AGRONOMY

Seventh Edition

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 1

 Copyright © 2020 by Agri Coaching Chandigarh
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other
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requests, write us at info@agricoaching.in or contact us at below address:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Sco-7, Kharar Landran road, Kharar (Mohali)

Contact Number: 98288-22277, 95-200-90-200

www.agricoaching.in

2 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Message from Director’s Desk
This gives me immense happiness to announce that with wholehearted co-operation of
teaching and support of our students, we are about to complete our fourth year under
the banner of Agri Coaching Chandigarh.

Hello Champ, I am your coach D.K. Wadhwa. I am writing this message not with my
knowledge but with my experience of 8 years in the teaching field where I have dealt
with a number and different types of students. I have observed one common thing
among all those who got selected, they have a Positive Attitude and Hard-Working
nature. If you can maintain a daily 4-6 hours for your studies and that too with a
positive attitude, you will be a winner within one year which is full of struggle.

Now the third factor apart from positive attitude and hard work will be your Strategy,
with a good strategy you can get your goal very easily. It was said by Michael Porter:
“Strategy is about setting yourself apart from the competition. It is not a matter of
being better at what you do – it is a matter of being different at what you do”.
Usually, students do not know how to start and what to study. So, before you start
preparing for any competitive exam, just make sure that what will be the strategy for it
and then start with a positive attitude.

At Agri Coaching Chandigarh we strive to provide you the best. We have set a
benchmark of 317 final selections in IBPS-AFO. We have no competitor throughout
India in terms of highest selections. We provide high quality content with the best
teaching methods that help a student to achieve his/her goal.

Proud to be a unique era of this quality guidance, proud to be a reason to smile on

certain lips, proud to be your family member and your teacher.

We at Agri Coaching Chandigarh will always be at your side to push you towards
Success!

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 3

 Preface
We have a great pleasure while publishing our seventh edition of books. These books are
very precise and has a lot of data as per the need of your exam. We have added Basic
Principles, all crops, Soil, previous year questions, Allied subjects and students’ doubts
and much more. These books are dedicated to all our passionate students who are the part
of our family and struggling for their success. After reading these books you will be able
to analyse that we have covered all Agriculture related content in limited number of pages.
We have tried to give you all important data in summarized and well manner. I being a
privileged citizen of this great nation, have certain individual responsibilities to make it a
better nation with better education for the students of agriculture. Please feel free to write
us at Info@agricoaching.in for any kind of improvement or suggestion.

While writing these books we have used all authentic source, however if any kind of loss
or damage happened due to use of this content author will not be responsible for the same.

Director
D.K. Wadhwa
Agri Coaching Chandigarh

4 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Index
S.No. Topic Page No.

1 Important terms of Agriculture 7

2 Terms related to dryland Agriculture 20

3 About ICAR and other organizations 21

4 Revolutions in Agriculture 31

5 International years related to Agriculture 32

6 Important days in Agriculture 32

7 Instruments used in Agriculture 35

8 Basics of Agronomy 38

9 Nomenclature of crops 40

10 Plant family and their other name 44

11 Crop with special name 44

12 Crop classification 46

13 Cropping pattern, cropping system and cropping 53

scheme

14 Types of farming 62

15 Organic / eco-friendly farming 65

16 Sowing methods 66

17 Irrigation & it’s methods 62

18 Drainage 84

19 Agro-climatic zones 89

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 5

 20 Agrometeorology 91

21 Atmosphere 94

22 Monsoon 102

23 Climatology 103

24 Dryland agriculture 106

25 Watershed management 110

26 Important summarized data 112

27 Important facts 129

28 Doubts asked by students 132

29 Field crops 136

6 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

IMPORTANT TERMS OF AGRICULTURE
❖ Absorption Losses: Loss of water from a canal or a reservoir by capillary action and
percolation and in case of canal during the process of delivery.
❖ Abscission: Detachment of fruit, leaf or other parts from a plant is called abscission.
❖ Acid soil: A soil which is deficient in available bases, particularly Ca and which give an acid
reaction when tested by a standard method.
❖ Acre foot water: The amount of water that would cover an area of land to a depth of one foot
assuming no seepage evaporation and run off.
❖ Acre inch day: Term used principally in irrigated section of united states for measuring
quantity of flow of water. It is equal to a flow which will cover one acre to a depth of one inch
in a 24 hours period or 0.042 cubic feet per second.
❖ Acre inch: It is a measure of quantity of flow of water and is equal to the flow which will
cover one acre to a depth of one inch.
❖ Acre: (43560 sq. ft) an area of land about 220 feet long and 198 feet wide.
❖ Adiabatic: A condition in which heat is neither gained nor dissipated.
❖ Adobe soil: These soils are formed by the broken material of rocks transported by both wind
and water.
❖ Agar: A substance made from seed weed and used in the solid culture.
❖ Agriculture: It is an art, science and business of raising crops and rearing of animals through
exploring the natural resources with the coordination of socio-economic infrastructure to meet
the basic necessities of life.i.e.. food, feed, fiber and shelter.
❖ Allelopathy: Phenomenon involving the release of certain chemicals from plant parts into the
environment which may when present in sufficient amounts, inhibit or suppress the
germination or growth of the plants in the neighborhood.
❖ Alluvial soil: These are the soils which are formed by the deposition of broken material of
rocks transported and deposited by water of streams and rivers.
❖ Altitude: Height from sea level
❖ Application losses: Water losses through percolation or run off.
❖ Arable farming: The term arable farming refers to system in which only crops that require
cultivation of the soil are grown.
❖ Arboriculture: Intensive cultivation of individual trees possibly for fruits gums and resins.
❖ Arid region: The region where total rain fall is less than natural evapo – transpiration rate.
❖ Aridity: It is the characteristic of a region where there is low average rain fall or 100%
available water. It is permanent feature of region.
❖ Available water: The water retained in a soil which represents the difference between field
capacity and the permanent wilting percentage is called available water.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 7

❖ Barani soil: When the source of irrigation to crop is only the rainwater that is known as Barani
soil.
❖ Base period: Period of time in days from the first watering of crop before sowing and the last
watering before harvesting.
❖ Basic seed: Is the progeny of pre – basic seed produced so as to maintain genetic purity and
identity.
❖ Basin: Flat area of land surrounded by low ridges or bunds
❖ Biological yield: It is the total dry matter produced by a plant as a result of photosynthesis
and nutrient uptake minus that lost by respiration.
❖ Blind hoeing: Hoeing before a crop germinates.
❖ Botanical variety: When a group of plant occurring in nature is different from the general
species originally described and the botanical binomial name is not enough to identify it is
called as botanical variety.
❖ Brake crops: These crops are grown to break the continuity of the agroecological situation of
the field under multiple cropping systems e.g., growing of pulse, potato or oilseeds in cereal-
based cropping system.
❖ Broadcasting: Manual spreading of seed in the field and mixing of the spread seed by
ploughing or planking the field.
❖ C3 plants: Plants which fix CO2 in three C molecule and do not use temperature and water
as efficiently as C4 plant. e.g., wheat, rice, cotton.
❖ C4 plant: Plants which fix CO2 in to four C molecules’., sugarcane, maize, sorghum.
❖ Capillary Water: It is the soil water in excess of hygroscopic water. This exists in the pore
space of the soil by surface tension or molecular attraction against gravitational forces. It is
only water available for plant growth and development.
❖ Catchment’s Area: The area which drains the rainwater falling on it, via streams and rivers,
eventually to the sea or into a lake.
❖ Cereal Crops: A cereal is defined as crop grown for its edible seed. These crops are also
known as grain crops e.g. wheat, Rice, Maize etc.
❖ Certified Seed: It is the progeny of basic seed and is produced by registered growers of seed
producing agencies. (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Clayey Soil: A soil is known as clayey which contain at least 30% clay particles and in most
cases not less than 40% ,usually it contains 45% clay , 30% silt and 25% sand.
❖ Cleaning crops : Such crops make the field clean e.g., potato, maize etc.
❖ Climate: Aggregate of atmospheric condition over a long period of time.
❖ Clone: A cultivar propagated by vegetative method is called a clone.
❖ Colluvial Soil: Are those which are form from the material transported by the force of gravity.
❖ Command Area: Area who can be economically irrigated by an irrigation system.

8 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Commercial Farming System: In this type of farming system, crops are raised on a
commercial scale for marketing.
❖ Companion Crops: The two crops grown together are called companion crops. e.g., Berseem
and barley.
❖ Condiment Crops: Crops which are grown and consumed as condiments e.g., coriander,
mint.
❖ Conidia: One celled asexual spore in certain fungi.
❖ Consumptive Use of Water: Evapo-transpiration plus the water assimilated by various plant
metabolic processes. As the water consumed in plant metabolism is very small, consumptive
use and evapo-transpiration are considered almost equal.
❖ Cover Crops: The crops, which are planted to cover the ground and to reduce the soil erosion
and nutrients losses by leaching. e.g. grasses and rye.
❖ Critical Period of Competition: During the crop period there is a certain time when crop
plants are most sensitive to competition by weeds, this time is known as the critical period of
competition.
❖ Critical Threshold Level (CTL): A weed, insect pest density capable of causing significant
damage to crop is termed as critical threshold level.
❖ Crop Rotation: Is the strategy of raising crops from a piece of land in such an order or
succession that the fertility of land suffers minimally, and the farmer’s profits are not reduced.
❖ Crop Water Requirement: The amount of water required to raise a crop to maturity within
a given period of time.
❖ Crop: A crop is a community of plants grown under field condition for its economic value.
❖ Cropping Intensity: The term cropping intensity refers to the ratio of actual cultivated area
to total farm area over a year. Cropping intensity of India: 142%.
❖ Cropping Pattern: It is a general cropping system followed or practiced by the farmers in an
ecological zone.
❖ Cropping Scheme: Allocation of an area to different crops being grown on a particular farm
in a year.
❖ Cultivator: Which only cut and stir the soil.
❖ Necrosis: Death of organs of a plant, either as blight or death of tissue in localized areas,
usually inside fruit and stems or die back or death of stems or branches.
❖ Delta of Water: The depth of irrigation water required for the full crop period.
❖ Duty: Duty is the area of land that can be irrigated with a unit volume of water supplied across
the base period.
❖ Base Period: Base Period for a crop refers to the whole period of cultivation from the time
when irrigation water is first issued for preparation of the ground for planting the crop, to its
last watering before harvesting.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 9

 ❖ Korwatering: The first watering which is given to a crop, when the crop is a few
centimeters high, is called Korwatering.
❖ Palco irrigation: Sometimes, in the initial stages before the crop is sown, the land is very dry.
In such a case, the soil is moistened with water, so as to help in sowing of the crops.
❖ Irrigation Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of water output to the water input, i.e., the
ratio or percentage of the irrigation water consumed by the crop of an irrigated farm, field
or project to the water delivered from the source. It is in (%).
❖ Crop Water Requirement: The amount of water required to raise a crop to maturity within
a given period of time.
❖ Determinate Plants: Those plant which initiate their reproductive stage after completing
vegetative growth, e.g., wheat, barley.
❖ Dicots: Dicots have two cotyledons and reticulate leaf venation.
❖ Diversified Farming: This is an expanded type of farming system in which varieties of crops
are produced and many types of animals are reared.
❖ Dobari Crops: A crop grown on residual moisture after the harvest of rice.
❖ Dormancy: Seed dormancy is the state of inhibited germination of seeds with viable embryos
in condition conducive to plant growth.
❖ Drainage: It is the removal of excess surface or ground water from the root zone of a crop by
means of surface or sub – surface drains.
❖ Dry farming: In which crops and livestock are raised on land which does not receive
sufficient rainfall for water intensive crops and no irrigation facilities are available fall into
this category.
❖ Earthing up: The operation of pulling up soil from the center of crop rows to the bottom of
the plants, this helps in uprooting weeds and supporting to plants.
❖ Economic yield: The economically important part for which a particular crop is grown.
❖ Effective rainfall: It is the part of the rainfall which forms a portion of the water requirement
of a crop, or which can be used by crop.
❖ Eolian soil: The soil which is formed by the material transported by winds from one place to
another is called eolian soil.
❖ Epigeal germination: It is derived from two words epi “above” and geas “earth”. In this type
of germination, the cotyledons come out above the soil surface and generally turn green and
act as first foliage leaves. e.g., bean, cotton.
❖ Evapotranspiration: It is the total loss of water due to its evaporation from land, plant and
water surfaces and transpiration by vegetation per unit area per unit time.
❖ Exhaustive crops: Crops, which feed heavily on the soil and deplete soil nutrients, or we can
say such crops leave the field exhaustive after growing e.g., sorghum, tobacco, cereals,
sesame, brinjal, tapioca etc.

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❖ Extensive farming: In this type of farming large areas are used with minimum expenditure
or attention to efficient use of other resources.
❖ Fiber crops: The crops, which are grown for their fiber and are used in making textiles, ropes.
e.g., jute, sun hemp, cotton.
❖ Field capacity: The amount of water retained by soil after drainage of saturated soil by
gravitational force is called field capacity.
❖ Field carrying capacity: It is the field capacity. It is also called normal moisture capacity.
❖ Forage crops: Those crops, which are grazed by animals and harvested for green chop,
hay, silage is classified as forage crops e.g., maize and sorghum.
❖ Fouling crops: Whose cultural practices allow the infestation of weeds intensively e.g., direct
seeded upland rice.
❖ Fruit farming: In which orchards are planted and the objectives are to maximize fruit
production, enhance quality and increase income.
❖ Garden crops: Vegetable crops, which are grown for their edible leaves, shoots, flowers, fruit
and seed. e.g. cabbage and okra.
❖ Germination: Is the emergence and development from the seed embryo of those essential
structures which, for the kind of seed provided, indicate the ability to produce a normal plant
under favourable conditions.
❖ Grassland farming: These systems are mainly concerned with growing grasses for
consumption by livestock kept for milk or meat production.
❖ Gravitational water: Is the water in excess of hygroscopic and capillary water that percolates
through the soil under the action of gravity if favourable conditions for water drainage are
provided.
❖ Green manure crops: Some crops are grown and ploughed in the soil in green form in order
to improve soil fertility e.g., Berseem, Guara, Dhaincha etc
❖ Hard pan: A hard semi-impervious layer usually developed due to continuous ploughing to
a depth of about 15 cm, with cultivators, or with continuous deposition of salts due to soil or
surface irrigation water.
❖ Herbaceous: Plants with soft and easily vulnerable body parts.
❖ Herbs: Are plants of small to medium height and canopy.
❖ Hydrophyte: Plant which grows in water, or which loves water.
❖ Hygroscopic water: Water attached to soil particles by loose chemical bonds and does not
move by the action of gravity or capillary force.
❖ Ideotype: An ideal plant type developed through breeding.
❖ Indeterminate plants: In these plants, the vegetative and reproductive stages continue
simultaneously e.g., okra, tomato. Soybean is the only crop, which has determinate and
indeterminate as well as semi – determinate growing types.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 11

 ❖ Inoculant: The bacteria containing material used to introduce N – fixing Rhizobium bacteria
into soil.
❖ Integrated weed management: The concept of IWM involves the planned use of all possible
direct and indirect measures rather than relying on a single method to combat weeds.
❖ Intercropping: Growing of two or more crops together on the same field, where one crop
(main crop) planted in rows first and then another crop (intercrop) is planted in between the
rows. These crops remain in association for a shorter time. These crops may or may not be
planted and harvested at the same time e.g in Sugar cane planting of onion, garlic etc
❖ Interception: When the drops of rainfall or precipitation are intercepted by plant leaves it is
called interception.
❖ Irrigated soil: The soil, which receives irrigation water from well and tube wells, are known
as irrigated or chahi soil.
❖ Irrigation efficiency: It is a term used to indicate how efficiently the available water supply
is being used for crop production.
❖ Irrigation scheduling: It refers to the number of irrigations for a crop and their timing.
❖ Irrigation water requirement: The quantity of water required for successful crop production
exclusive of precipitation, ground water and other natural resources.
❖ Irrigation: Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil or crop plants to assist crop
production.
❖ Kera: Manual sowing of seeds in lines in furrows.
❖ Kharif crops: Those crops, which are planted in the summer month from the March to July
and harvested in autumn and winter, are called Kharif crops e.g., rice and cotton.
❖ Latitude: The angular distance north or south of earth equator.
❖ Line: A cultivar propagated by seed is called a line.
❖ Livestock and poultry farming: This category includes farming system in which various
kinds of livestock are reared for meat, milk, wool and eggs.
❖ Loamy soil: The soil is more or less than midway clay and sandy soil and ideal loam soil may
defined as a mixture of sand, silt and clay particles which shows the properties of sandy, silt
and clayey in equal proportion.
❖ Lodging: The bending or breaking over of a plant before harvesting.
❖ Long day plants: Plants which change vegetative to reproductive stage by producing flowers
and fruits, when the days become longer. e.g., Carrot, Radish etc.
❖ Matric potential: It is produced by capillary and surface forces.
❖ Maximum potential soil moisture deficit: Is the greatest value of potential soil moisture
deficit attained during the growth of a crop.
❖ Monocots: These plants have one cotyledon and parallel leaf venation.

