts to testify in court, explaining the evidence
and its significance.

8. Court Presentation

 Admissibility: Ensure that evidence meets legal standards for admissibility, based on the integrity of the
collection and handling process.

 Expert Witnesses: Forensic experts may be called to explain complex analyses and findings to the court.

Conclusion

Crime scene investigation is a crucial aspect of law enforcement that combines scientific methods with investigative
techniques. A meticulous approach to securing and analyzing evidence can significantly impact the outcome of a
case, ensuring that justice is served. By adhering to established protocols and maintaining a clear chain of custody,
investigators can build strong cases that hold up in court.

ETHICS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE

Ethics in forensic science is crucial to maintaining the integrity of the legal system and ensuring that justice is served.
Forensic professionals must adhere to ethical standards to uphold the credibility of their work. Here are key aspects
of ethics in forensic science:

1. Integrity and Objectivity

 Unbiased Analysis: Forensic scientists must analyze evidence without personal bias or external influence.
Their findings should be based solely on scientific evidence.

 Honesty in Reporting: All results, whether they support or contradict a hypothesis, must be reported
accurately and without manipulation.

2. Confidentiality

 Protecting Privacy: Forensic professionals must safeguard sensitive information related to cases, victims, and
suspects. Confidentiality is essential to uphold the integrity of investigations and protect individuals' rights.

 Limitations on Disclosure: Information should only be shared with authorized personnel involved in the case,
and any disclosures must be in compliance with legal requirements.

3. Competence and Professional Development

  Maintaining Expertise: Forensic scientists must continuously update their knowledge and skills through
ongoing education and training to ensure the accuracy of their work.

 Limitations of Expertise: Professionals should only engage in practices and testify in areas where they have
appropriate qualifications and experience.

4. Responsibility to Justice

 Serving the Legal System: Forensic scientists have a duty to provide accurate and reliable evidence to assist
in the pursuit of justice, regardless of the potential impact on the outcome of a case.

 Avoiding Conflicts of Interest: Forensic professionals must disclose any potential conflicts of interest that
may affect their objectivity or credibility.

5. Documentation and Transparency

 Thorough Record-Keeping: Maintaining detailed and accurate records of all procedures, findings, and
communications is essential for accountability and transparency.

 Open Methodology: The methods and processes used in analysis should be clearly documented and made
available for review, promoting transparency in forensic practices.

6. Ethical Considerations in Evidence Collection

 Respect for Persons: When collecting evidence, professionals should treat all individuals with respect and
dignity, especially victims and witnesses.

 Legal Compliance: All evidence collection must adhere to legal standards and protocols to ensure its
admissibility in court.

7. Testimony and Communication

 Truthfulness in Testimony: Forensic experts must provide truthful and accurate testimony in court, clearly
explaining their findings and methodologies.

 Avoiding Overreach: Experts should refrain from making conclusions beyond their area of expertise or
stating opinions that are not supported by the evidence.

8. Collaboration and Professional Conduct

 Respect for Colleagues: Forensic professionals should maintain respectful and ethical relationships with
colleagues, law enforcement, and legal representatives.

 Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Ethical collaboration with other professionals (e.g., law enforcement, legal
experts) should focus on the common goal of delivering justice.

Conclusion

Ethics in forensic science is fundamental to ensuring the reliability and credibility of forensic evidence in the legal
system. Upholding ethical standards fosters trust, promotes justice, and protects the rights of individuals involved in
legal proceedings. Forensic professionals must remain vigilant in adhering to these principles to contribute effectively
to the pursuit of justice.

CRIME SCENE SKETCHING

Crime scene sketching is a critical part of forensic investigation that helps document the scene and provides a visual
representation of the layout and evidence. Sketches can assist in understanding the circumstances of the crime and
can be used in court as evidence. Here’s an overview of crime scene sketching and its various types:

Importance of Crime Scene Sketching

  Documentation: Provides a detailed visual record of the scene, including the location of evidence and the
relationships between different elements.

 Accuracy: Helps convey the spatial relationships and dimensions of the scene more effectively than
photographs alone.

 Legal Evidence: Can be used in court to support testimony and provide a clear depiction of the scene.

Types of Crime Scene Sketches

1. Rough Sketch

o Description: A preliminary sketch created at the scene using a pencil and paper. It captures the
layout and evidence locations quickly and informally.

o Characteristics:

 Not to scale, but should include measurements for significant distances.

 Key elements like walls, doors, and furniture should be noted.