12 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Moisture Available Index: Ratio of rainfall weekly/monthly at 50% probability and potential
evapotranspiration (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Muck soil: If the quantity of organic matter exceeds 20 % but less than 50% are called muck
soil.
❖ Mulch: Any material or practice which is used to check the loss of water by evaporation is
called mulch.
❖ Multiple cropping: It is growing of two or more crops in a year from the same piece of land
❖ Narcotic or drug crops: This category includes those crops, which have some narcotic and
drug value e.g., poppy, tobacco.
❖ Natural erosion: The erosion of the soil under natural condition.
❖ Natural soil: Strictly speaking a soil having pH of 7, in practice a soil having PH 6.6 and 7.3.
❖ No tillage crop (zero tillage crop): Crop grown without any tillage to prepare seed bed or
row.
❖ Nucleus seed: Seeds obtained from selected individual plants of a particular variety which
needs to be purified and multiplied in such a way as to maintain its genetic purity.
❖ Nut cycle: The regeneration/cycling of nutrients.
❖ Nutrients budget: A quantitative data of the major nut flowing to retained within the
discharge from the system.
❖ Nutrients: The food for microbial and plant life mainly composed of nitrogen and
phosphorous but also of potassium, Mg, Fe, Ca, Co, Cu, Zn and other elements.
❖ Oil seed crops: These are the crops, which are grown for the purpose of extracting oil from
their seed e.g., mustard and groundnut.
❖ On – farm water management: The planned use of irrigation water at the farm level or
more efficient utilization in agriculture.
❖ Osmotic potential: It is also called solute potential. It is produced by various solutes in soil
water.
❖ Peat soil: If the quantity of organic matter is more than 50% is called peat soil.
❖ Percolation: Downward movement of water within the soil profile.
❖ Plant development: Plant development is the progress of plant from germination to maturity
through a series of stages.
❖ Plant growth: It is the increase in the dry weight of a plant over time mainly as a consequence
of photosynthesis.
❖ Plough pan: A dense, compacted layer about 5 to 7 cm thick formed beneath the surface soil
by repeated ploughing in the same path.
❖ Plough: Its function is to cut, stir, invert, and pulverize the soil.
❖ Pore space: It is a space between soil particles occupied by air and water; it is largely
controlled by the texture of soil.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 13

 ❖ Potential Evapotranspiration: Is defined as the amount of evaporation occurring from an
extensive area of a short, green growing crop completely covering the ground and well
supplied with water.
❖ Potential soil moisture deficit: It is the difference between a crop potential
evapotranspiration and the amount of rainfall received by a crop plus the quantity of water
delivered to it in irrigation.
❖ Pressure potential: It is produced by actual hydrostatic pressure.
❖ Puddling: Ploughing in standing water to create a shallow hard pan at a 5-10 cm depth, which
helps to increase water-holding capacity and reduce moisture losses by percolation.
❖ Pulses or grain legumes: The crops belonging to Leguminosae family are grown for their
edible seed e.g chickpea, lobia.
❖ Readily available water: The portion of the available water that is most easily extracted by
a plant is called readily available water.
❖ Regular and trade winds e.g., monsoon winds
❖ Relay crops: A relay crops is one which is planted as a second crop after the first crop has
reached its reproductive stage of growth but before it is ready for harvest. e.g., planting of
sugar cane in sugar beet.
❖ Restorative crops: Such crops provide a good harvest along with enrichment or restoration
or amelioration of soil e.g., legumes.
❖ Riparian crops: Grown along with irrigation or drainage channels or waterbodies e.g., water
bind weed (Kalmi sak), para grass.
❖ Root and tuber crops: These are vegetable crops grown for their under-ground parts like
roots, bulbs, rhizomes, corms and stem tubers e.g., carrot and onion.
❖ Rostering/water regulation: The process of distribution of irrigation water.
❖ Run off: When water flows out the field by breaking the bunds of the field or flows to the
sloppy areas from the high level is called run off..
❖ Sandy soil: the soil which contains 2.00 to 0.2 mm diameter soil particles , it contains 85%
sand , and >15% , silt and clay. These soils are poor in plant material.
❖ Saturation capacity: This term refers to the amount of water present in the soil when it is
completely saturated with water.
❖ Scarification: Any physical or chemical treatment that makes the seed coat permeable is
known as scarification.
❖ Seed certification: Is the process to secure, maintain and make available high-quality seed
and propagating materials of superior crop varieties, so grown and distributed as to ensure
desirable standards of genetic identity, physical purity and quality attributes.
❖ Seedling: A young plant that has grown from a seed

14 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Seepage: Losses through the beds and banks of canals and water channels take place mainly
by unlined canals.
❖ Sett: A piece of seed cane with two – four buds (eyes).
❖ Shifting agriculture: The forest land is cleared off and same crop (generally rice) is grown
MP. It causes soil erosion mostly practiced in northeast region. (JRF 2013)
❖ Short day plants: Plants which changes from vegetative to reproductive stage and produces
flowers and fruits when the days become shorter.
❖ Shrubs: Are bushy plants with medium to tall height and canopy.
❖ Silage crops: Those crops, which are harvested when still green and succulent and are fed
directly to animals without curing, are called silage crops. e.g., Berseem, Shaftal, maize.
❖ Stratification: Is the practice of exposing imbibed seeds to cool temperature conditions for a
few days prior to germination in order to break their dormancy. (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Strip crops: These are of following types:
(i) Erosion permitting crops: These crops are grown to permit soil erosion in large sloping
lands which require land shaping for successful arable farming. Such crops have lower
foliage cover and holding capacity of roots to surface soil, and they are sown along the
slope in strips e.g., Sorghum, pearl millet, maize etc.
(ii) Erosion restricting or resisting crops: These crops are grown to restrict soil erosion.
They are grown across the slope in strips alternately with erosion permitting strip crops
to introduce land shaping by cultural means e.g., horse gram, kidney bean, Cowpea,
Groundnut, Lobia, grasses. etc.
(iii) Contour Strip crops: These crops plants are grown in strips of suitable width across the
slopes on the level or contour lines alternating with erosion restricting crops particularly
where land shaping is not needed i.e., in low gradient grounds e.g., sorghum, pigeon pea,
groundnut, marvel grass.
(iv) Field strip crops: the crop plants that are grown on farmlands in more or less parallel
strips across fairly uniform slopes but not exact contours e.g., maize, pigeon pea, guar,
sorghum, pearl millet, cowpea, sun hemp, mung bean, sesame etc.
(v) Wind strip crops: The tall crop plants such as jowar, bajra, maize, pigeon pea, safflower
and mustard that are grown with low crops such as potato, peas, groundnut, mung, urd
in alternately arranged straight and long but relatively narrow, parallel strips laid right
across the direction of the prevailing wind regardless of the land contours.
(vi) Permanent buffer strip crops: These are crop plants such as permanent legume, grass
or bush or shrubs that are grown on a permanent or temporary basis on the strips e.g.,
babool, subabul, Cassia, Prosopis, Glyricidia, munj, guine grass, lemon grass etc.
❖ Subsistence farming: In which basic necessities like food, clothing, and shelter are produced
for the family to live on.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 15

 ❖ Sugar crops: These are the crops, which are grown for sugar purposes. e.g., sugar cane and
sugar beet.
❖ Sod or turf crops: These crops plants belong to the grass family and have sod type tillers with
matted foliage and roots close to the soil surface to conserve soil from erosion e.g., marvel,
digitaria and doob grasses.
❖ Temporary wilting percentage: Soil water content at which plants wilt during the hot windy
part of the day but regain turgidity during the cooler part of the day is called TWP.
❖ Topping: Topping in tobacco is the removal of the terminal bud with or without some of the
small top leaves just before or after the appearance of the flower head.
❖ Transpiration ratio: It is the ratio of the weight or volume of water transpired by the plant
during its growth period to the weight of dry matter produced by the plant.
❖ Transpiration: It is the process of loss of water from living plants.
❖ True Allelopathy: When the allelochemical is toxic in their original form is called true
Allelopathy.
❖ Variety: In general, the term variety has been used to refer to a group of similar plant within
a particular species that is distinguished by one or more than one character and given the name.
❖ Vernalization and chilling: Many biennials and temperate annuals, as well as certain fruit
trees, require exposure to cold temperature before they can flower. This is known as
Vernalization requirement for annuals and biennials and chilling requirement for fruit trees.
❖ Vines: Are plants, which have tender stems, and requires some support for upward growth.
❖ Water holding capacity: Ability of soil to retain water.
❖ Ware Crops: such crops are grown for temporary storing as intact in warehouse for future
use or sale e.g., potato, tomato etc.
❖ Water potential: Refers to the chemical potential of water.
❖ Weather: It is a state of atmosphere at any time; it is combined effect of many things such as
heat, cold.
❖ Weed: any plant growing out of its proper place.
❖ Harvest index: It is the ratio of economic yield to biological yield. It is expressed in
percentage in
❖ H.I. = economic yield x 100 / Biological yield
❖ Biological yield: It is the total dry matter produced by the crops after synthesis minus
respiration losses.
❖ Economic yield: That part of the crop for which crop is grown e.g. stem in sugarcane, root in
the case of sugar beet.
❖ Monocropping: Raising of only one crop in a year when there is seasonal supply of water is
called Monocropping, monoculture or specialized farming.

16 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Multiple cropping: Raising of two or more crops in the same field or in a year is called
diversified multiple cropping or simple multiple cropping.
❖ Tilth: It is the final condition of soil when all the tillage operations are carried.
❖ What is composite variety? A mixture of genotype from general sources maintained by
normal pollination.
❖ What are the compounds which act as buffer in soil? Clay organic matter and such
compounds as carbonates and phosphates which make the soil to resist appreciable change in
pH value.
❖ What is arid? A term applied to land that is dry also means deficient in rainfall.
❖ What is compost? A manure derived from decomposed plant remains usually made by
fermentation, waste plant material under controlled conditions. Compost usually used in green
houses to enrich the soil dungs as surface.
❖ What is contact herbicide? Which kill only those parts of plant with which they come into
contact and used mostly to control annual weeds when seedling, they have little residual effect.
❖ What is crop rotation? A definite succession of crops following one an other in a specific
order.
❖ What is drought resistance? Characteristics of plants which are suitable for cultivation in
dry condition regardless of the inherent mechanism that provides resistance.
❖ What is effective rainfall? Precipitation which falls during the growing period of the crop
and is available to meet the Evapotranspiration requirements of crops .
❖ What is harvest index? The ratio of grain weight to total plant weight in a cereal crop.
❖ What is hybrid vigour? Qualities in a hybrid does not present in either parent.
❖ What is meant by autotrophe? Organism able to manufacture their own food from
inorganic materials. Using energy from outside sources. Most green plants are completely
autotrophe.’
❖ What is meant by bolting? Formation of elongated stem or seed stalk, it is usually taking
place during the second season of the growth in biennial plants.
❖ What is meant by F1 and F2 generation? Genetic terms for the offspring generations
produced by a parental generation of plants or animals.
❖ What is meant by soiling crops? Crops harvested when green and succulent condition are
fed to animals shortly after cutting, it is neither dried nor stored for future feeding.
❖ What is organic farming? System of farming which avoid the use of artificial fertilizers,
pesticides or herbicides, and concentrate on methods of crop rotation and the use of home
growth feed, organic fertilizer.
❖ What is pasteurization? Process of killing organisms in a product, commonly milk by
heating to a controlled temperature.
❖ What is pedology: The study of soil.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 17

 ❖ What is planker: Implement used to crush clods on land where a roller can be used consisting
of number of fixed over lapping plates, showed with iron bars along the working edges which
is pulled over the land.
❖ What is seed certification: Refers to the system of maintaining the genetic purity and quality
of seed.
❖ What is seed dressing: The chemical treatment of seeds particularly cereals, with fungicides
and sometime insecticides to protect them against soil and seed borne disease and pest.
❖ What is truck gardening: Growing of crops like potato onion and cabbage on large scale for
distinct market.
❖ What is trench layering: An asexual reproductive method of plant propagation involving
laying down the whole stem, the new shoots are thus forced to push their way through a layer
of soil which prevents the bark from coloring and favors root formation.
❖ What is weathering: The process by which soil disintegrates and decomposes, eventually
producing soil particles by exposure to the physical and chemical effects of atmospheric
agents.
❖ Wilting point: The point at which the water content of a soil reaches such a level that it is
firmly held by soil and unavailable to plant roots, so that the plants wilt permanently and die.
❖ Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): Bt is bacteria found naturally in soil and is used in agriculture to
control pests. Today, organic farmers and home gardeners spray it on their crops for insect
protection. Proteins from Bt are also used in genetically modified (GM) crops, such as cotton
and corn.
❖ Biofortification: The process in which the nutritional quality of food crops is improved
through biological means such as conventional plant breeding. Biofortification differs from
conventional fortification in that it aims to increase nutrient levels in crops during plant growth
rather than through manual means during processing of the crops. (Source: WHO)
❖ Breeding: Plant breeding is the act of bringing together two specific parent plants with
desirable traits to produce a new offspring with those desirable traits. This results in new plant
varieties and hybrids.
❖ Conventional agriculture: Conventional farming systems vary from farm to farm and from
country to country. However, they share many characteristics, such as use of technological
advances, pesticides and fertilizers, and sometimes GMOs, to enhance crop production.
❖ Cover Crops: Crops such as grass (rye, oats, buckwheat) or legumes (field peas, alfalfa,
clover) that are planted between growing seasons of the farmers’ primary cash crop to
conserve and improve the soil. Benefits may include weed suppression, increasing organic
matter, improved nitrogen cycling, moisture conservation and reduced soil erosion. The crops
may or may not be harvested for sale.

18 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Genetically Modified Organism (GMO): A GMO is created by taking a beneficial trait, like
insect resistance or pesticide tolerance, from one living thing and introducing it into a new
plant to help it thrive in its environment. GMOs are also commonly referred to as GM crops
or products. GM crops are also referred to as biotechnology or genetically engineered,
transgenic or bioengineered crops.
❖ Hybrid: Hybrid seeds are created by traditionally breeding two different plants to create a
third new plant, known as the hybrid.
❖ Irrigation: Irrigation is a method in which water is supplied manually to plants. In agriculture.
❖ Organic agriculture: Organic farming uses production practices that allow the use of natural
pesticides and fertilizers, but generally disallows the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers.
Foods certified organic must meet specific production standards as defined by the country’s
recognized organic certifying body.
❖ Precision farming: Precision agriculture is the use of data analysis to help farmers improve
crop production practices. Farmers analyze data to help them produce more on every square
foot of every field, while using water, nutrients and fuel more efficiently. The target specific
use of inputs for production according to crop requirement on localized basis is known as
Precision farming. (NABARD 2021)
❖ Sustainable agriculture: Sustainable agriculture is the long-term production of plant or
animal products using farming techniques that protect the environment, public health, human
communities and animal welfare year over year.
❖ Smother Crop: crop which suppresses weeds growing under it with quick growing ability
and dense foliage (AFO-2021)
❖ Tillage: Practice of plowing soil before and after harvests to remove stalks, leaves and other
residue from a field. No-till farming is the absence of tillage where stalks and leaves remain
in the field to improve soil by retaining water, preventing erosion and benefiting soil health.
(JRF)
❖ Transgenic crops: Transgenic crops are synonymous with GMO crops. Transgenic stands for
transfer of genes.
❖ Mycorrhiza: It is the symbiotic association between fungus and the roots of higher plants.
❖ VAM: Vascular arbuscular Mycorrhiza is the phosphorus absorber in plant roots.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 19

 TERMS RELATED TO DRYLAND AGRICULTURE:
❖ Agri-silviculture: Conscious and deliberate use of land for the concurrent production of
agricultural and forest crops is called agri-silviculture.
❖ Agri-silvi-pastural system: System in which land is managed for the concurrent production
of agriculture and forest crops and for the rearing of domesticated animals is called agri-silvi-
pastural system.
❖ Agroforestry: Self-sustaining land management system which combines production of
agricultural crops with that of tree crops as also with that of livestock simultaneously or
sequentially on the same unit of land is called agroforestry.
❖ Atmospheric drought: Drought caused by low air humidity accompanied by hot and dry
winds and when the rate of transpiration is more than the rate of moisture absorption by plants
is called atmospheric drought.
❖ Basin listing: Tillage that forms lister furrows at regular intervals to create small basins to
capture and store rain or applied water.
❖ Dead furrows: Plough furrows made between the crop rows at an interval of 3-4 m depending
on the crop as a means of moisture conservation are called dead furrows.
❖ Drought escaping: Plants escaping the drought by way of early maturity before the available
water is exhausted is called drought escaping.
❖ Drought evading: Plant evading drought by way of limited amount of growth giving reduced
transpiring surface is called drought evading.
❖ Drought year: When the annual rainfall is less than the normal by more than twice the mean
deviation, it is called drought year.
❖ Minimal irrigation: Irrigation of rabi crops which do not receive rains after sowing is called
minimal irrigation.
❖ Soil drought: Drought that occurs when the moisture present in the soil absorbed by the plant
is less than the potential evapotranspiration of the crop is called soil drought.
❖ Soil or dust mulch: Thin layer of loose soil surface that can be created by frequently stirring
the soil with surface tillage implements to conserve moisture is called soil or dust mulch.
❖ Watershed: Any surface area from which rainfall is collected and drains through a common
point is called watershed.
❖ Watershed management: Integration of technologies within the natural boundaries of a
drainage area for optimum development of land, water and plant resources to meet the basic
needs of the people and animals in a sustained manner is watershed management.
❖ Wind breaks: Any structure that obstructs wind flow and reduce wind speed for protection
of crop fields are called wind breaks.
❖ Wind shelter belts: Rows of trees planted across the direction of wind for protection of crops
against wind are called wind shelter belts.

20 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Year-round tillage: Refers to tillage after harvest or as soon, thereafter, as is possible, tilling
with pre monsoon showers to finish seed bed work at optimum time is referred to as a year-
round tillage.
❖ Zing terracing: Practice to cut down the length of slope (3-10%) to harvest run off from upper
area for the benefit of crops grown in lower side and to ensure adequate drainage during the
periods of heavy down pours is called zing terracing.

ABOUT ICAR AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS

❖ Who was the first deputy director general of horticulture, ICAR - Dr. K.L. Chadha
❖ ICAR day is celebrated on 16 July
❖ Union Minister of Agriculture and Farmer welfare is the ex-office President of the ICAR
society (President- Narendra Singh Tomar).
❖ Shri Kailash Choudhary and Shri Parshottam Rupala are Hon'ble Union Minister of
State for Agriculture and Farmers Welfare
❖ Agro Ecological Zones in India is 8 (by NARP ICAR), 21 (by NBSSLUP)—but now only
20 (Updated data)
❖ Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research &Education Ministry of Agriculture,
Govt, of India & Director General, ICAR-the Principal Executive Officer of the Council.
(Present DG – Dr. T. Mohapatra)
❖ Number of-
➢ KVKs -725(Can be updated till your exam)
➢ Agricultural Universities-64
➢ Deemed Universities-4
➢ Central Agricultural Universities: 3

1. Central Agricultural University, Manipur,

2. Rani Laxmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh,

3. Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Bihar

➢ ICAR Institutes- 65 (Newly added ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute,

Hazaribag, Jharkhand and ICAR-National Institute for Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi)
➢ National Research Centers- 15 (Newly added: National Research Centre on Integrated
Farming (ICAR-NRCIF), Motihar) now named as Mahatma Gandhi Integrated Farming
Research Institute )
➢ National Bureaues-6
➢ Directorates-13

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 21

 ➢ AICRPs- 60/59
✓ Chairman of National Commission for Farmers- Dr. M.S. Swaminathan

1. AICRP on Nematodes, New Delhi

2. AICRP on Maize, New Delhi

3. AICRP Rice, Hyderabad

4. AICRP on Chickpea, Kanpur

5. AICRP on MULLARP, Kanpur

6. AICRP on Pigeon Pea, Kanpur

7. AICRP on Arid Legumes, Kanpur

8. AICRP on Wheat & Barley Improvement Project, Karnal

9. AICRP Sorghum, Hyderabad

10. AICRP on Pearl Millets, Jodhpur

11. AICRP on Small Millets, Bangalore

12. AICRP on Sugarcane, Lucknow

13. AICRP on Cotton, Coimbatore

14. AICRP on Groundnut, Junagarh

15. AICRP on Soybean, Indore

16. AICRP on Rapeseed & Mustard, Bharatpur

17. AICRP on Sunflower, Safflower, Castor, Hyderabad

18. AICRP on Linseed, Kanpur

19. AICRP on Sesame and Niger, Jabalpur

20. AICRP on IPM and Biocontrol, Bangalore

21. AICRP on Honeybee Research & Training, Hisar

22 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

22. AICRP -NSP(Crops), Mau

23. AICRP on Forage Crops, Jhansi

24. AICRP on Fruits, Bangaluru

25. AICRP Arid Zone Fruits, Bikaner

26. AICRP Mushroom, Solan

27. AICRP Vegetables including NSP vegetable, Varanasi

28 AICRP Potato, Shimla

29. AICRP Tuber Crops, Thiruvananthapuram

30. AICRP Palms, Kasaragod

31. AICRP Cashew, Puttur

32. AICRP Spices, Calicut

33. AICRP on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants including Betelvine, Anand

34. AICRP on Floriculture, New Delhi

35. AICRP in Micro Secondary & Pollutant Elements in Soils and Plants, Bhopal

36. lAICRP on Soil Test with Crop Response, Bhopal

37. AICRP on Long Term Fertilizer Experiments, Bhopal

38. AICRP on Salt Affected Soils & Use of Saline Water in Agriculture, Karnal

39. AICRP on Water Management Research, Bhubaneshwar

40. AICRP on Ground Water Utilisation, Bhubaneshwar

41. AICRP Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad

42. AICRP on Agrometeorology, Hyderabad including Network on Impact adaptation &

Vulnerability of Indian Agri. to Climate Change

43. AICRP Integrated Farming System Research, Modipuram including Network Organic
Farming

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 23

 44. AICRP Weed Control, Jabalpur

45. AICRP on Agroforestry, Jhansi

46. AICRP on Farm Implements & Machinery, Bhopal

47. All India Coordinated Research Project on Ergonomics and Safety in Agriculture

48. AICRP on Energy in Agriculture and Agro Based Indus.,Bhopal

49. AICRP on Utilization of Animal Energy (UAE), Bhopal

50. AICRP on Plasticulture Engineering and Technologies, Ludhiana

51. AICRP on PHT, Ludhiana

52. AICRP on Goat Improvement, Mathura

53. AICRP- Improvement of Feed Sources & Nutrient Utilisation for raising animal
production, Bangalore

54. AICRP on Cattle Research, Meerut

55. AICRP on Poultry, Hyderabad

56. AICRP-Pig, Izzatnagar

57. AICRP Foot and Mouth Disease, Mukteshwar

58. AICRP ADMAS, Bangalore

59. AICRP on Home Science, Bhubaneshwar

NETWORK PROJECTS – 20:

1. All India Network Project on Pesticides Residues, New Delhi

2. All India Network Project on Underutilized Crops, New Delhi

3. All India Network Project on Tobacco, Rajahmundry

4. All India Network Project on Soil Arthropod Pests, Durgapura

24 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 5. Network on Agricultural Acarology, Bangalore

6. Network on Economic Ornithology, Hyderabad

7. All India Network Project on Rodent Control, Jodhpur

8. All India Network Project on Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore

9. Network project on Improvement of Onion & Garlic, Pune

10. Network Bio-fertilizers, Bhopal

11. Network Project on Harvest & Post Harvest and Value Addition to Natural Resins &
Gums, Ranchi

12. Network project on Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal

13. Network Project on R&D Support for Process Upgradation of Indigenous Milk
products for industrial application Karnal

14. Network Programme on Sheep Improvement, Avikanagar

15. Network Project on Buffaloes Improvement, Hisar

16. Network on Gastrointestinal Parasitism, Izatnagar

17. Network on Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, Izatnagar

18. Network Programme Blue Tongue Disease, Izatnagar

19. Network Project on Conservation of Lac Insect Genetic Resources, Ranchi

20. Network Project on Agricultural Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, New

Delhi

MILESTONES IN AGRICULTURE:
❖ 1880 - Department of Agriculture was established
❖ 1905 - Imperial Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) was started at Pusa, Bihar
❖ 1912 - Sugarcane Breeding Institute was established in Coimbatore
❖ 1923: NDRI was Established in Bangalore as Imperial Institute of Animal Husbandry and
Dairying.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 25

 ❖ 1929 - Imperial Council of Agricultural Research at New Delhi (then ICAR) after
independence becomes ICAR
❖ 1935: Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI) was established to implement the
agricultural marketing policies and programs.
❖ 1936 - Due to earthquake in Bihar, IARI was shifted to New Delhi and the place was called
with original name Pusa.
❖ 1957: A premier Warehousing Agency in India, established during 1957 providing logistics
support to the agricultural sector.
❖ 1958: National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Ltd.
(NAFED) was established.
❖ 1960- First Agricultural University was started at Pantnagar.
❖ 1965: Food Corporation of India was established.
❖ 1965: The National Dairy Development Board was established at Anand, Gujarat.
❖ 1965-67 - Green revolution in India due to introduction of HYVP –Wheat, rice, use of
fertilizers, construction of Dams and use of pesticides.
❖ 1975: The first RRB, the Prathama Bank was established with authorized capital of Rs. 5
crores
❖ 1978: Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (IASRI) was established to assist ICAR
in the areas of Agricultural Statistics and Computer Applications
❖ 1982- NABARD established to refinance the rural sector.
❖ 1984: National Horticulture Board (NHB) was set up by Government of India in April 1984
on the basis of recommendations of the "Group on Perishable Agricultural Commodities",
headed by Dr M. S. Swaminathan.
❖ 1986: APEDA was established to promote agricultural export in India.
❖ 1987: National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) was
established with the headquarter at Hyderabad
❖ 2004: The National Commission on Farmers (NCF) was established to decrease the farmers
suicides in India and to improve the agriculture in India.

INSTITUTIONS IN AGRICULTURE:

Institution Location Establishment

Year
National Rice Research Institute Cuttack 23 April 1946
Indian Institute of Rice Research Hyderabad 1965

26 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Indian Institute of Pulses Research Kanpur 1966, Shifted to
Kanpur in 1978
Central Tobacco Research Institute Rajahmundry 1947
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research Varanasi 1971
Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research Lucknow 1952
Sugarcane Breeding Institute Coimbatore 1912

Sugarcane breeding Institute, Regional Karnal 1932

Centre
Indian Institute of Farming Systems Meerut, UP 1968
Research (IIFSR)
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) Dehradun, 1966
Uttarakhand
Central Institute for Women in Agriculture Bhubaneshwar, 1996
(CIWA) Odisha
Indian Institute of Seed Research (IISR) Mau, Uttar Pradesh 2004
Central Institute of Cotton Research Nagpur 1976
Central Research Institute for Jute and Barrackpore 1953
Allied Fibres
National Institute of Research on Jute & Kolkata 1939
Allied Fibre Technology
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Jhansi 1962
Institute
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Bangalore 1967
Central Institute of Sub Tropical Lucknow 1972, renamed as
Horticulture CISH in 1995
Central Institute of Temperate Srinagar 1994
Horticulture
Central Institute of Arid Horticulture Bikaner 1994
Central Potato Research Institute Shimla 1949

Central Tuber Crops Research Institute Trivandrum 1963

Central Plantation Crops Research Kasargod, Kerala 1974
Institute
Central Island Agriculture Research Port Blair, Andaman 1978
Institute and Nicobar Islands Renamed in 2017

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 27

 Indian Institute of Spices Research Calicut 1975

Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Ranchi 1924

Gums
ICAR–Indian Institute of Soil and Water Dehradun 1974
Conservation Renamed in 2015
Indian Institute of Soil Sciences Bhopal 1988
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Karnal 1969
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Patna 2001
Region
Central Research Institute of Dryland Hyderabad 1985
Agriculture
Central Institute of Fisheries Technology Cochin 1957
Central Arid Zone Research Institute Jodhpur 1952, upgraded to
CAZRI in 1959
ICAR -Central Coastal Agricultural Goa 1976
Research Institute Upgraded from 1st
April, 2014
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region Barapani, Meghalaya 1975
National Institute of Abiotic Stress Malegaon, Baramati 2009
Management Maharashtra
Central Institute of Agricultural Bhopal 1976
Engineering
Central Institute on Post harvest Ludhiana 1989
Engineering and Technology
Central Institute of Research on Cotton Mumbai 1924
Technology
Indian Agricultural Statistical Research New Delhi 1930
Institute
Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute Avikanagar, 1962
Rajasthan
Central Institute for Research on Goats Makhdoom, Mathura 1979
Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes Hissar 1985
National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Bangalore 1995
Physiology
Central Avian Research Institute Izatnagar 1979

28 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Central Marine Fisheries Research Kochi February 3rd 1947
Institute
Central Institute Brackishwater Chennai 1987
Aquaculture
Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute Barrackpore 1947/1959

NATIONAL RESEARCH INSTITUTES

National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology New Delhi

National Centre for Integrated Pest Management New Delhi

National Research Centre for Litchi Muzaffarpur

National Research Centre for Citrus Nagpur

National Research Centre for Grapes Pune

National Research Centre for Banana Trichy, TN

National Research Centre Seed Spices Ajmer

National Research Centre for Pomegranate Solapur

National Research Centre on Orchids Pakyong, Sikkim

National Research Centre Agroforestry Jhansi

National Research Centre on Camel Bikaner

National Research Centre on Equines Hisar

National Research Centre on Meat Hyderabad

National Research Centre on Pig Guwahati

National Research Centre on Yak West Kemang, Arunachal Pradesh

National Research Centre on Mithun Medziphema, Nagaland

National Research Centre on Integrated FarmingMotihari

(ICAR-NRCIF)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 29

 IMPORTANT INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ON AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH

AVRDC- Asian Vegetable Research and Taiwan (1971)

Development Centre

CIAT – Centro International de Agricultura Cali, Colombia

Tropical (International Centre for Tropical
Agriculture)

CIP – International potato research institute Peru, South America (1971)

CIMMYT- International Centre for maize and Londress, Mexico

Wheat development

IITA –International Institute for Tropical Ibadon in Nigeria, Africa

Agriculture

ICARDA – International Centre for Agricultural Beirut, Lebanon

Research in the Dry Areas

ICRISAT – International Crops Research Institute Hyderabad, India

for the Semi Arid Tropics

IIMI- International Irrigation Management Colombo, SRILANKA

Institute

IRRI – International Rice Research Institute Los Banos, Philippines

ISNAR- International Service In National The Hague, Netherlands

Agricultural Research

WARDA - West African Rice Development Africa

Association Ivory coast

IBPGR - International Board for Plant Genetic Rome, Italy

Resources

CGIAR – Consultative Group on International Montpellier, France

Agricultural Research

30 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization Rome, Italy

WMO- World Meteorological Organization Geneva, Switzerland

CGIAR
❖ CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-
secured future.
❖ CGIAR research is dedicated to reducing rural poverty, increasing food security, improving
human health and nutrition, and ensuring sustainable management of natural resources.
❖ It is carried out by 15 Centers, that are members of the CGIAR Consortium, in close
collaboration with hundreds of partners.
❖ CGIAR established in 1971.

REVOLUTIONS IN AGRICULTURE:

Protein Revolution Higher Production (Technology driven

2nd Green revolution)
Yellow Revolution Oil seed Production (Especially Mustard and
Sunflower)
Black Revolution Petroleum products
Blue Revolution Fish Production
Brown Revolution Leather/Cocoa
Golden Fiber Revolution. Jute Production (SSC-2017)
Golden Revolution Fruits (IBPS AFO 2020) / Honey Production /
Horticulture Development
Grey Revolution Fertilizers.
Pink Revolution Onion Production / Pharmaceuticals / Prawn
Production.
Evergreen Revolution Overall Production of Agriculture
Silver Revolution Egg Production / Poultry Production
Silver Fiber Revolution Cotton (RRB SO 2018)
Red Revolution Meat Production / Tomato Production.
Round Revolution Potato.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 31

 Green Revolution Food Grains.
White Revolution/ Operation Flood Milk Production.
Sweet Revolution Honey Production

INTERNATIONAL YEARS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE OBSERVED BY UN:

➢ 2004- International year of rice
➢ 2005- International year of parthenium
➢ 2006- International year of desert and desertification
➢ 2007- International year of water
➢ 2008 - International year of potato
➢ 2009- International year of natural fibers
➢ 2010- International year of biodiversity
➢ 2011- International year of forest
➢ 2012- International year of cooperative (Also celebrated as National year of horticulture)
➢ 2013- International year of water cooperation
➢ 2014- International year of family farming
➢ 2015- International year of soil and Light
➢ 2016- International year of pulses (theme- nutritious seed for sustainable agriculture)
➢ 2017- International year of sustainable tourism
➢ 2018- Recommended for International year of millets (Declared as National year of millets)
➢ 2019: International year of Indigenous language
➢ 2020: International Year of Plant Health
➢ 2021: International Year of Fruits and Vegetables
➢ International Year of Creative Economy for Sustainable Development
➢ 2022: International Year of Artisanal Fisheries and Aquaculture
➢ 2023: International year of Millets

IMPORTANT DAYS IN AGRICULTURE:

Important Days Date

WTO Foundation day 1st January

World wetland day 2nd February

World Pulse Day 10th February

32 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

World Wildlife Day 3rd March

International women’s day 8 March

World Consumers Day 15th March

World Forest Day/ International day of 21st March

Forest

World Water Day 22nd March

World Meteorological Day 23rd March

World Health Day 7th April

World Earth Day 22nd April

Panchayat Raj Day 24th April

World Veterinary Day Last Saturday of April

International Labour Day 1st May

World Tuna Day 2nd May

World Bee Day 20th May

International Tea Day 21 May

International Biodiversity Day/ 22nd May

International Day for Biological Diversity

World Milk Day 1st June

World Environment Day 5th June

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 33

 World Food Safety Day 7 June

Worlds Ocean Day 8 June

World Day to Combat Desertification June 17

Micro-, Small and Medium-sized June 27

Enterprises Day

National Fish Husbandry Day 10th July

World Population Day 11th July

NABARD Foundation Day 12th July

ICAR Foundation Day 16th July

National Nutrition Week 1-7 September

World Coconut Day 2nd September

World Ozone Day September 16

World Bamboo Day September 18

World Coffee Day 1 October

World Wildlife Week 1-7 October

World Animal Husbandry Day 4th October

World Egg Day 2nd Friday of October

National Women Farmer Day/ 15th October

International Day of Rural Woman

World Food Day 16th October

34 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 World Fish Day 21st November

National Milk Day 26th November

National Agriculture Education Day Babu 3rd December

Rajendra Prasad birthday)

Agriculture Women Day 4th December

World Soil Day 5th December

Farmers Day 23rd December

Jai Kisan Jai Vigyan Week 23-29 December

ABOUT KISAN DIVAS:

❖ Kisan Diwas was observed across the country on 23 December 2013 to celebrate the
birthday of Chaudhary Charan Singh.
❖ Chaudhary Charan Singh (23 Dec 1902 - 29 May 1987) was the fifth Prime Minister of
India. He served as the Prime Minister from 28 July 1979 to 14 January 1980.
❖ Chaudhary Charan Singh holds the record of being the only Prime Minister of India who
did not face the Parliamentary floor for a single day after assuming the office.

INSTRUMENTS USED IN AGRICULTURE:

Instrument Measure

Pyranometer Total insolation (incoming radiation)

Pyreheliometer Direct solar radiation

Spectroradiometer Solar radiation in narrow wavelength

Pyrgeometer Solar radiation in Long wavelength

Pyradiometer Both Long and short wavelength

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 35

 Shading Pyranometre Diffused radiation

Albedometer Radiation reflectivity or albedo

Spectrophotometer Wavelength of light

Net radiometer Net radiation

Quantum sensor Photosynthetically active radiation

Campbell-Stroke sunshine recorder Duration of bright sunshine hours (used in

India)

Heliograph Duration of bright sunshine hours

Maximum thermometer Max. air temperature during day (2 pm)

(mercury used)

Minimum thermometer Min. air temperature during day (5 am)

(alcohol used)

Dry Bulb thermometer Air Temperature

Wet Bulb Thermometer Saturated air temperature

Thermograph Continuous air temperature

Aneroid barometer and barograph Atmospheric pressure

Anemometer Wind velocity

Wind vane Wind direction

Beaufort scale Wind force/speed

Psychrometer/Hygrometer Indirect measurement of relative humidity

(RH)

Assmann Psychrometer RH in open and crop canopy

36 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Hygrograph Continuous record of RH

Rain gauge Rainfall

Aerometer Density of gases

Piezometer Pressure of ground water (hydrostatic

pressure)

Pycnometer Specific gravity of soil

Hydrometer Specific gravity of liquid

Penetrometre Strength of Soil

Crescograph Plant growth (invented by J. C. Bose)

Auxanometer Plant growth .

Manometer Root pressure

Photometer Transpiration or stomata behaviour
Porometer Stomatal behaviour
Potometer Transpiration
Evaporimeter/Atmometer/Atmidometer Evaporation
Osmometer Osmosis
Lysimeter ET and percolation & leaching losses, i.e.,
Tensiometer/ lrrometer watermoisture
Soil loss tension (SMT) (AFO 2021)

Notes: Still well is present in which meteorological instrument: Evaporation pan (NABARD-
2021)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 37

 BASICS OF AGRONOMY
❖ Agronomy: Agronomy is derived from a Greek word ‘Agros’ meaning ‘field’ and ‘nomos’
meaning ‘management’. Principles of agronomy deal with scientific facts in relations to
environment in which crop are produced.
❖ Agronomy: It is defined as an agricultural science deal with principles and practices of
crop production and field management.
❖ With a 19.5% contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP), agriculture still provides
livelihood support to about 54% of country's population.
❖ According to Agricultural budget 2020-21 economic survey of India the agricultural
GVA % of India is 19.9 (NABARD- 2021)
Branches of Agriculture

Vermiculture Agriculture of Earth worm

Tissue culture Production of a new plant from plant cells
Apiculture Study of honeybee.
Horticulture Study of fruits and vegetables.
Pomology Study of fruits.
Sericulture Rearing of silkworm.
Moriculture Production of mulberry.
Viticulture Production of grapes.
Silviculture Forest Development

Evolution of man and Agriculture:

❖ There are different stages in development of agriculture, which is oriented with human
civilization.

3. Crop
2. Pastoral
culture

4. Trade
(stages of
1. Hunting
human
civilization)
Stages

38 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Hunting – It was the primary source of food in old days. It is the important occupation and
it existed for a very long period.
❖ Pastoral – Human obtained his food through domestication animals, e.g. dogs, horse, cow,
buffalo etc.
❖ Crop culture - By living near the riverbed, he had enough water for his animals and
domesticated crops and started cultivation. Thus, he has started to settle in a place.
Agriculture became civilized from crop culture stage.
❖ Trade – When he started producing more than his requirement the excess was exchanged,
this is the basis for trade. When agriculture has flourished, trade developed. This led to
infrastructure development like road, routes, etc

Some important events for different periods that lead to development of scientific
agriculture.