 Evidence markers are included, showing their approximate positions.

o Purpose: Serves as the initial documentation of the scene, which can later be refined into a final
sketch.

2. Final Sketch

o Description: A polished version of the rough sketch that is often created after leaving the crime
scene. It is usually drawn to scale and may be done using software or on graph paper.

o Characteristics:

 Includes accurate measurements and is more detailed than the rough sketch.

 Often incorporates labels and a legend for clarity.

 Can include north arrows and scale bars for orientation.

o Purpose: Used for reports, presentations, and court testimony; provides a clear and professional
representation of the scene.

3. Bird’s Eye View Sketch

o Description: A top-down view of the crime scene, as if looking down from above.

o Characteristics:

 Provides an overview of the layout, showing the arrangement of evidence and features in
relation to each other.

 Ideal for outdoor scenes or larger areas.

o Purpose: Helps visualize the spatial relationships among different elements in the scene.

4. Exploded View Sketch

o Description: A sketch that separates various components of the scene to show details more clearly.

o Characteristics:

 Elements are “exploded” or moved apart to highlight specific evidence or features without
overlapping.
  Can be particularly useful for complex scenes with multiple layers (e.g., stacked items,
rooms).

o Purpose: Allows forensic investigators to present intricate details clearly and effectively.

5. 3D Sketch or Digital Renderings

o Description: Utilizes computer software to create three-dimensional representations of the crime

scene.

o Characteristics:

 Provides a realistic view of the scene, helping visualize height, depth, and other spatial
relationships.

 Can incorporate various elements, such as lighting and textures.

o Purpose: Enhances understanding of the scene and can be particularly impactful in presentations or
court settings.

Types of Evidence in Crime Scene Investigation

1. Physical Evidence

o Description: Tangible items that can be collected from a crime scene.

o Examples:

 Weapons (guns, knives)

 Clothing

 Fingerprints

 Hair and fibers

 Trace evidence (paint, glass shards)

o Significance: Provides direct links to the suspect, victim, or crime scene and can be analyzed for DNA,
fingerprints, or other forensic characteristics.

2. Biological Evidence

o Description: Evidence that originates from a living organism.

o Examples:

 Blood

 Semen

 Saliva

 Skin cells

 Hair (with root)

o Significance: Can be analyzed for DNA, which is crucial for identifying individuals and establishing
connections between the suspect and the crime.

3. Chemical Evidence

o Description: Substances that can be analyzed chemically.

o Examples:
  Drugs (narcotics)

 Poison

 Explosives

 Fingerprint powder

o Significance: Helps in understanding the context of the crime, such as drug-related offenses or arson.

4. Digital Evidence

o Description: Information stored or transmitted in digital form.

o Examples:

 Computer files (documents, emails)

 Mobile phone data (texts, call logs, GPS data)

 Surveillance footage

 Social media interactions

o Significance: Provides insights into the suspect's behavior, communications, and actions leading up
to the crime.

5. Trace Evidence

o Description: Small quantities of material that are transferred during the commission of a crime.

o Examples:

 Paint chips

 Soil

 Gunshot residue

 Fibers from clothing or carpets

o Significance: Can link a suspect to a crime scene or victim through microscopic analysis.

6. Testimonial Evidence

o Description: Statements or accounts provided by witnesses, victims, or suspects.

o Examples:

 Eyewitness accounts

 Expert witness testimonies

o Significance: Offers context and details about the crime, which can be corroborated with physical
evidence.

7. Circumstantial Evidence

o Description: Evidence that indirectly suggests a fact or circumstance related to the crime.

o Examples:

 Motive or opportunity

 Presence at the crime scene

 Behavioral patterns
 o Significance: While not direct proof, it can support a theory or hypothesis when combined with other
types of evidence.

SCOPE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE

The scope of forensic science is broad and multifaceted, encompassing various disciplines that contribute to the
investigation and resolution of crimes. Here are some key aspects of its scope:

1. Criminal Investigations

 Evidence Collection: Forensic science aids in the systematic collection of physical, biological, and digital
evidence from crime scenes.

 Crime Scene Analysis: Specialists analyze crime scenes to reconstruct events, identify potential suspects, and
understand the sequence of actions.

2. Identification of Individuals

 DNA Analysis: Forensic biology enables the identification of individuals through DNA profiling, linking
suspects to crime scenes or victims.

 Fingerprint Analysis: Fingerprint examination helps in the identification of individuals based on unique
patterns.