Earlier than 10000 7500 BC:

3400 BC: Wheel
BC: Hunting and Cultivation of
was invented
Gathering Wheat and Barley

2300 BC: 2900 BC: Plough

3000 BC: Bronze
Cultivated of was invented,
used for making
chickpea, Cotton, irrigated farming
tools
Mustard started

1500 BC:
2200 BC: 1400 BC: Use of
Cultivation of
Cultivation of rice Iron
Sugarcane

1600 AD: Introduction of

Potato, Papaya, tapioca, 1500 AD:
tomato, Chillies, Cultivation of 1000 BC: Use of
Pineapple, Groundnut, orange, Brinjal, iron Plough
Tobacco, Rubber, pomegranate
American cotton.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 39

 NOMENCLATURE OF CROPS:

English/Hindi Name Botanical Name Family Chromosome

Number
CEREAL CROPS
Rice (Found in Asia, AmericaOryza sativa (AFO 2021)Poaceae 24
and Europe) (Gramineae)
Rice (Found in West Africa) Oryza glaberrima Poaceae
Common bread Triticum aestivum Poaceae 42
wheat/Mexican dwarf wheat
Macaroni/durum wheat Triticum durum Poaceae
Indian dwarf wheat Triticum sphaerococcum Poaceae
Emmer wheat Triticum dicoccum Poaceae
Einkorn wheat Triticum monococcum Poaceae
Maize Zea mays Poaceae 20
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor Poaceae 20
Barley Hordeum vulgare Poaceae 14
Oat Avena sativa Poaceae 42
Triticale Tritico secale Poaceae 42
Rye Secale cereale Poaceae 14
MILLETS
Pearl millet Pennisetum glaucum Poaceae 14
Finger millet/Ragi Eleusine coracana Poaceae 36
Foxtail millet (Italian millet) Setaria italica Poaceae 18
Kodo millet Paspalum scrobiculatum Poaceae
Little millet/ kutki Panicum sumatrense Poaceae
Proso millet/cheena Panicum miliaceum Poaceae
Barnyard millet/Sawan Echinocloa frumentacea Poaceae
PULSE CROPS
Chickpea Cicer arietinum Fabaceae 16
Pigeon pea (Red gram) Cajanus cajan Fabaceae 22
Lentil Lens culinaris Fabaceae 14
Green gram (Moong) Vigna radiata Fabaceae 22
Black gram (Urd) Vigna mungo Fabaceae 22
Cowpea Vigna unguiculata Fabaceae 22

40 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Field pea Pisum sativum var. Fabaceae
arvense
Garden pea Pisum sativum var. hortensFabaceae 14
Cluster bean/Guar Cyamopsis Fabaceae 14
tetragonoloba
Common/Kidney/French beanPhaseolus vulgaris Fabaceae 22
Lathyrus (Grass pea) Lathyrus sativus Fabaceae 14
Moth bean Vigna acontifolia Fabaceae 22
Rice bean Vigna umbellata Fabaceae 22
Horse gram Macrotyloma uniflorum Fabaceae 20-24
Note: Kharif Pulses: 2n = 22 except horse gram (Kulthi) (2n = 24).

Lentil
Rabi Pulses: 2n = 14 Pea except chickpea (2n = 16)
Lathyrus

OILSEED CROPS
Rapeseed and mustard Brassica sp. Brassicaceae
(Cruciferae)
Mustard
Indian mustard/Leaf Brassica juncea Brassicaceae
mustard/ Brown mustard (Cruciferae)
(AFO 2021)
Black mustard/true Brassica nigra Brassicaceae
mustard/banarasi rai (Cruciferae)
Ethiopian mustard/African Brassica carinata Brassicaceae
mustard (Cruciferae)
Sesame Sesamum indicum Pedaliaceae 26
Sunflower Helianthus annuus Asteraceae 34
(Compositae)
Ground nut Arachis hypogaea Fabaceae 40
(Leguminosae)
Linseed Linum usitatissimum Linaceae 30
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius Asteraceae
(Compositae)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 41

 Niger Guizotia abyssinica Asteraceae 30
(Compositae)
Soybean Glycine max Fabaceae 20
(Leguminosae)
Castor Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae 20
FIBRE CROPS
White Jute Corchorus capsularis Tiliaceae 16
Tossa Jute Corchorus olitorius Tiliaceae 14
Upland/American Cotton Gossypium hirsutum Malvaceae 26
Desi Cotton Gossypium arboreum Malvaceae
Asiatic cotton Gossypium herbaceum Malvaceae
Mesta Hibiscus sabdariffa Malvaceae
Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea Fabaceae 16
(Leguminosae)
Flax Linum usitatissimum Linaceae
Kenaf Hibiscus cannabinus Malvaceae
SUGAR AND STARCH CROPS
Sugarcane (Noble cane) Saccharum officinarum Poaceae 80
(Gramineae)
Sugarbeet Beta Vulgaris Chenopodiaceae 18
Potato Solanum tuberosum Solanaceae 48
Buck wheat Fagopyrum esculentum Polygonaceae 32
Cassava (Tapioca) Manihot esculenta Euphorbiaceae 36
NARCOTIC CROPS
Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum/rusticaSolanaceae 48
Canabis Cannabis sativa Cannabaceae
BEVERAGE CROPS
Tea Camellia sinensis Theaceae 30
Coffee Coffea arabica Rubiaceae
Cocoa Theobroma cacao Sterculiaceae
Chicory Chicorium intybus Asteraceae 18
(Compositae)
FORAGE AND GRASSES
Egyptian Clover / Berseem Trifolium alexandrium Fabaceae 16
(Leguminosae)

42 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Alfalfa/Lucerne (NABARD Medicago sativa Fabaceae
2021) (Leguminosae)
Cowpea/Lobia (NABARD Vigna unguiculata Fabaceae 22
2021) (Leguminosae)
Cluster bean/Guar Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Fabaceae 14
(Leguminosae)
Sweet clover/ Senji Melilotus alba Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Para grass/Buffalo grass Brachiaria mutica Poaceae
(Gramineae)
Napier grass Pennisetum purpureum Poaceae
(Gramineae)
Oats Avena sativa Poaceae 42
(Gramineae)
Red Clover Trifolium pratense Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Sericea Lespedeza cuneata Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Velvet bean Mucna pruriens Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Common Vetch Vicia sativa Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Kudzu Pueraria thumb ergiana Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Indigo (Hairy) Indigofera hirsuta Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Rhodes grass Chloris gayana Poaceae
(Gramineae)
Rye Secale cereale Poaceae
(Gramineae)
Italian Ryegrass Lolium multiflorum Poaceae
(Gramineae)
GREEN MANURE CROPS
Cluster bean/Guar Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)
Sesbania Sesbania speciosa Fabaceae
(Leguminosae)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 43

 Dhaincha (Root nodulating Sesbania aculeata Fabaceae
species) (Leguminosae)

PLANT FAMILY AND THEIR OTHER NAME

Poaceae Gramineae

Fabaceae, Papillionacea Leguminosae

Brassicaceae Cruciferae

Asteraceae Compositae

Solanaceae Nightshades

Laminaceae Labiatae

Theaceae Cammeliaceae

CROP WITH SPECIAL NAME

Special Name Crop

Brown gold Dead pupae of silkworm
White gold Cotton
Poor man's meat/ boneless meat/ Yellow Soybean
jewel/ Wonder Crop
Golden fiber Jute
Bio energy plant Jatropha
King of temperate crop Apple
Poor man’s friend Potato
Vegetable Meat Cow pea
Poor man’s substitute for ghee Sesame
Poor man’s food Pearl millet
Glory of East Chrysanthemum
Autumn queen Chrysanthemum
Wonder tree Neem

44 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Queen of night Cestrum nocturnum
Apple of paradise Banana
Poor man’s orange (India) and Love of Tomato
apple (England)
Drosophila of crop plants Maize
Adams fig Banana
Butter fruit Avocado
Green gold Bamboo
Food of God Cocoa
Tree of heaven Coconut
Bio drainage plant Eucalyptus spp
Thorny oilseed crop/Fencing crop/ BorderSafflower
crop
Pseudo cereal Buckwheat
Coarsest millet Kodo (Paspalum scrobiculatum)
Hardiest crop among all the pulses Mung bean

Famous Crop Crop

King of cereals Wheat

Queen of cereals Maize

King of coarse cereals Sorghum

King of pulses Gram

Queen of pulses Pea

King of fruits Mango

Queen of fruits Mangosteen

King of temperate fruits Apple

King of spices Black Pepper

Queen of spices Cardamom

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 45

 King of vegetables Potato

Famine reserves Millets

Camel crop Sorghum

Queen of oilseeds Sesame

King of oilseeds Mustard

King of fodder crops Berseem

Queen of fodder crops Lucerne

Poor man's fruit Jackfruit, Ber

King of arid and semi-arid fruits Ber

Poor’s grain Pearl Millet

King of Weeds Congress Grass or Carrot Grass

Night's queen Cestrum nocturnum

Organic oil plant Jatropha

Butter fruit Avocado

Queen of beverages Tea

Tree of heaven Coconut

CROP CLASSIFICATION
❖ Based on Ontogeny (Life cycle)
(a) Annual crops: Crop plants that complete life cycle within a season or year. They produce
seed and die within the season. Ex. Wheat, rice, maize, mustard etc.
(b) Biennial crops: Plants that have life span of two consecutive seasons or years. First years/
season, these plants have purely vegetative growth usually confined to rosette of leaves. The
tap root is often fleshy and serves as a food storage organ. During the second year / season,

46 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 they produce flower stocks from the crown and after producing seeds the plants die. Ex.
Sugar beet, beet root, etc.
(c) Perennial crops: They live for three or more years. They may be seed bearing or non-seed
bearing. Ex. Napier fodder grass, coconut (IBPS AFO 2018), etc.
❖ Classification based on climate:
1. Tropical: Crops grow well in warm & hot climate. E.g., Rice, sugarcane, Jowar etc
2. Subtropical: Rice, cotton
3. Temperate: Crops grow well in cool climate. E.g., Wheat, Barley Oats, Gram, Potato etc.
4. Polar crops: All pines, pasture grasses
❖ Classification Based on growing season:
1. Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops: The crops grown in monsoon months from June to Oct-
Nov, require warm, wet weather at major period of crop growth, also required short day
length for flowering. E.g., Cotton, Rice, Jowar, bajra etc.
2. Season to grow well from Oct to March month. Crops grow well in cold and dry weather.
Require longer day length for flowering. E.g., Wheat, gram, Safflower etc.
3. Summer/Zaid crops: The crops grown in summer month from March to June. Require
warm day weather for major growth period and longer day length for flowering. E.g.,
Groundnuts, Watermelon, Pumpkins, Gourds.

LIST OF KHARIF AND RABI CROPS:

Kharif Rabi
Sunflower, Castor, Soybean, Sunhemp, Tobacco, Berseem, Sugarcane, Mustard,
Cotton, Till, Groundnut, Bajra, paddy, Wheat, Barley
Maize

❖ Use/Agronomic classification:
1. Cereals: Cereals are the cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains. Larger
grains used as staple food – Rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats etc. Cereals are an excellent
source of fat-soluble vitamin E, which is an essential antioxidant. Whole cereal grains
contain 20 to 30% of the daily requirements of the minerals such as selenium, calcium, zinc
and copper.
2. Millets: Millets are the small, grained cereals which are of minor importance as food. E.g.,
Bajra. They are also annual grasses of the group cereals. But’ they are grown in lesser area
or less important area whose productivity and economics are also less important. These are
also staple food for people of poor countries. In India, pearl millet is a staple food in
Rajasthan.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 47

 Millets are broadly classified in to two,
1. Major millets
2. Minor millets.
Major millets

Sorghum /Jowar/Cholam Sorghum bicolor

Pearl millet /Bajra/Cumbu Pennisetum glaucum

Finger millet or Ragi Eleusine coracona

Minor millets

Foxtail millet / Thenai Setaria italica

Little millet / Samai Panicum miliare

Common millet / Panivaraugu Panicum miliaceum

Barnyard millet / Kudiraivali Echinchloa colona var frumentaceae

Kodo millet / Varagu Paspalum scrobiculatum

Note: Major Coarse cereal millet: Jowar, bajra, ragi (NABARD- 2021)
3. Pulse/legume crops: Seeds of leguminous crops plant used as food. On splitting they
produced dal which is rich in protein.
Red gram Cajanus Cajan

Black gram Vigna mungo

Green gram V. radiata

Cowpea V. unguiculata

Bengal gram Cicer arietinum

Horse gram Macrotyloma uniflorum

48 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Lentil Lens esculentus or Lens culinaris

Soybean Glycine max

Peas or garden pea Pisum sativum

Garden bean Lablab purpureus

Lathyrus/Khesari Lathyrus sativus

Notes:

➢ Guar: Legumes crop used for gum manufacturing.

➢ Cowpea: tolerant to heavy rainfall than other pulses
➢ Lathyrus its grain and other parts contain a neurotoxin called ODAP (βN-oxalyl - 2α, β-
diamino-propionic acid) which causes lathyrism, i.e., paralysis in the lower limbs. In our
country, a variety, Bio L-212 (Ratan) with very low ODAP content is recently released.
4. Oil seeds crops: crop seeds are rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable oil to meet
various requirements.
Groundnut or peanut Arachis hypogaea

Sesame or gingelly Sesamum indicum

Sunflower Helianthus annuus

Castor Ricinus communis

Linseed or flax Linum usitatissimum

Niger Guizotia abyssinia

Safflower Carthamus tinctorius

Brown or Indian Mustard Brassica juncea

Sarson Brassica sp.

5. Fodder/ Forage Crop: It refers to vegetative matter, fresh or preserved, utilized as feed for
animals. It includes hay, silage, pasturage and fodder.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 49

 Ex. Grasses - Bajra Napier grass, guinea grass, fodder sorghum, fodder maize.
Legumes - Lucerne, Desmanthus, Cowpea (NABARD 2021) etc. Crop cultivated & used for
fickler, hay, silage.
6. Fibre crops: crown for fibre yield. Fibre may be obtained from seed.
Different kinds of fibre are:

Seed fibre Cotton

Stem/ bast fibre Jute, Mesta

Leaf fibre Agave, pineapple

Cotton:

➢ Important fibre crop of the world used for garment purpose.

➢ Seed for cattle feed and oil is edible purpose.
➢ Epidermal hairs of seed coats are the economic portion.
➢ Lint (Kapas-seed) has industrial value (fibre) and stalk is of fuel nature.

Jute, Sun hemp, Mesta:

➢ Jute is a fibre crop based on economic use (RRB SO 2018)

➢ The fibre obtained from stems is used for gunny bags, ropes.
➢ Stem itself is used as fuel.
➢ Sun hemp is used for both stem fibre and green manure crop.
7. Roots crops: Roots are the economic produce in root crop. E.g., sweet potato, sugar beet,
carrot, turnip etc.
8. Tuber crop: crop whose edible portion is not a root but a short thickened underground stem.
E.g., Potato, yam.
9. Sugar crops: The two important crops are sugarcane and sugar beet cultivated for production
for sugar.
i. Sugarcane - Saccharum officinarum

ii. Sugar beet - Beta vulgaris

10. Starch crops: grown to produce starch. E.g., tapioca, potato, sweet potato.
11. Drug crop: used for preparation for medicines. E.g., tobacco, mint ( RRB SO 2018),
pyrethrum.

50 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 12. Spices & condiments/spices crops: crop plants as their products are used to flavour taste and
sometime colour the fresh preserved food. E.g., ginger, garlic, chili, cumin, onion,
coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
13. Vegetables crops: may be leafy as fruity vegetables. E.g. Palak, Mentha, Brinjal, tomato.
14. Green manure crop: grown and incorporated into soil to increase fertility of soil. E.g., sun
hemp.
15. Medicinal & aromatic crops: Medicinal plants includes cinchona, Isabgol, opium poppy,
tobacco, senna, belladonna, rauwolfia, Liquorice etc.
16. Aromatic plants such as lemon grass, citronella grass, Palm Rosa, Japanese mint, peppermint,
Rose Geraniums, jasmine, henna etc.
❖ Classification based on cultural method/water:
1. Rain fed: crops grow only on rainwater. E.g., Jowar, Bajra, Mung etc.
2. Irrigated crops: Crops grows with the help of irrigation water. E.g., Chili, sugarcane,
Banana, papaya etc.
❖ Classification based on root system:
1. Tap root system: The main root goes deep into the soil. E.g., Tur, Grape, Cotton etc.
2. Adventitious/Fibre rooted: The crops whose roots are fibrous shallow & spreading into the
soil. E.g., Cereal crops, wheat, rice etc.
❖ Classification based on economic importance:
1. Cash crop: Grown for earning money. E.g., Sugarcane, cotton.
2. Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the population and & fodder for cattle. E.g.,
Jowar, wheat, rice etc.
❖ Classification based on No. of cotyledons:
1. Monocots or monocotyledons: Having one cotyledon in the seed. E.g., all cereals &
Millets.
2. Dicots or dicotyledonous: Crops having two cotyledons in the seed. E.g., all legumes &
pulses.
❖ Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation (According to
TNAU)

➢ Photoperiodism is a response of plant to day length.

1. Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes plate when days are short less than twelve hours.
E.g., rice, sunflower, cotton, Jowar, green gram, black gram etc.
2. Long day plants: Require long days are more than ten hours for floral ignition. E.g., Wheat,
Barley, oat, carrot, Potato, sugar beet and cabbage.
3. Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much influence for phase change for these
plants. E.g., Maize, Tomato.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 51

 The rate of the flowering initiation depends on how short or long is photoperiod. Shorter the days,
more rapid initiation of flowering in short days plants. Longer the days more rapid are the initiation
of flowering in long days plants.

❖ Phototropism –– Response of plants to light direction. E.g. Sunflower.

❖ Photosensitive – Season bound varieties depends on quantity of light received.

52 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

CROPPING PATTERN, CROPPING SYSTEM AND CROPPING SCHEME

❖ Cropping pattern depicts the pattern of crops for a given piece of land, means the
proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area or it indicates the yearly
sequence and spatial arrangements of crops that follows in an area.
❖ Cropping system means the relation of a specific cropping pattern with all available farm
resources like Land, water and environment etc. Thus, this combination comes out to be a
system.
❖ Thus, a cropping system comprises cropping pattern plus all components required to produce
a particular crop and the inter relationships between them and environment.
❖ Cropping scheme: The plan according to which crops are grown on individual plots of a
farm with an object of getting maximum return from cash crop without impairing the fertility
of soil is known as cropping scheme.

INTENSIVE CROPPING
❖ Growing number of crops on the same piece of land during the given period of time. The
turnaround period between one crop and another is minimized through modified land
preparation.
➢ Types of cropping systems:

Mono-Cropping

Multiple-cropping

Inter-cropping

Sequence cropping

Relay cropping

Ratoon cropping

❖ Mono-Cropping: Mono-cropping or monoculture refers to growing of only one crop on a

piece of land year after year.
➢ It may be due to climatological and socio-economic conditions or due to specialisation of a
farmer in growing a particular crop, e.g., under rained conditions, groundnut or cotton or
sorghum are grown year after year due to limitation of rainfall.
➢ In canal irrigated areas, under a waterlogged condition, rice crop is grown as it is not possible
to grow any other crop.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 53

 ➢ Advantages of monoculture/monocropping: -
✓ Convenience in sowing with the help of machinery under mechanized farming
✓ It is convenient for harvesting with the help of machinery
➢ Disadvantages:
✓ Sometimes fertility and productivity of the soil are lowered if suitable soil management
practices are not followed.
✓ Soil structure may be deteriorated.
✓ Increase infestation of pests, diseases, and weeds.
✓ Intensive Cropping systems
❖ Multiple-cropping: Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one calendar
year is known as multiple-cropping.
➢ It is the intensification of cropping in time and space dimensions, i.e., more number of crops
within year and more number of crops on same piece of land any give period.
➢ It includes inter-cropping, mixed-cropping and sequence cropping. Double-cropping is a
case where the land is occupied by two crops, which are grown in a year in sequence.
✓ E.g., Sorghum-Wheat-Green Gram
✓ Maize-Wheat-Green gram
✓ Rice-Wheat-Black Gram-Linseed
Parallel Multiple cropping Sequential Multiple cropping

Mixed cropping Sequential cropping: Double cropping

Intercropping Triple cropping

Relay cropping Quadruple cropping

Alley cropping Ratoon cropping/Ratooning

Multi storied cropping

❖ Parallel multiple cropping: -

➢ When two or more crops are grown in association for part or entire period of their life cycle
is known as parallel multiple cropping.
➢ It includes following cropping systems.
i) Mixed cropping: -
➢ Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row arrangement is known as
mixed cropping.
➢ E.g., Maize + Green gram + Pigeon pea

54 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Sorghum + Groundnut + Pigeon pea
➢ Mixed cropping is common practice in rainfed or dry farming areas.
➢ Generally, legumes crop like red gram, black gram, green gram, cowpea etc. or oilseed crops
like groundnut, mustard etc. are mixed with cereal crops like jowar or bajra.
➢ Sowing is done by drilling the mixture of seed with the help of seed drill or moghan can be
attached behind the seed drill for sowing of mixed crop.
➢ Usually, cereals are grown as main crop and pulses or oilseeds as minor or mixed crop.
Advantages of mixed cropping: -
✓ Risk of failure of crop is less
✓ Fulfills the daily requirements of food grains, oilseeds, pulses etc.
✓ Improve fertility of the soil if legumes are taken as minor crop
✓ Better distribution of Labour throughout the crop period
✓ Increase gross monetary returns
✓ Well balanced cattle feed is obtained
✓ Safeguards against pests and diseases
✓ Full utilization of space and available plant nutrients
➢ Disadvantages: -
✓ Sometimes control of pests, diseases and weeds become difficult
✓ Sometimes affects the yield of main crop
✓ Harvesting with the help of machinery is not possible
➢ Type of mixed cropping-
1. Mixed crop: - Seeds of different crops are mixed and then sown either in lines or broadcasted
is called as mixed crop.
2. Companion crop: -
Seeds of different crops are not mixed but different crops are sown in different rows is called
as companion crop
3. Guard crop: -
The main crop is sown in the center, surrounded by hardy crop to provide protection to main
crop is called as guard crop.
E.g., Safflower around wheat, Mesta around sugarcane.
4. Augmenting crop: -
Sub crops are sown to supplement the yield of main crop, the sub crop is called as augmenting
crops. e.g., Japanese mustard with berseem.
➢ Advantages of Augmenting crop: -
✓ Better utilization of available resources.
✓ Insurance of against total failure of crop
✓ Higher yield per unit area per unit time.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 55

 ✓ Less incidence of pest and diseases
✓ Improvement in soil structure
✓ Improvement in soil fertility
➢ Disadvantages of Augmenting crop:-
✓ Difficult to carry out different field operations
✓ More labour requirement
✓ Due care is needed while selecting crop
❖ Inter-cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field.
➢ Crop intensification is in both time and space dimensions.
➢ There is intercrop competition during all or part of crop growth.
➢ Inter-cropping was originally practiced as an insurance against crop failure under
rained conditions. At present main objective of inter-cropping is higher productivity per
unit area in addition to stability in production. Inter-cropping system utilizes resources
efficiently and their productivity is increased.
➢ E.g., Maize + Pigeon pea (2:1)
Sorghum + Pigeon pea (2:1)
Cotton + Green gram (2:1)
Pigeon pea + Ground nut + Lentil (2:1:1)
➢ Ccharacteristics of good intercrop/minor crop/subsidiary mixed crop:-
✓ It should be nor affecting the growth and yield of base crop or main crop.
✓ It should mature earlier or later than the base crop or main crop.
✓ A far as possible it should be a legume crop for maintaining fertility and productivity of the
soil.
✓ It should have different growth habits and nutrient requirements to have minimum
competition.
✓ It should have different rooting depths.
✓ It should differ in canopy development and sunlight requirement.
➢ Advantages of intercropping system:
✓ It should help to Improves the soil fertility and soil productivity.
✓ Maintaining the higher crop yield.
✓ Better utilization of available resources.
✓ It should resist the soil erosion.
✓ Reduces the incidence of insect pest, disease and weeds.
✓ Improves the soil structure and water holding capacity of soil.

56 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Disadvantages:
✓ Harvesting with the help of machinery is difficult.
✓ Intercultural operations are not possible.
✓ Competition among the resources is more.
✓ Harvesting makes a time consuming/difficult.
✓ Weed control is not possible.
✓ Water requirement is more.

TYPES OF INTERCROPPING

Mixed intercropping

Row intercropping

Alley cropping

Strip intercropping

Relay intercropping

➢ Types of Intercropping: -
(a) Parallel Cropping: -
✓ Cultivation of such crops which have different natural habit, and zero competition is
called as parallel cropping. e.g., black gram/green gram + Maize.
(b) Companion cropping: -
✓ System in which production of both intercrops is equal to that of its solid planting is
called as companion cropping. e.g., Mustard/Potato/Onion + Sugarcane.
(c) Mixed Intercropping: -
✓ Growing of two or more crops with no distinct row arrangement is called as mixed
intercropping.
➢ There are four types of mixed intercropping systems: -
1. Row intercropping: -

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 57

 ✓ Growing of two or more crops simultaneously, where one or more crops are planted in rows
is called as row intercropping. Maize + green gram (1:1), Maize + black gram (1:1),
Groundnut + Red gram (6:1)
2. Patch cropping: -
✓ Where component crops are planted in patches is called as patch cropping.
3. Strip intercropping: -
✓ Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in strips wide enough to permit independent
cultivation but narrow enough to interact the crop agronomically is called as strip
intercropping. Ex. Groundnut + red gram (6:4) strip.
4. Relay intercropping: -
✓ Growing of two or more crops simultaneously during the part of life cycle of each is called
as relay intercropping.
✓ Second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage of growth but
before it is ready for harvest. Succeeding crop is planted before harvesting of preceding
crop.
5. Relay cropping:-
➢ It is the cropping system in which succeeding crop (next crop) is or sown or planted when
the first crop (preceding crop) has reached its physiological maturity stage or before it is
ready to harvest is called as relay cropping.
➢ e.g., Rice-Linseed/lentil/black gram/chickpea.
➢ Advantages of relay cropping:
✓ Better utilization of residual moisture and fertilizers.
✓ Reduces the cost of cultivation practices.
✓ Also reduces the cost of fertilizers and irrigation.
✓ Labour requirement is less.
✓ Incidence of pest, diseases and weeds is less due to early sowing operation.
➢ Disadvantages:-
✓ Risk of crop failure is more.
✓ Lack of availability of skilled labour.
✓ Greater incidence of pest, disease and weeds.
6. Alley cropping:-
➢ The system of growing jowar, maize, bajra or any other arable crop in the alleys (passage
between two rows) of leguminous shrubs like subabul (Leucaena leucocephela) is called as
alley cropping.
➢ Growing of maize, jowar, bajra, cowpea in between rows of subabul planted at 5-10 m
spacing, this system is useful for conservation of moisture and maintaining fertility of soil
in dry farming areas.

58 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ The loppings of the subabul are used as green fodder for animals or spread in between the
crop rows as mulch for conservation of soil moisture and after delaying it adds organic
matter to the soil.
➢ Advantages of alley cropping:
✓ Better utilization of natural resources.
✓ Reduces the cost of cultivation.
✓ Improves the soil fertility and productivity.
✓ Provides fodder for animals and food for human.
➢ Disadvantages:
✓ Competition among the natural resources i.e moisture, nutrients, light and space.
✓ Incidence of pest, diseases and weeds is more.
✓ Chances of crop failure is more.
✓ Less yield is obtained.
➢ Types of Alley cropping :-
1. Food cum fodder system:-
✓ In this system provides food grains like pulses, cereals, oilseeds and fodder for livestock.
2. Food cum mulch system:-
✓ In this system provides food grains as well as crop residues as a mulch for soil and water
conservative measures.
3. Food cum pole system:-
✓ In this system provides food as well as wood for fuel, timber, furniture etc.
7. Multistoried cropping: -
➢ In this system the crops of different height and vertical layers of leaf canopies, sunlight
requirements and root system are grown together on the same field is called as multistoried
cropping.
➢ Generally, the shorter crops favoring shade and humidity are grown in passage between the
rows of taller crops, which are tolerant to strong sunlight.
➢ e.g., Growing of pineapple, sweet potato, black pepper, tapioca, turmeric, ginger etc. in
coconut or arecanut.
➢ Advantages of Multistoried cropping:
✓ Better utilization of moisture and nutrients in different soil layers.
✓ Better utilization of sunlight and space.
✓ Provides a balanced food for humans.
✓ Enrichment of organic matter or plant residues in soil.
✓ Improve the water holding capacity of soil
➢ Disadvantages:
✓ Competition among the natural resources.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 59

 ✓ More area is required.
✓ Lack of labour availability
✓ Incidence of pest, disease and weeds is more.
a) Synergetic cropping:-
✓ The yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crop on unit area basis is called as
synergetic cropping. e.g., Sugarcane + Potato
i) Additive Series:-
✓ In this system one crop is main crop or base cop and another crop is intercrop.
✓ intercrop is introduced into the base crop by adjusting or changing crop geometry. Plant
population of main crop is kept same so that recommended for pure stand by reducing
row spacing.
✓ Intercrop is sown in the reduced space.
✓ The objective of the system is to get additional income and to cover risk.
✓ LER (Land Equivalent Ratio) is more than 1.
✓ Additive series is more efficient than the replacement series.
ii) Replacement Series:-
✓ Both the crops are component crops. The plant population of both crops is less than their
recommended population in pure stand. LER is less than 1.
✓ Replacement series is less efficient than the Additive series.
✓ LER of intercropping system should be 1.
2) Sequential multiple cropping:-
✓ It is the multiple cropping system in which two or more crops are grown in sequence on the
same piece of land in a year or over a fixed period.
i) Sequence cropping:-
✓ In this cropping system two or more crops are grown in sequence one after another on the
same piece of land in a year.
a) Double cropping:-
✓ It is multiple cropping system in which two crops are grown in sequence on the same piece
of land in a year.
✓ e.g., Black gram-Jowar
✓ Black gram-Wheat
✓ Rice-Gram, Groundnut-Wheat etc.
b) Triple cropping:-
✓ It is the multiple cropping system in which three crops are grown in sequence on a same
land in a year.
✓ It is possible when irrigation facilities are available throughout the year.

60 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ✓ e.g., Groundnut-Wheat-Okra, Rice-Wheat-Groundnut, Jowar-Potato-Green gram,
Soybean-Wheat-Groundnut etc.
c) Quadruple cropping: -
✓ It is the multiple cropping system in which four crops are grown in a sequence on the same
land in a year.
✓ It is possible under irrigated conditions throughout the year. e.g., Groundnut-Coriander-
Wheat-Green gram, Soybean-Methi-Wheat-Green gram etc.
ii) Ratoon cropping or Ratooning: -
✓ The cultivation of crop regrowth after harvest is known as ratoon cropping. (IBPS AFO
2020)
✓ Ratooning is one of the important systems of intensive cropping, which implies more than
one harvest from one sowing/planting because of regrowth from the basal buds on the stem
after harvest of first crop.
✓ Thus, ratooning consists of allowing the stubbles of the original crop to strike again or to
produce the tillers after harvesting and to raise another crop.
✓ e.g., Ratooning of Sugarcane, Hybrid Jowar, Hybrid Bajra, and Red gram etc.
➢ Advantages of multiple cropping: -
✓ It increases the total production and gross monetary returns from the unit area in a year.
✓ Fulfills various needs of food grains, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fodder etc.
✓ Facilitates even distribution of labour throughout the year.
✓ Better utilization of land, labour, power, and other resources on the farm.
✓ Regular flow of income throught the year.
➢ Disadvantages of multiple cropping:-
✓ Fertility and productivity of the soil is lowered or exhausted if proper soil management
practices are allowed.
✓ Sometimes if affects the structure of the soil due to continuous cropping and irrigation.
✓ Sometimes control of pests, diseases and weeds becomes difficult.
➢ Fallowing or fallow in rotation:-
✓ In scarcity areas (dry farming) where rainfall is very low only two crops are taken in three
years as against one crop every year is called as fallowing or fallow in rotation.
✓ A fallow year or season in one in which field is not cultivated with any crop but left without
crop.
✓ The field may be left undisturbed in a ploughed condition or kept clean by frequent
harrowing.
✓ This practice is useful for conservation of soil moisture and maintaining fertility of the soil.
✓ In irrigated area sometimes one season is kept fallow for maintaining fertility of the soil
and minimizing the damage to the soil due to continuous use of irrigation and cropping.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 61

 ➢ Definitions of important terms in cropping systems: -
✓ Base crop: - It is the major crop grown in intercropping system.
✓ Inter crop: - It is the additional crop grown in the space created in inter cropping systems.
✓ Mixed crop/minor/subsidiary crop: - In the crop grown by seed mixture in main crop in
mixed cropping.
✓ Main crop: - The major crop grown in mixed cropping system.
✓ Companion crop: - The crop grown in association in cropping system for complementary
effect.
✓ Component crop: - Either of the crop grown in multiple cropping system.
❖ Cropping intensity
➢ Cropping intensity = (Gross cropped area / Net sown area) x 100 = ( Area under kharif +
Rabi +Zaid /Area under actual cultivation)x100
➢ Cropping intensity of India is nearly 138 % (Kurukshetra-April 2019)
❖ Crop rotation intensity
➢ C.R.I = ( No. of crop in crop rotation/No. of year in crop rotation) x100
➢ E.g., Crop rotation for 1 year: Rice – Pea (200%)
➢ Crop rotation for 2 year: Groundnut- wheat- sugarcane (150%)

ANNIDATION

➢ The complimentary interaction between intercrops in the intercrop-ping system is known as

Annidation. When plants are grown as compo-nents of intercropping system, interactions
between the components spe-cies occur
➢ Spatial Annidation (Annidation in Space): Here the complimentary interactions between
the intercrops occur with regard to spatial position (space/place). This principle is used in
Multistorey cropping
➢ Temporal Annidation (Annidation in Time): The complimentary interaction between the
intercrops in the time as-pect is called Temporal Annidation. Such intercrops have different
natural habit and zero competition. Both the component species have widely vary-ing
duration and different peak demands for light and nutrients.

TYPES OF FARMING:

➢ Subsistence farming: means farming for own consumption. In other words, the entire
production is largely consumed by the farmers and their family, and they do not have any
surplus to sell in the market.

62 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Commercial farming: involves the production of food for sale. In today’s agriculture most
of the farmers are involved in this type of farming.
➢ Intensive method: is practiced in those countries where the supply of land is limited, and
density of population is high. In this type of farming emphasis is on greatest possible output
per hectare of land. Countries like India, China, Japan, Britain, Holland, Germany, and
Belgium practice this method of agriculture.
➢ Extensive method: is practiced in sparsely populated area - where average land holding area
is higher and where there is scope for bringing additional land under cultivation e.g. USA,
Russia, Australia, Argentina and Brazil.
➢ Shifting cultivation is another form of extensive agriculture. Planting crops in a region until
fertility diminishes and then moving to a fresh area to plant means there must be lots of land
available. This is practised in forest area.
➢ Agribusiness: is a form of commercial farming. It is run by large corporations that are self-
sufficient providing their own inputs and processing their own outputs.
➢ Plantation Farming: is an estate where a single cash crop is grown for sale. This type of
agriculture involves growing and processing of a single cash crop purely meant for sale. Tea,
coffee, rubber, banana and spices are all examples of plantation crops.
➢ Mixed Farming: is a situation in which both raising crops and rearing animals are carried
on simultaneously. Here farmers engaged in mixed farming are economically better off than
others.
➢ Precision agriculture: is used to cover the three aspects of production namely for data
collection of information input through options as Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite
data, grid soil sampling, yield monitoring, remote sensing, etc; for data analysis or processing
through Geographic Information System (GIS) and decision technologies as process models,
artificial intelligence systems, and expert systems; and for application of information by
farmers.
➢ Ley Farming: the growing of grass or legumes in rotation with grain or tilled crops as a soil
conservation measure. (IBPS AFO 2020, RRB SO 2018)
➢ Contour farming: Farming system which provides more time to absorb runoff water and
later it is supplied to crops. (RRB SO 2020)
❖ Remote sensing
➢ Remote sensing is defined as the art and science of gathering information about objects or
areas from a distance without having physical contact with objects area being investigated.
➢ Uses: Remote sensing techniques are used in agricultural and allied fields.
1. Collection of basic data for monitoring of crop growth
2. Estimating the cropped area
3. Forecasting the crop production

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 63

 4. Mapping of wastelands
5. Drought monitoring and its assessment
6. Flood mapping and damage assessment
7. Land use/cover mapping and area under forest coverage
8. Soil mapping
9. Assessing soil moisture condition, irrigation, drainage
10. Assessing outbreak of pest and disease
11. Ground water exploration

64 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

ORGANIC / ECO-FRIENDLY AGRICULTURE/FARMING
❖ Organic farming: Organic farming is a production system where all kinds of agricultural
products are produced organically, including grains, meat, dairy, eggs, fibers such as cotton,
flowers and processed food products.
❖ International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements - IFOAM, 1972
❖ Synonyms of organic farming: Eco-farming, Biological farming, Bio-dynamic farming,
Macrobiotic agriculture “Feed the soil, not the plant” is the watchword and slogan of
ecological farming.

Eco-farming
➢ Farming in relation to ecosystem.
➢ It has the potential for introducing mutually reinforcing ecological approaches to food
production.
➢ It aims at the maintenance of soil chemically, biologically and physically the way nature
would do it left alone.
➢ Soil would then take proper care of plants growing on it.
➢ Feed the soil, not the plant is the watchword and slogan of ecological farming.

Biological farming:
➢ Farming in relation to biological diversity.

Biodynamic farming:
➢ Farming which is biologically organic and ecologically sound and sustainable farming.

BASICS OF LAND USE RELATED TO AGRICULTURE

➢ Agricultural land: refers to the share of land area that is arable, under permanent crops, or
under permanent pastures.
➢ Arable land: includes land defined by the FAO as land under temporary crops (double-
cropped areas are counted once), temporary meadows for mowing or for pasture, land under
market or kitchen gardens, and land temporarily fallow. Land abandoned as a result of
shifting cultivation is excluded.
➢ Irrigated land: refers to areas purposely provided with water, including land irrigated by
controlled flooding.
➢ Cropland: refers to arable land and permanent cropland.
❖ Scheme for land Record management: The NLRMP (National Land Records
Modernization Programme) has 3 major components –

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 65

 a. Computerization of land record
b. Survey/re-survey
c. Computerization of Registration.
The district has been taken as the unit of implementation, where all programme activities are
to converge. It is hoped that all districts in the country would be covered by the end of the
12th Plan period except where cadastral surveys are being done for the first time.
Cadastral map is used to map subdivisions of land and gives length and direction to owner’s
land and boundaries. (RRB SO 2020)

SOWING METHODS

3. Sowing behind
the country plough
1.Broadcasting 2. Dibbling
(manual and
mechanical drilling)

5. Nursery
4. Seed drilling 6. Planting
transplanting

1. Broadcasting: Broadcasting is called as random sowing. Literally means ‘scattering the

seed.
➢ Broadcasting is mostly followed for small sized to medium sized crops.
➢ This is the largest method of sowing followed in India, since; it is the easiest and cheapest
and requires minimum labours.
➢ To ensure a good and uniform population, it is better to broadcast on either direction. This
is called criss-cross sowing.
➢ For broadcasting sesame seeds are mixed with sand at 1:15 or 1:10 ratio and sown.

❖ Disadvantages
➢ All the seeds broadcasted do not have contact with the soil. 100% germination is not
possible.
➢ Enhanced seed rate is required.
➢ Seeds cannot be placed in desired depth. Desired depth ensures perfect anchorage.
➢ Lodging (falling down) is common in broadcasting.