3. Legal Proceedings

 Expert Testimony: Forensic scientists often serve as expert witnesses in court, providing insights based on
their analyses and findings.

 Documentation: The meticulous documentation and reporting of evidence and analyses support legal
arguments and help establish the facts of a case.

4. Disaster Investigation

 Mass Fatality Management: Forensic science plays a critical role in identifying victims in disasters (natural or
man-made) through various identification methods.

 Accident Reconstruction: Forensic experts analyze accidents (e.g., vehicular, structural) to determine causes
and contribute to safety improvements.

5. Public Health and Safety

 Toxicology: Analysis of substances can reveal patterns of drug use, poisoning, or environmental hazards,
contributing to public health awareness and safety regulations.

 Epidemiological Studies: Forensic science can assist in understanding trends related to crime, substance
abuse, and disease spread.

6. Cybercrime Investigation

 Digital Forensics: Investigating cybercrimes, such as hacking, fraud, and online harassment, involves
recovering and analyzing data from electronic devices and networks.

 Data Recovery: Forensic techniques are used to recover deleted or hidden data that may be relevant to
investigations.

7. Cold Cases

 Re-examination of Evidence: Advances in forensic technology, such as DNA analysis, allow for the re-
examination of evidence from unsolved cases, potentially leading to new leads or convictions.
8. Interdisciplinary Collaboration

 Collaboration with Law Enforcement: Forensic scientists work closely with police and legal professionals,
providing expertise that aids in investigations and prosecutions.

 International Cooperation: Forensic science plays a role in international criminal justice, aiding in the
investigation of transnational crimes and human rights violations.

9. Education and Research

 Training: Forensic science includes the education and training of professionals in various specializations,
enhancing skills and knowledge in crime scene investigation and evidence analysis.

 Research and Development: Ongoing research leads to the development of new techniques and
technologies that improve forensic methodologies.

FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY

India’s main body in responsibility for monitoring FSL operations is the Central Forensic Sciences Laboratory (CFSL). It
is under the administrative control of the Union Ministry of Home Affairs and is responsible for maintaining standards
and quality control across all FSLs in the country. The Department of Justice, Ministry of Home Affairs oversees the
Central Forensic Science Laboratory (CFSL), which is the premier forensic laboratory in India. Established in 1905, the
CFSL is responsible for setting up standards, protocols, and guidelines for functioning FSLs across the country. It also
offers training and technical support to other forensic labs and investigative organizations. Under the CFSL, 21
regional forensic laboratories, known as Forensic Science Laboratories (FSLs), are located in different states and union
territories. These FSLs are responsible for providing forensic services to their respective regions. Additionally,
specialized forensic laboratories, such as the National Forensic Laboratory for Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances
and the National Institute of Criminology & Forensic Science, cater to specific areas of forensic science. At present,
there are 33 FSLs in India, which are categorized into three types:

 Central Forensic Science Laboratories (CFSLs): There are 13 CFSLs in major cities across India, including Delhi,
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, and Hyderabad. These laboratories handle cases of national importance and
provide technical assistance to state police forces.

 State Forensic Science Laboratories (SFSLs): Are 19 SFSLs located in various states and union territories.
These laboratories are responsible for providing forensic services to state police forces and assisting in local
investigations.

 Judicial Forensic Science Laboratories (JFSLs): There are 5 JFSLs in different high courts across India. These
laboratories provide forensic assistance to the judiciary during trial proceedings.

Functions of FSLs

 Collection and Preservation of Evidence: To guarantee that evidence from crime scenes is admissible in
court, FSLs are in charge of gathering and maintaining that evidence. This includes properly handling,
packaging, and transporting exhibits to the laboratory.

 Examination and Analysis: The primary function of FSLs is to examine and analyze the collected evidence
using various forensic techniques. These techniques include fingerprint identification, questioned document
examination, drug analysis, DNA profiling, ballistics, and digital forensics.

 Reporting: After completing the examination and analysis, FSLs prepare detailed reports outlining their
findings. These reports are submitted to the investigating agencies and courts to aid in investigating and trial
cases.

 Training and Capacity Building: FSLs are responsible for imparting training to forensic scientists, police
personnel, and other stakeholders in the field of forensic science. This ensures that the quality of forensic
services remains consistent and improves over time.
 Technical Assistance: FSLs provide technical assistance to investigating agencies and courts through expert
opinions, consultations, and guidance on forensic matters.

 Research and Development: With the goal to stay aware of the most recent developments in forensic
science and integrate them into their operations, FSLs are also engaged in research and development
projects.