66 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

2. Dibbling: This is actually line sowing.
➢ Inserting a seed through a hole at a desired depth and covering the hole.
➢ Dibbling is practiced on plain surface and ridges and furrows or beds and channels
➢ The seeds are dibbled at 2/3rd from top or 1/3rd at bottom of the ridge.
➢ This is done for wider spaced crops and medium to large sized seeds.
➢ Ex. Sorghum, maize, sunflower, cotton are dibbled on ridges and furrows. Both beds and
channels, and ridges and furrows come under line sowing. While earthing up, the plant
occupies middle of the ridge.
➢ Earthing up is essential for proper anchorage of the root system.
❖ Advantages of line sowing are,
➢ Uniform population
➢ Better germination
➢ Reduced seed rate.
❖ Disadvantages of Dibbling :-
➢ It is time consuming.
➢ More labor is required
➢ This method is costly.
3. Sowing behind the plough: Sowing behind the plough is done by manual or mechanical
means.
➢ Seeds are dropped in the furrows opened by the plough and the same is closed or covered
when the next furrow is opened.
➢ The seeds are sown at uniform distance.
➢ Seeds like red gram, cowpea and groundnut are sown behind the country plough.
➢ Major sown crop is ground nut.
➢ Kera and pora methods are related to desi/indigenous plough.
➢ Seeds are sown by mechanical means by ‘Gorus’ – seed drill. A seed drill has a plough
share and hopper. Seeds are placed on hopper.
❖ Advantages:
➢ The seeds are placed at desired depth covered by iron planks.
➢ Except very small, very large seeds most of the seeds can be sown, e.g. maize, sorghum,
millets, sunflower, etc.
4. Drill sowing (or) Drilling: Drilling is the practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth
covered with soil and compacted. (AFO 2021)
➢ In this method, sowing implements are used for placing the seeds into the soil.
➢ Seeds are drilled continuously or at regular intervals in rows.
➢ Seeds are placed at uniform depth, covered and compacted.
❖ Advantages of Drilling

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 67

 ➢ The quantity of seed required is less.
➢ During drilling Manures, fertilizers and amendments can applied with seeds.
❖ Disadvantages of Drilling
➢ More time consuming.
➢ More labor required.
➢ Cost is high.
5. Transplanting: It is the raising of seedlings on nursery beds and transplanting of seedlings
in the laid-out field.
➢ This method of planting has two components:
a. Nursery
b. Transplanting.
❖ This method is followed in crops like paddy, fruit, vegetable, crops, tobacco, etc.
❖ Advantages
➢ Can ensure optimum plant population.
➢ Sowing of main field duration, i.e., management in the main field is reduced.
➢ Crop intensification is possible under transplanting
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Nursery raising is expensive.
➢ Transplanting is another laborious and expensive method
❖ Age of seedlings is 1/4th of the total duration of the crop.
❖ Thumb rule:- 3 months crop – nursery duration 3 weeks, 4 months – 4 weeks minimum
period.
❖ Transplanting shock is a period after transplanting, the seedlings show no growth. It is for
a period of 5-7 days depending upon season, crop, variety, etc
th
❖ Nursery Transplanting: Age – 1/4 of the total duration is on the nursery beds.
❖ Area required for nursery normally is 1/10th of the total area.

6. Planting: It is the placing of vegetative part of crops which are vegetatively propagated in
the laid-out field.
➢ E.g.: Tubers of Potato sets of ginger & turmeric, cuttings of sweet potato & grapes, sets of
sugarcane.
DIFFERENT CROP GEOMETRIES ARE AVAILABLE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
1. Broadcasting: Results in random geometry, no equal space is maintained, resources are
either under exploited or over exploited.

68 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 2. Square method or square geometry: The plants are sown at equal distances on either side.
Mostly perennial crops, tree crops follow square method of cultivation.

Advantages

(i) Light is uniformly available,

(ii) Movement of wind is not blocked and
(iii) Mechanization can be possible.
3. Rectangular method of sowing: There are rows and columns, the row spacing are wider
than the spacing between plants. The different types exist in rectangular method
(a) Solid row – Each row will have no proper spacing between the plants. This is followed only
for annual crops which have tillering pattern. There is definite row arrangement but no
column arrangement, e.g., wheat.
(b) Paired row arrangement – It is also a rectangular arrangement. It a crop requires 60 cm x
300 m spacing and if paired row is to be adopted the spacing is altered to 90 cm instead of
60 cm in order to accommodate an intercrop. The base population is kept constant.
(c) Skip row – A row of planting is skipped and hence there is a reduction in population. This
reduction is compensated by planting an intercrop; practiced in rainfed or dryland agriculture
(d) Triangular method of planting - It is recommended for wide spaced crops like coconut,
mango, etc. The number of plants per unit area is more in this system.

GERMINATION: -
➢ The most effective wavelength for promoting germination is red (662 nm) and 730 nm
inhibits germination.
➢ The thumb rule for sowing depth of seeds is approximately 3 to 4 times diameter of the seed.
➢ The optimum depth of sowing for most of the field crops ranges between 3-5 cm depth.
➢ After sowing the sown area should be protected from BIRDS for at least 3 days.
❖ Optimum plant population: -
➢ It is the number of plants required to produce maximum output or biomass per unit area
➢ Any increase beyond this stage results in either no increase or reduction in biomass.
❖ Intercultural operations: -
1. Thinning and Gap filling: -
➢ Normally, these are practiced a week after sowing to a maximum of 15 days.
➢ In dry land agriculture, gap filling is done first by dibbling seeds 7 DAS, to avoid draught
2. Earthing up: -
➢ It is done around 6-8 weeks after sowing / planting in sugarcane, tapioca, banana, etc.
➢ Depth of ploughing: The desirable depth of ploughing is 12 to 20 cm for field crops.
➢ The ploughing depth varies with effective root zone of the crop.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 69

 Depth of Ploughing Types of crops

Shallow Rooted crops 10-20 cm

Deep Rooted Crops 15-30 cm

❖ Time of ploughing: The optimum soil moisture content for tillage is 60% of field capacity.
Seed rate: In Rice.

Direct sowing 100 kg/ha

Line sowing 60 kg/ha
Transplanting 40 kg/ha

Approximate Rooting depth (mm)

Soil type Rooting depth

Shallow Medium Deep
Sandy 15 30 40
Loamy 20 40 60
Clay 30 50 70

Root depth of different field crops are given below:

Shallow 30 – 60 cm Paddy, onion, potato,
pineapple, cabbage.

Medium 50 – 100 cm Banana, bean, coconut,

groundnut, peas, soybean,
sunflower, tobacco, tomato,
pearl millet, pulses

Deep 90-150 cm Citrus, grapes, cotton, maize,

sorghum, soybean

70 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Depending on the crops and varieties, the plant population varies: (According to TNAU)
Crop Type of variety Plant population Spacing

Rice Short duration 6,66,666 plants/ha 15 cm x 10 cm

Medium 5,00,000 plants/ha 20 cm x 10 cm

Long 3,33,000 plants/ha 20 cm x 15 cm

Cotton Medium 55,555 plants/ha 60 cm x 30 cm

Long 44444 plants/ha 75 cm x 30 cm

Hybrids 18,518 plants/ha 120 cm x 45 cm

Maize Varieties 83,333 plants/ha 60 x 20 cm

Hybrids 47,620 plants/ha 60 x 35 cm

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 71

 IRRIGATION & IT’S METHODS
❖ Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to the soil for the purpose of crop
production in supplement to rainfall and ground water contribution.

TERMINOLOGY
❖ Nominal duty: it is the ratio of the area to be irrigated to the mean supply discharge during
the base period.
❖ Kor watering, Kor depth kor period: Crop water requirement is not uniform all through
base period. The first watering is known as Kor watering, and the depth applied in first
watering is kor depth. Part of the base period during which kor watering is given is known as
kor period.
❖ Palco: it is the first irrigation before sowing the crop for seed germination and seedlng
establishment.
❖ Crop period: It is the duration in days from sowing or planting of crop to maturity.
❖ Base period: it refers to the entire duration of crop in days from irrigation for preparatory
cultivation to the last irrigation.
❖ Delta (∆): It is the total depth of water (cm) required by a crop during its duration in the field
denoted by the symbol ∆.
❖ Duty of water (D): It is the ratio between the area of crop irrigated and the quantity of water
applied to the crop. It can also be defined as the area irrigated per cumec of discharge running
for base period B. It is usually represented by the letter D.
❖ Cumec day: It is the quantity of water flowering for one day at the rate of one cumec. It is
equal to 8.64 ha-m.
❖ Rostering system: The process of irrigation water distribution or regulation.
❖ Rotational irrigation: It is also known as warabhandi irrigation.
❖ Importance of water to plants:
1. Plants contain 90% water which gives turgidity and keeps them erect
2. Water is an essential part of protoplasm
3. It regulates the temperature of the plant system
4. It is essential to meet the transpiration requirements
5. It serves as a medium for dissolving the nutrients present in the soil
6. It is an important ingredient in photosynthesis
7. Generally, the water present in the macrospores drains down to subsoil in 48 Hrs.
Water use efficiency of major field crops:
S. No. Crop Water Use eff. (Kg/ha mm)
1 Finger Millet 13.4

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 2 Wheat 12.6
3 Groundnut 9.2
4 Sorghum 9
5 Pearl Millet 8
6 Maize 8
7 Rice 3.7

METHODS OF IRRIGATION- SUITABILITY, ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS

DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION IN INDIA

Rainfall

❖ Rainfall is precipitation in the form of liquid drops larger than 0.5 mm in diameter falling on
the earth.
❖ Ordinary rain drop size varies from 0.5 to 4 mm in diameter.
❖ When rain has a drop size <0.5 mm: drizzle (NABARD- 2021)
❖ Annual Average rainfall is 1190 mm.
❖ Total rainfall generated volume in India is: 400 mha-m
❖ Rainy day- > 2.5 mm rains for 24 hours called rainy day
❖ Crop rainy day- > 5 mm rains for 24 hours called crop rainy day
❖ The rainfall below 2.5 mm is not considered for water budgeting, since it will immediately
evaporate from surface soil without any contribution to surface water or ground water.
❖ There are on an average 130 rainy days in a year in the country out of which the rain for 75
days considered as effective rain. The remaining 55 days are very light and shallow which
evaporates immediately without any contribution to surface or ground water recharge.
❖ Rainfall pattern in India:

Season/period M ha M Percent
Winter (Jan-Feb) 12 3
Pre-monsoon (Mar-May) 52 13
S-W monsoon (June-sept) 296 74
N-E monsoon (Oct-Dec) 40 10
Total for the year 400 100

❖ Seasons of rainfall can be classifieds follows:

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 Winter Cold dry period January – February

Summer Hot weather period March – May

Kharif South-West monsoon June – September

Rabi North-East monsoon October – December

❖ Rainfall and Climate region

Rainfall (mm) Name of the climatic region

Less than 500 Arid
500-700 Semi-arid
750-1000 Sub humid
More than 1000 Humid (IBPS AFO 2018)

❖ Classification of irrigation work or projects:

Project Capital Command Area

Major more than 50 million more than 10,000 hectares
Rupees
Medium 2.5 million to 50 2000 – 10,000 hectares
million Rupees
Minor less than 2.5 million 2,000 hectares
Rupees

IRRIGATION PROJECT

Dam / reservoir River State

Bhakra Nangal Sutlej Haryana, Punjab and Himachal

Pradesh

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 Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh

Damodar Valley Damondar West Bengal, Bihar

Hirakund Mahanadi Orissa

Nagarjuna sagar Krishna Andhra Pradesh

Sardar Sarovar Narmada Gujarat , Madhya Pradesh

Indira Sagar Narmada Madhya Pradesh

Maahi Maahi Gujarat

Kosi Kosi Bihar

WATER APPLICATION METHODS ARE GROUPED AS:

Applying it Spraying it
Applying in
Flooding beneath the under
drops
soil surface pressure

Irrigation Methods-
Irrigation Methods

Surface

Sub surface

Pressurized
irrigation

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 Surface Irrigation:
➢ Oldest (4000 years back) and most common method.
➢ In surface irrigation, water moves over and across the land by simple gravity flow in order to
wet and infiltrate the soil.
➢ Surface irrigation can be divided into furrow, border strip or basin irrigation.
➢ It is often called flood irrigation when it results in flooding or near flood of the cultivated
land.
➢ This method is most suitable for low to moderate infiltration rates and leveled lands and
having <2-3% slope
➢ Flood irrigation: Water is allowed from the channel into the field without much control on
either side of the flow.
➢ This method is practiced where irrigation water is abundant.
➢ Mostly adopted in wetland rice.
➢ Border Irrigation: The land is divided into number of long parallel strips called borders.
✓ These borders are separated by low ridges.
✓ The border strip has a uniform gentle slope in the direction of irrigation.
✓ Each strip is irrigated independently by turning the water in the upper end.
✓ The water spreads and flows down the strip in a sheet confined by the border ridges.
❖ Suitability:
➢ To soils having moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates.

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 ➢ It is not used in coarse sandy soils that have very high infiltration rates and also in heavy soils
having very low infiltration rate.
➢ Suitable to irrigate all close growing crops like wheat, barley, fodder crops and legumes and
not suitable for rice.
❖ Advantages:
(i) Border ridges can be constructed with simple farm implements like bullock drawn “A”
frame ridger or bund former.
(ii) Labour requirement in irrigation is reduced as compared to conventional check basin
method.
(iii) Uniform distribution of water and high-water application efficiencies are possible.
(iv) Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used.
(v) Adequate surface drainage is provided if outlets are available.
❖ Width & Length of Border:
❖ Width of border strip: It varies from 3-15 m
❖ Border Length:
Slope Soil Length
0.25 - 0.60% Sandy and sandy loam 60-120 m
0.20 - 0.40% Medium loam soil 100-180 m
0.05 – 0.20% Clay loam and clay soil 150-300 m

❖ Border strip method: In these methods the field is divided into number of strips which are
separated by ridges. It is suitable for close growing like check basin but not suitable in sandy
soil. Soil with a slope of 0.5-1% are suitable for this method.

Check basin:

Classification of Check Basin:

Rectangular
Contour
Ring

Check basin irrigation:

➢ It is the most common method.

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 ➢ Here the field is divided into smaller unit areas so that each has a nearly level surface.
➢ Bunds or ridges are constructed around the area forming basins within which the irrigation
water can be controlled.
➢ The water applied to a desired depth can be retained until it infiltrates into the soil.
➢ The size of the basin varies from 10 m2 to 25 m2 depending upon soil type , topography,
stream size and crop.
Adaptability:

➢ Small gentle and uniform land slopes.

➢ Soils having moderate to slow infiltration rates.
➢ Adapted to grain and fodder crops in heavy soils.
➢ Suitable to permeable soils.
➢ Suitable for the crops which have less plant-to-plant distance. Example: wheat, groundnut,
Pearl millet, Barley etc.
Advantages:

➢ Check basins are useful when leaching is required to remove salts from the soil profile.
➢ Rainfall can be conserved, and soil erosion is reduced by retaining large part of rain
➢ High water application and distribution efficiency.
➢ Field with slope up to 3% can be irrigated by using this method.
Limitations:

(i) The ridges interfere with the movement of implements.

(ii) More area occupied by ridges and field channels.
(iii) The method impedes surface drainage
(iv) Precise land grading and shaping are required
(v) Labour requirement is higher.
(vi) Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions around the stem
➢ Ring Basin methods: Basin around the tree is made. This method is used for horticultural
corps. It enhances the water use efficiency.

Furrow method:
➢ Furrow irrigation avoids flooding the entire field surface by channeling the flow along the
primary direction of the field using ‘furrows.
➢ Furrow irrigation is suitable to most type of soil except sands that have a very high infiltration
rate.
➢ Furrow is mostly suitable for root and tuber crops.

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 ➢ It is ideal for slopes varying from 0.2-0.5%.
➢ Used in the irrigation of row crops.
➢ The furrows are formed between crop rows.
➢ The dimension of furrows depends on the crop grown, equipment used and soil type.
➢ Water is applied by small running streams in furrows between the crop rows.
➢ Water infiltrates into soil and spreads laterally to wet the area between the furrows.
➢ In heavy soil furrows can be used to dispose the excess water.
Adaptability:

1. Wide spaced row crops including vegetables.

2. Suitable for maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes
3. Suitable to most soils except sand.

Advantages

1. Water in furrows contacts only one half to one fifth of the land surface.
2. Labour requirement for land preparation and irrigation is reduced.
3. Compared to check basins there is less wastage of land in field ditches.

Based on Irrigation Furrow irrigation is being divided into:

➢ All Furrow Irrigation

➢ Alternate Furrow Irrigation
➢ Skip Furrow Irrigation
➢ Surge Irrigation
❖ All Furrow Irrigation: Water is applied evenly in all the furrows and are called furrow system
or uniform furrow system
❖ Alternate Furrow Irrigation: It is not an irrigation layout but a technique for water saving.
Water is applied in alternate furrows. E.g. During first irrigation if the even numbers of furrows
are irrigated, during next irrigation, the odd number of furrows will be irrigated

Skip Furrow Irrigation:

➢ They are normally adopted during the period of water scarcity and to accommodate
intercrops. In the skip furrow irrigation, a set of furrows are completely skipped out from
irrigation permanently. The skipped furrow will be utilized for raising intercrop. The system
ensures water saving of 30-35 per cent. By this method, the available water is economically
used without much field reduction.
➢ Surge method of irrigation: Surge irrigation is the intermittent application of water to the
field surface. Due to this method or we can say ON OFF water supply (Intermittent irrigation)

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 minimized the percolation and runoff loses. This methods in not much famous in India. The
irrigation efficiency is in between 85-90%.
➢ Corrugation methods: Small and shallow furrows are known as corrugation, Suitable for
crops with less plant-to-plant distance.

2. SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION: In subsurface irrigation, water is applied beneath the ground

by creating and maintaining an artificial water table at some depth, usually 30-75 cm below the
ground surface.
➢ Moisture moves upwards towards the land surface through capillary action.
➢ Water is applied through underground field trenches laid 15-30 m apart.
➢ Open ditches are preferred because they are relatively cheaper and suitable to all types of
soil.
➢ The irrigation water should be of good quality to prevent soil salinity.
Advantages:

1. Minimum water requirement for raising crops

2. Minimum evaporation and deep percolation losses
3. No wastage of land
4. No interference to movement of farm machinery
5. Cultivation operations can be carried out without concern for the irrigation period.
Disadvantages:

1. Requires a special combination of natural conditions.

2. There is danger of water logging
3. Possibility of choking of the pipes lay underground.
4. High cost
3. Sprinkler Irrigation: The sprinkler (overhead or pressure) irrigation system conveys water to
the field through pipes (aluminum or PVC) under pressure with a system of nozzles.
➢ This system is designed to distribute the required depth of water uniformly, which is not
possible in surface irrigation.
➢ Water is applied at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil hence the runoff from
irrigation is avoided.
Parts of Sprinkler System:
➢ A pumping unit
➢ Debris removal equipment
➢ Pressure gauge / water-meter
➢ Pipelines (mains – sub-mains and laterals)
➢ Couplers

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 ➢ Raiser pipes
➢ Sprinklers
➢ Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs, etc.
Types of Sprinkler system:
➢ Rotating head (or) revolving sprinkler system.
➢ Perforated pipe system
Advantage of sprinkler system
➢ Saving of water from 25-30% for different crops.
➢ Water saving (35-40%) compared to surface irrigation methods.
➢ Reduces erosion.
➢ Saving in fertilizers - even distribution and avoids wastage.
➢ Suitable for coarse textured soils (sandy soils)
➢ Frost control - protect crops against frost and high temperature
➢ Drainage problems eliminated
➢ Discharge rate is more than 1000 lit/hr.
➢ Sprinkler pressure 2.5-4.5 kg/cm2.
➢ Water use efficiency can be as high 60% much higher to surface method.
➢ About 40-60% saving in labor compared with surface.
➢ Suitable for undulating topography (sloppy lands).
➢ Fertilizers and other chemicals can be applied through irrigation water.
Disadvantages:
➢ High initial cost
➢ Efficiency is affected by wind
➢ Higher evaporation losses in spraying water
➢ Not suitable for tall crops like sugarcane
➢ Not suitable for heavy clay soils
➢ Poor quality water cannot be used (Sensitivity of crop to saline water and clogging of
nozzles
Steps to be taken for reducing the salt deposits on leaves and fruits during sprinkler
irrigation:
➢ Irrigate at night
➢ Increase the speed of the sprinkler rotation
➢ Decrease the frequency of irrigation

DRIP IRRIGATION:
➢ This irrigation method is developed in Israel and well suited in acute water shortage. (RRB
SO 2018)

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 ➢ Drip or trickle irrigation is one of the latest methods of irrigation.
➢ It is suitable for water scarcity and salt affected soils.
➢ Water is applied in the root zone of the crop.
➢ Standard water quality test needed for design and operation of drip irrigation system.
➢ This method was first introduced in Israel.
➢ In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing
evaporation, and is also a means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation.

Components
➢ A drip irrigation system consists of a pump or overhead tank, main line, sub-mains,
laterals and emitters.
➢ The mainline delivers water to the sub-mains and the sub-mains into the laterals.
➢ The emitters which are attached to the laterals distribute water for irrigation.
➢ The mains, sub-mains and laterals are usually made of black PVC (poly vinyl chloride)
tubing.
➢ The emitters are also made of PVC material.
➢ The other components include regulator, filters, valves, water meter, fertilizer
application components, etc.
➢ The discharge rate of emitters usually ranges from 2 to 10 liters per hour at 2.5 kg/cm2
pressure.
Advantages:
➢ Water saving - losses due to deep percolation, surface runoff and transmission are
avoided. Evaporation losses occurring in sprinkler irrigation do not occur in drip irrigation.
➢ Uniform water distribution
➢ Application rates can be adjusted by using different size of drippers.
➢ Suitable for wide spaced row crops, particularly coconut and other horticultural tree
crops.
➢ Water saving 50-70% as compared to surface.
➢ Water use efficiency is 95 %
➢ Irrigation at variable topographic conditions.
➢ Fertilizer (fertigation) and herbicides (Herbigation) also possible to apply with drip.
➢ Soil erosion is reduced
➢ Better weed control
➢ Land saving
➢ Less labour cost
Disadvantages:
➢ High initial cost

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➢ Drippers are susceptible to blockage
➢ Interferes with farm operations and movement of implements and machineries
➢ Frequent maintenance
➢ Trees grown may develop shallow confined root zones resulting in poor anchorage

Typhoon system of drip irrigation:

➢ In sugarcane modified drip, in this method a particular water depth maintained at a particular
growth stage.

Slopes for Irrigation methods

Surface irrigation methods <2-3% slope

Border irrigation 0.05- 0.60 %
Border strip method 0.5-1%
Check basin up to 3%
Furrow method 0.2-0.5%.

Water Use Efficiency

Particulars Surface irrigation Sprinkler Drip irrigation
irrigation
Conveyance efficiency 50-70 % NA NA
Application efficiency 40-70 % 60-80 % 90 %
Surface water moisture 30-40 % 30-40 % 20-25 %
evaporation
Overall Efficiency 30-35 % 30-70 % 80-90 %

Field Application efficiency rate:

Surface method 60%

Sprinkler method 75%
Drip method 90-95%

CLASSIFICATION OF IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY:

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 Quality of waterEC(m. mhos pH
/ Na (%) Cl (me/l) SAR
cm)
Excellent 0.5 6.5 – 7.5 30 2.5 1.0
Good 0.5 – 1.5 7.5 – 8.0 30 – 60 0 2.5 – 5.0 1.0 – 2.0
Fair 1.5 – 3.0 8.0 – 8.5 60 – 75 5.0 – 7.5 2.0 – 4.0
Poor 3.0 – 5.0 8.5 – 9.0 75 – 90 7.5 – 10. 4.0 – 8.0
Very poor 5.0 – 6.0 9.0 – 10. 80 – 90 10.0 – 12.5 8.0 – 15.0
Unsuitable >6.0 > 10 >90 >12.5 >15

DRAINAGE
➢ Drainage is the artificial removal of water in excess of the quantity required for the crop
➢ It is the process of removal of excess water as free or gravitational water from the surface and
the sub surface of farmlands with a view to avoid water logging and creates favourable soil
conditions for optimum plant growth.

ROLE OF DRAINAGE
➢ Draining the land provides conditions favourable for crop production.
➢ The greatest benefit of drainage relates to aeration. Good drainage facilitates the ready
diffusion of oxygen to the root zone and escape of carbon dioxide from the root zone into the
atmosphere.
➢ The activity of aerobic organisms which influence the availability of nutrients such as nitrogen
and sulphur to plants depends on soil aeration and hence, drainage improves aerobic
organisms.
➢ Toxicity in acid soils due to excess iron and manganese is decreased by drainage (due to
presence of oxygen in the root zone).
➢ Drainage permits roots to grow deeper and spread wider thereby increasing the volume of soil
from which nutrients can be extracted
➢ The removal of excess water helps in drying of the soil quickly and optimum soil temperature
permits timeliness of field operations.

Drainage is required under following conditions:

(a) High water table

(b) Water ponding on the surface for longer periods
(c) Excessive soil moisture content above F.C, not draining easily as in clay soil
(d) Areas of salinity and alkalinity where annual evaporation exceeds rainfall and capillary rise
of ground water occurs

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 (e) Humid region with continuous of intermittent heavy rainfall
(f) Flat land with fine texture soil
(g) Low lying flat areas surrounded by hills.

Characteristics of good drainage system

➢ It should be permanent
➢ It must have adequate capacity to drain the area completely
➢ There should be minimum interference with cultural operated
➢ There should be minimum loss of cultivable area
➢ It should intercept or collect water and remove it quickly within shorter period.

Methods of drainage: There are two methods

1. Surface method
2. Sub surface method
1. Surface drainage: This is designed primarily to remove excess water from the surface of soil
profile. This can be done by developing slope in the land so that excess water drains by gravity.
❖ It is suitable for:
➢ Slowly permeable clay and shallow soil
➢ Regions of high intensity rainfall
➢ To fields where adequate out lets are not available
➢ The land with less than 1.5% slope
❖ It can be made by
a) Land smoothing
b) Making field ditches
❖ The surface drainage can be further classified as
a) Lift drainage
b) Gravity drainage
c) Field surface drainage
d) Ditch drainage
2. Sub surface drainage system: Sub surface drains are underground artificial channels through
which excess water may flow to a suitable outlet. The purpose is to lower the ground water level
below the root zone of the crop.
❖ The movement of water into sub surface drains is influenced by
1. The hydraulic conductivity of soil
2. Depth of drain below ground surface
3. The horizontal distance between individual drains
❖ Underground drainage is mostly needed to the

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 ➢ Medium textured soil
➢ High value crop
➢ High soil productivity
❖ There are four types of sub surface drainage

1. Tile drainage

2. Mole drainage: Mole drainage is not effective in the loose soil since the

channels produced by the mole will collapse. This is also not suitable for heavy plastic

soil where mole seals the soil to the movement of water

3. Vertical drainage

4. Well Drainage / or Drainage wells

❖ Advantage of sub surface

1. There is no loss of cultivable land
2. No interference for field operation
3. Maintenance cost is less
4. Effectively drains sub soil and creates better soil environments.
❖ Disadvantage
5. Initial cost is high
6. It requires constant attention
7. It is effective for soils having low permeability
❖ Important Points:
➢ Surface drainage is suitable with the land with less than 1.5% slope
➢ In drainage of flat areas where slope is less than 2% and in broad bed and furrow system
the slope is about 0.5%.
➢ Broad bed furrow method is widely practiced in groundnut (Clay Soil)
ROLE OF WATER IN PLANT GROWTH
❖ Kinds of soil water:
1. Hygroscopic water-Water held tightly to the surface of soil particles by adsorption forces.
2. Capillary water-Water held by forces of surface tension and continuous films around soil
particles and in the capillary spaces.
3. Gravitational water-Water that moves freely in response to gravity and drains out of the
soil.
❖ Adhesion is the attraction of solid surfaces for water molecules.

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 ❖ Cohesion is the attraction of water molecules for each other.
❖ The principal factors influencing the amount of capillary water in soils are the structure,
texture and organic matter. The finger the texture of the mineral soil particles, the greater is
likely its capillary capacity.
❖ Granular soil structure produces higher capillary capacity.
❖ Presence of organic matter increases the capillary capacity.

SOIL WATER MOVEMENT

➢ Hydraulic equilibrium of water in soil It is the condition for zero flow rate of liquid or film
water in the soil. This condition is satisfied when the pressure gradient force is just equal and
opposite to the gravity force
➢ Movement of water under saturated conditions

Sand > loam > clay

❖ Moisture movement under unsaturated conditions

➢ In the ‘moist range’, the range of unsaturated flow in soils of various textures is in the
following order: Sand < loam < clay
➢ However, in the ‘wet range’ the unsaturated conductivity occurs in the same or similar order
as saturated conductivity. Sand > loam > clay
➢ In the ‘dry range’ water movement exists, but there is so little water in the soil that the rate
of movement is very small.

SOIL MOISTURE MEASUREMENT

1. Oven drying method:
2. Volumetric method:
3. Tensiometer:
➢ Tensiometer is used to measure soil moisture (AFO 2021)
➢ One bar is equal to 100 centibars (cb).
➢ As the suction approaches approximately 0.8 bar (80 cb)
➢ Tensiometers are quite affordable for scheduling irrigation.
➢ The cost ranges from $25 to $50 each, depending on length of the barrel, which ranges from
6 to 72 inches
➢ Tensiometers are not recommended for clayey and silty soils
4. Gypsum block or Electrical resistance blocks:
5. Neutron moisture meter:
➢ This meter scans the soil about 15 cm diameters around the neutron probe in wet soil and
50 cm in dry soil.

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 6. Pressure membrane and pressure plate Apparatus:
➢ The required pressure of 0.33 or 15 bar is applied through a compressor.

CRITICAL STAGE OR PHONOLOGICAL STAGE APPROACH:

❖ The growth period of an annual crop can be divided into four growth stages,

Initial stage from sowing to 10% ground cover

Crop development stage 10 to 70% ground cover
Mid-season stage flowering to grain setting stage
Late season stage ripening and harvesting stage

❖ Critical stage approach:

Crop IW/CPE Ratio

Rice 1.2 (Highest)
Wheat 0.9
Maize 0.9
Cotton 0.7
Gram 0.6
Groundnut 0.6
Pigeon pea 0.6
Safflower 0.4 (Lowest)

❖ Climates are classified based on reference ET as follows:

1. 4 – 5 mm/day – Low
2. 6 – 7 mm/day – Medium
3. 8 – 9 mm/day – High
❖ Reference ET (mm/day) for different climatic zones:

Mean daily temp

Climatic zone 150C Low 15 – 250C Medium > 250C High
Desert/arid 4-6 7-8 9-10
Semiarid 4-5 6-7 8-9
Sub humid 3-4 5-6 7-8
Humid 1-2 3-4 5-6

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AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES
❖ An agro-climatic zone is a land unit uniform in respect of climate and length of growing
period (LGP) which is climatically suitable for a certain range of crops and cultivars (FAO,
1983).
❖ Planning Commission in 7th Plan (1985-1990) divided the country into 15 ACZs based on
physiography and climate.
❖ The State Agricultural Universities were advised to divide each state into sub-zones,
under the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) under ICAR. Based on the
rainfall pattern, cropping pattern and administrative units, 127 agro-climatic zones are
classified.
❖ Ecological regions:
➢ The whole country is divided into (15) 127 agro-climatic divisions & 20 agro-ecological
regions implying that there are several agro climatic zones in same ecological region, these
twenty agro-ecological zones were sub- divided into 60 sub-zones.
❖ Agro ecosystems of India:
Extent and special feature of agro ecosystems of India

Agro ecosystem Area (m ha) Special features

Arid 38.7 Severe water deficits
Rainfed 67 Occasional water deficits
Irrigated 52 No water deficits
Coastal 8129 km Sandy soils, high rainfall
prone to cyclones Steep
slopes and valleys

Agro-ecological regions are given by the National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use
Planning (NBSS & LUP).

1 Western Himalayan Region J&K, HP, UP, Uttaranchal

2 Eastern Himalayan Region Assam Sikkim, West Bengal & North-Eastern
states
3 Lower Gangetic Plains Region West Bengal
4 Middle Gangetic Plains Region UP, Bihar

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 5 Upper Gangetic Plains Region UP
6 Trans-Gangetic Plains Region Punjab, Haryana, Delhi & Rajasthan
7 Eastern Plateau and Hills Region Maharashtra, UP, Orissa & West Bengal
8 Central Plateau and Hills Region MP, Rajasthan, UP
9 Western Plateau and Hills Region Maharashtra, MP & Rajasthan
10 Southern Plateau and Hills Region AP, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
11 East Coast Plains and Hills Region Orissa, AP, TN,& Pondicherry
12 West Coast Plains and Ghat Region TN, Kerala, Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra
13 Gujarat Plains and Hills Region Gujarat
14 Western Dry Region Rajasthan
15 The Islands Region Andman & Nicaobar, Lakshya Deep

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AGROMETEOROLOGY

❖ Basic Terms:
➢ Absolute humidity: Absolute or actual quantity of water vapour by weight present in a given
volume of air is called absolute humidity.
➢ Adiabatic lapse rate: Rate of decrease in temperature of air with increase in height, as or
moved upward due to adiabatic cooling is termed adiabatic lapse rate.
➢ Agricultural drought: When available soil moisture is inadequate for healthy crop growth
and cause extreme stress and wilting, it is called agricultural drought.
➢ Albedo: The ratio of the amount of visible light reflected by a body to the amount incident
upon it is termed albedo. The albedo of crop is ranging between 23-30%.
➢ Ambient temperature: The temperature of the surrounding atmospheric air.
➢ Atmospheric pressure: Pressure exerted by a column of air with a cross sectional area of a
given unit extending from the earth surface to the upper boundary of the atmosphere is called
atmospheric pressure.
➢ Cloud seeding: Application of foreign material to clouds to induce precipitation is called
cloud seeding.
➢ Convection: Process of transfer of heat through air or liquid by means of currents is called
convection.
➢ Insolation: Amount of direct solar radiation incident per unit on a horizontal area at a given
level OR radiant energy that strikes the earth from the sun is called insolation.
➢ Isobars: Imaginary lines joining the places of equal atmospheric pressure on the weather map
is known as isobars.
➢ Lapse rate: Vertical temperature decreases, or gradient is called lapse or vertical temperature
gradient.
➢ Latent heat: The heat released or absorbed per unit mass by a system during change of phase
is called latent heat.
➢ Leeward direction of wind: The direction to which the wind blows is known as leeward
direction.
➢ Rain: Precipitation in the form of liquid water drops larger than 0.5 mm in diameter falling
on the earth is called rain.
➢ Rime: When fog droplets freeze on objects it is called rime.
➢ Sleet: Solid precipitation in the form of small particles of clear ice which are originally formed
as rain drops and later frozen as they fall through a layer of cold air is termed as sleet. (NET)
➢ Snow: Solid precipitation in the form of ice crystals or flakes is termed snow.
➢ Sensible heat flux: It is the flux of the sensible heat between the surface and air near the
surface.
➢ Weather: Physical state of the atmosphere at a given place and given time. Eg. Cloudy day

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 ➢ Climate: Long term regime of atmospheric variables of a given place or area. Eg. Cold season
➢ The climatic normal is generally worked out for a period of 30 years.

Particle size Particle size (InUseful energy

microns)

Vapor 00.001-0.01 Thermal energy

Smoke 0.01-1.0 Thermal energy

Fog or Aerosol 1.0-50 Thermal energy

Mist 51-100 Gaseous energy

Fine spray 101-200 -

Medium spraying 201-400 -

Coarse spray 400 -

❖ Moisture Index (Im):

Im Quantity Climate Classification

100 and above Per humid

20-100 Humid

0-20 Moist sub humid

-33.3 to 0 Dry sub humid

-66.7 to -33.3 Semi-Arid

-100 to -66.7 Arid

Arid regions Semi-arid zones

The arid zones will have MDI between – They have moisture index values between –
66.7 to –100. 33.3 to –66.7.

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 Precipitation is less than potential Crop production is possibly by adopting
evaporation for the greater part of the year. moisture conservation practices.
Arable crop production is not possible
without irrigation.

Growing period is between 1 to 74 days. Growing period is between 75 to 119 days.

❖ Arid and Semi arid regions of India

➢ Total area under arid and semiarid regions in India extends over 135.8 million hectares
Area (m ha) States

Arid Tropics 31.7 Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Parts of

Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh

Arid Temperate 7.0 Jammu and Kashmir

Semiarid Tropics 95.7 Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra, Rajasthan,

Tamilnadu, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh

Semiarid Temperate 1.4 Jammu and Kashmir

➢ Another classification by Troll (1965) based on number of humid months, said to be of more
➢ Agricultural use was modified by ICRISAT for India.
➢ Humid month is one having mean rainfall Exceeding the mean Potential evapotranspiration.
Climate Number of humid months % geographical area of
India
Arid <2 17
Semi-arid- dry 2-4.5 57.17
Semi-arid-wet 4.5-7 12.31
Humid >7 1.10

❖ Heat Units:
➢ It is a measure of relative warmth of growing season of a given length.
➢ The minimum threshold temperature is the temperature below which no growth takes place.

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 ➢ Usually ranges from 4.5 to 12.5 ºC for different crops (Most commonly used value is 6.0ºC)
❖ Temperature: Most of the higher plants grow between 0°C – 60°C and crop plants are
further restricted from 10 – 40°C, however, maximum dry matter is produced between
20 and 30°C
❖ Storm: Low pressure center surrounded by winds having their velocities in the range of
40 to 120 km/hour.
❖ Hurricane: A severe tropical cyclone with wind speed exceeding 120 km per hour.

ATMOSPHERE
❖ Structure of Atmosphere:
➢ Troposphere:
✓ Troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere extending up to a height of 8 to 18 km from
the earth depending on latitude.
✓ It is thicker at the equator than at poles.
✓ Troposphere is the densest part of the atmosphere and contains 85% of the atmosphere's mass.
✓ All weather phenomena like louds, fog, dew, mist, rain etc. Occur in this layer.
✓ Tropopause is a thin of transition that separates the troposphere from the above lying
stratosphere.
➢ Stratosphere:
✓ Stratosphere is a layer of atmosphere which lies above the tropopause.
✓ It lies beyond the height of 8 to 18 km extending up to 50 km depending on latitude.
✓ It is dust free, cloudless and warmest layer.
✓ It is the seat of most of the photochemical reactions in air.
✓ Less convection takes place in the stratosphere because it is warm at the top and cold at the
bottom.
✓ There is a maximum concentration of ozone between 30 and 50 km above the surface of the
earth and this layer is known as ozonosphere.
✓ A property of ozone is that it absorbs ultraviolet rays. Had there been no layer of ozone in the
atmosphere, the ultraviolet rays would have reached the surface of the earth and no life on it.
➢ Mesosphere:
✓ Mesosphere lies above the stratosphere.
✓ The stratosphere and mesosphere are separated by a narrow transitional layer called
stratopause.
➢ Thermosphere:
✓ Thermosphere is separated by mesopause from the mesosphere. It is the outermost layer,

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 extending from the top of the mesosphere.
✓ The lower layer of thermosphere is called ionosphere. Long distance radio communication is
made possible through this ionized layer.
✓ The temperature of the ozonosphere is high (warm) due to selective absorption of ultraviolet
radiation by ozone.
✓ The ionosphere reflects radio waves because of one or multiple reflections of short-wave radio
beams from the ionized shells. So, long distance radio communication is possible due to this
layer.

WEATHER ELEMENTS:
❖ Solar Radiation:
➢ This is the process of transmission of energy from one body to another without the aid of a
material medium (solid, liquid, or gas).
➢ Solar constant: (1.94 cal/cm2/min)
➢ Solar constant is defined as the energy falling in one minute on a surface area of one square
centimeter at the outer boundary of the atmosphere, help normal to the sunlight, at the mean
distance of the earth from the sun.
1. Radiation
➢ This is the process of transmission of energy from one body to another without the aid of a
material medium (solid, liquid, or gas).
➢ Example: The energy transmission through space from the sun to the earth.
2. Conduction
➢ This is the process of heat transfer through matter without the actual movement of molecules
of the substances or matter. Heat flows from the warmer to cooler part of the body so that
the temperature between them is equalized.
➢ Example: The energy transmission through an iron rod which is made warmer at one end.
3. Convection
➢ This is the process of transmission of heat through actual movement of molecules of the
medium.
➢ This is the predominant form of transmission of energy on the earth as all the weather-related
processes involve this process.
➢ Example: Boiling of water in a beaker
4. Net radiation:
➢ The difference between the incoming radiation from the sun and the outgoing radiation from
the earth is known as net radiation.
❖ Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)
➢ Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR - 0.4 – 0.7µ) is essential for production of

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 carbohydrates and ultimately biomass.

PAR value (µ) Color

0.4 to 0.5 Blue – violet
0.5 to 0.6 Green –yellow
0.6 to 0.7 Orange – red

❖ Spectrum of radiation:

Band Spectrum Wavelength(µ) Importance

Ultra Cosmic Rays <0.005 Shorter wavelength of
Gamma Rays & X-Rays0.005-0.20 spectrum &
Ultraviolet rays 0.20-0.39 Chemically active,
unless filtered there is
danger of life on earth.
Visible Violet 0.39-0.42 Visible spectrum
Blue 0.42-.049 known as Light
Green 0.49-0.54 essential for all plant
Yellow 0.54-0.59 processes.
Orange 0.59-0.65
Red 0.65-0.76
Infra-red Infra-red rays >0.76 Essential for thermal
energy of the plant
(Source of heat)

➢ The principal wavelength absorbed and used in photosynthesis are in the violet –blue and the
orange - red regions.
➢ Among this, short rays beyond violet such as X rays, gamma rays and larger rays beyond red
such as infrared, are detrimental to plant growth.
➢ Red light is the most favourable light for growth followed by violet – blue.
➢ Ultra – violet and shorter wave lengths kill bacteria and many fungi.
5. Absorptivity:
➢ For an object this is the ratio of the electromagnetic radiant power absorbed to the total
amount incident upon the same object.
➢ Like emissivity the values are less than one for other than a black body and one for a black
body

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 6. Reflectivity:
➢ The ratio of the monochromatic beam of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a body to
that incident upon it. The units of expression are by %.
7. Transmissivity:
➢ This is the ratio of transmitted to the incident radiation on a surface preferably a crop canopy.
8. Albedo:
➢ Solar radiation that is reflected without any change in its quality is known as albedo.
➢ It is defined as the ratio between reflected radiation to the incident radiation on a crop field,
snow, leaves etc.
➢ For white bodies the albedo values are high. For fresh snow cover the albedo values range
between 75 and 95
❖ Lapse rate: The rate of decrease of temperature with increase in height at a given place and time
is called Lapse rate.
The normal lapse rate is 6- 6.5 degree C per km (3.5 degree C/1000 ft.) increase in height.

❖ Adiabatic Lapse Rate:

➢ The rate at which the temperature changes as air rises or falls is called adiabatic lapse rate.
➢ This rate is constant for dry air. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is 10o C per km.
❖ Humidity: The amount of water vapor in the air is called humidity. When air contain water
vapor as its potential, the air is to be known as saturated air.
➢ It is three types-
1. Absolute Humidity: (JRF)
➢ It is defined as the weight of water vapors in a given volume of air.
➢ It is expressed as grams of water vapors per cubic meter of air (g m-3)
➢ Absolute humidity is rarely used because it varies with the expansion and contraction of air.
2. Specific Humidity: (JRF)
➢ It is the ratio of mass of water vapors actually present in the air to a unit mass of air including
the water vapour (dry air + moisture).
➢ It is expressed as grams of water vapour per kg of moist air mass.
➢ The amount of water vapour that air can hold depends upon temperature.
➢ Unit - g/kg
3. Relative Humidity: The ratio between the amount of water vapor present in the air and
amount of water vapor required for saturation at a particular temperature and pressure
expressed in %. Important for agricultural crop production (40-60 % is ideal) (IBPS AFO
2018)
CLOUD CLASSIFICATION:

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 ❖ World Meteorological Organization and published in the International Cloud Atlas
(1956).

Genera The main characteristic forms of clouds

Species the peculiarities in shape and differences in internal

structure of clouds

Varieties special characteristics of arrangement and

transparency of clouds

Supplementary features and appended and associated minor cloud forms

accessory clouds

Mother-clouds the origin of clouds if formed from other clouds.

❖ The 4 clouds families, which are in different heights of the troposphere are

High level clouds altitudes of 5-13 km

Medium level clouds 2-7 km
Low level clouds 0-2 km
Clouds with large vertical extending 0-13 km

❖ Artificial rain making/Cloud seeding:

➢ Application of foreign material to clouds to induce precipitation is called cloud seeding.

❖ Cold seeding:

➢ Silver iodide (AgI) or dry ice is applied at one nucleus for a liter of air.
➢ In dynamic cloud seeding, massive quantities of l or 1000 nuclei for a liter of cloud air are
applied.
❖ Warm clouds:

➢ Generally used Sodium chloride (NaCl).

PRECIPITATION:
➢ Hail: Precipitation of small pieces of ice with diameter ranging from 5 to 50 mm or something
more is known as hail. In India, the period from March to May

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WEATHER ABERRATIONS
➢ DROUGHT: A situation of no precipitation in a rainy season for more than 15 days
continuously. Such length of non-rainy days can also be called as dry spells.
➢ Deficiency of available soil moisture which produces water deficits in the plant sufficient to
cause a reduction in plant growth.
➢ “Drought is a period of inadequate or no rainfall over extended time creating soil moisture
deficit and hydrological imbalances.”

Classification of Drought
A. Based on water availability:
1. Meteorological drought: Indian Metrological Department (IMD) has defined
meteorological drought as the situation when actual rainfall is less than 75% of the normal
rainfall over an area. This is accepted principally because of its simplicity.
The IMD uses two measures to define drought conditions.
(i) Rainfall conditions
(ii) Drought severity
❖ Rainfall conditions:

Excess 20% more than average of 70-100 yrs.

Deficient 20% less than average of 70-100 yrs.

Deficient 20 to 59% less than average of 70-100 yrs.

Scanty 60% less than average of 70-100 yrs.

❖ Drought severity: The IMD classifies droughts as follows from rainfall departures.

Slight drought When rainfall departure is 11 to 25% from normal rainfall.

Moderate drought When rainfall departure is 26 to 50% from normal rainfall.

Severe drought When rainfall departure is 50% and more from normal rainfall.
Drought years the year is considered drought when less than
75% of the normal rainfall is received.

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 2. Hydrological drought: Hydrological drought is considered as “a period during which stream
flows are inadequate to supply established used under given water management system”. The
frequency and severity of hydrological droughts often defined based on water depletion or
shortage in reserve basins, reservoirs, lakes, wells etc. This drought affects industry and power
generation.
3. Agricultural drought: This is a situation resulted from inadequate rainfall when soil moisture
falls short to meet the water demands of the crop during the growing period. This affects the
crop growth or crop may wilt due to moisture stress resulting in yield reduction.
4. Socio-Economic drought: The Socio-economic effects of drought can also incorporate
features of meteorological hydrological and Agricultural droughts. They are usually associated
with the supply and demand of some economic goods. This drought should be linked not only
to precipitation but also trends of fluctuations in demand.
B. Based on time of occurrence:
1. Permanent drought : this is the drought area of permanent dry arid or desert regions. Crop
production due to inadequate rainfall is not possible without irrigation in these areas. Vegetation
like cactus thorny shrubs, xerophytes etc are generally observed.
2. Seasonal drought: In the regions with clearly defined rainy (wet) and dry climates seasonal
droughts may result due to large scale seasonal circulation. This happens in monsoon area.
3. Contingent drought: These results due to irregular and variability in rainfall especially in
humid and sub humid regions. The occurrence of drought may coincide with critical crop
growth resulting in severe yield reduction.
4. Invisible drought: This can occur even when there is frequent rain in an area. When rainfall is
inadequate to meet the evapo-transpiration losses, the result is borderline water deficiency in
soil resulting in less than optimum yield. This occurs usually in humid regions.

C. Based on medium
1. Soil drought: it is the condition when soil moisture depletes and falls short to meet the potential
Evapotranspiration (PET) of Crop.
2. Atmospheric drought: This results from low humidity dry and hot winds and causes
desiccation of plants. This may happen even when rainfall and moisture supply is adequate.
❖ Based on relevance to the users (National Commission on Agriculture, 1976)
➢ Meteorological drought:
✓ If annual rainfall is significantly short of certain level (75 per cent) of the climatologically
expected normal rainfall over a wide area.
✓ It is defined as a condition, where the annual precipitation is less than the normal over an
area for prolonged period (month, season or year).
➢ Atmospheric drought:

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 ✓ It is due to low air humidity, frequently accompanied by hot dry winds.
✓ It may occur even under conditions of adequate available soil moisture.
✓ It refers to a condition when plants show wilting symptoms during the hot part of the day
when transpiration exceeds absorption temporarily for a short period.
➢ Hydrological drought:
✓ Meteorological drought, when prolonged results in hydrological drought with depletion of
surface water and consequent drying of reservoirs, tanks etc.
✓ It results in deficiency of water for all sectors using water.
✓ This is based on water balance and how it affects irrigation as a whole for bringing crops to
maturity.
➢ Agricultural drought (soil drought):
✓ It is the result of soil moisture stress due to imbalance between available soil moisture and
evapotranspiration of a crop.
✓ It is usually gradual and progressive
❖ Based on time of occurrence
➢ Early season drought:
✓ It occurs due to delay in onset of monsoon or due to long dry spells after early sowing
➢ Mid-season drought:
✓ Occurs due to long gaps between two successive rains and stored moisture becoming
insufficient during the long dry spell.
➢ Late season drought:
✓ Occurs due to early cessation of rainfall and crop water stress at maturity stage.
❖ Other terms to describe drought
➢ Relative drought:
✓ The drought for one crop may not be a drought situation for another crop.
✓ This is due to mismatch between soil moisture condition and crop selection.
➢ Physiological drought:
✓ Refers to a condition where crops are unable to absorb water from soil even when water is
available, due to the high osmotic pressure of soil solution due to increased soil
concentration, as in saline and alkaline soils.
✓ It is not due to deficit of water supply.
Crop Adaptation for Dry Growing conditions
❖ Escaping Drought
➢ Ephemerals Drought
➢ Early Maturing Variety
❖ Drought Resistance:
➢ Avoiding stress: (Conserving water, Water Savers)

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 ➢
Early closure of stomata
➢
Increased photosynthetic efficiency
➢
Low rates of cuticular transpiration
➢
Lipid deposits on leaves, e.g., Soybean: sorghum
➢
Reduced leaf Area
➢
Morphology of leaf surface (Thick cuticle: Waxy surface; Spines etc)
➢
Effects of Awn: Awned varieties yield more in dryland. Awns contribute 12% of
photosynthates to grain
➢ Water storage in plants: The pineapple leaves contain substantial amounts of water in
special nonchlorophyllous tissue which is utilized during drought.
❖ Improving water uptake (Water spenders)
➢ Efficiency root system
➢ High root/top ratio
➢ Increased plant
MONSOON
➢ The word monsoon comes from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ meaning season.
➢ It is the seasonal reversal of wind direction over the earth surface due to the differential heating
of land, oceans & earth rotation.
➢ India is situated in the north-east trade wind zone and these trade winds continue throughout
the year.
South-West monsoon:
➢ Also known as summer monsoon occurs from June to September.
➢ S. W. monsoon reach south India (in Kerala) around 1st June of every year
➢ It moves at average speed 30 km/hour.
➢ It comprises the month June, July, August and September which contributes about 75% of
rainfall to India except for extreme North of Jammu and Kashmir and extremes South of
Tamil Nadu.
➢ It's called as 'Grand period' of rainfall in India.
➢ These winds are divided in two parts.
Arabian Sea branch & Bay of Bengal branch
➢ Arabian Sea branch first causes rainfall in the Western Ghats of the coastal area of Kerala.
Therefore, Kerala is he first state of India to receive rainfall from S-W monsoon. Then it moves
northwards (Delhi).
➢ Bay of Bengal Branch flows over the Bay of Bengal towards northeast Indian and Bengal and
rainfall occur in Eastern Himalayas after that wind turns towards the west over Indo- Gangetic
Plains.

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 Northeast monsoon
➢ Also known winter monsoon or retreating monsoon.
➢ Northeast Monsoon (NEM) contributed rainfall to Southeastern part of peninsular India Tamil
Nadu, J&K, south part of AP, Telangana receives its 60% of rainfall from NEM (Northeast
Monsoon).
➢ North -east monsoon is limited mostly to southern states (AP & TN).
➢ It comprises the months of October, November, and December.
➢ River who utilizes maximum flow: Ganga
➢ This season is also called as Rabi season monsoon.

❖ Western Depression: It contributes only 3-4 %

CLIMATOLOGY:
❖ Influence of Climate on Crops
➢ Climate is the most important dominating factor influencing the suitability of a crop to a
particular region.
➢ The yield potential of the crop mainly depends on climate.
➢ More than 50 per cent of variation of crops is determined by climate.
➢ The most important climatic factors that influence growth, development and yield of crops
are solar radiation, temperature and rainfall.
❖ Growing Period: Length of growing period is defined as a period in which the available soil
moisture is enough to meet the evapotranspiration requirement of dry land crops and hence
the dry land productivity is assured.

Length of growing period Crop Status

< 5 weeks Crop failures will occur
Minimum of 14 weeks Permit the dry land crop to attain its
(98 days) potential productivity
14 weeks A single dry land crop can be cultivated
14 to 20 weeks Suitable inter cropping system can be
cultivated
> 20 weeks Long duration crop / double crop can be
cultivated

Different Seasons

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 Spring January to March - Fresh leaves form in trees.
Summer April to June . Flowering and fruiting take place
Autumn July-September
Winter October-December.

➢ Precipitation: Precipitation includes all forms of water that reach the earth from the
atmosphere.
Precipitation has forms such as rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost, and dew. The first two of these
contribute significant amounts of water.
Types of Precipitation:

Cyclonic
precipitation

Orographic
precipitation

Convective
precipitation

❖ Cyclonic precipitation: It is caused by the lifting of air mass due to pressure difference. A
cyclone is a large low-pressure region with circular wind motion. There are two types of
cyclones – viz. tropical cyclones and extra tropical cyclones. Extra tropical cyclones are
formed in locations outside the tropical zone. These are associated with a frontal system.
❖ Convective Precipitation: It is caused due to upward movement of air that is warmer than
the Surrounding air due to localized heating. This generally occurs in the tropics on hot days
resulting in vertical air currents of large velocity.
❖ Orographic Precipitation: It is responsible for most of the heavy rains in large parts of
India. It is caused by moist air masses that strike natural topographic barriers like mountains,
causing them rise upwards, causing cooling, condensation and precipitation. The leeward side
receives very little precipitation whereas the windward side receives good rain.
➢ Raindrops generally have a diameter greater than 0.2 mm. They range in size up to about
3 mm (about 0.13 in) in diameter, and their rate of fall increases, up to 7.6 m (25 ft) per sec
with their size.
❖ Sea breeze – Movement of wind from sea to land that occurs during daytime.
❖ Land breeze – Movement of air from land to sea that occurs during night-time.
WEATHER FORECASTING

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 Forecasting Validity Main Users Uses
Short range (SRWF) 1-3 days (up to 72 Farmers marine Forecasting of
hours) Agencies, general cyclone, dust
public storms, snow etc. it
is issued twice a
day.
Medium range3-10 days Farmers Forecasting of
(MRWF) rainfall, maximum
& minimum
temperature, used in
agriculture
Long range (LRWF)) >10 days (A month Planners
or a season)

❖ Forecasting information:
➢ Terminology used for different amount of cloudiness is:
Sunny conditions when the sky is almost clear with 90 to
100 percent sunshine

Partly cloudy or scattered cloudiness 50 to 90 percent sunshine

Cloudiness 20 to 50 % sunshine

Mostly cloudy 20% or less of sunshine.

❖ Method of forecasting:
Synoptic Method This method is useful for short range
forecasts.

Statistical methods These techniques are useful for short as

well as for long range forecasting

Numerical Weather Predication Method These techniques are found suitable for
medium range forecasts.

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 DRYLAND AGRICULTURE
❖ Dryland Agriculture refers to growing of crops entirely under rainfed conditions or
entirely under natural rainfall without irrigation.
❖ Based on the amount of rainfall received, dryland agriculture can be grouped into three
categories:
1. Dry Farming:
➢ Cultivation of crops in areas where rainfall is less than 750 mm per annum. (NABARD
2021)
➢ Crop failure is most common due to prolonged dry spells during the crop period.
➢ These are arid regions with a growing season (period of adequate soil moisture) less than 75
days.
➢ Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop production.

2. Dryland Farming:
➢ Cultivation of crops in areas receiving rainfall above 750 mm
➢ These are semi-arid tracts with a growing period between 75 and 120 days.
➢ Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop production.
➢ Adequate drainage is required especially for vertisols or black soils.

3. Rainfed Farming:
➢ Cultivation of crops in regions receiving more than 1,150 mm.
➢ Crops are not subjected to soil moisture stress during the crop period.
➢ Emphasis is often on disposal of excess water.
➢ These are humid regions with growing period more than 120 days.

❖ Note: If rainfall is < 750 mm monocropping will be followed but if it is more than 750 mm
then we can practice intercropping.

Particulars Dryland farming Rainfed farming

Rainfall (mm) <800mm >800

Moisture availability to Shortage Enough

the crop

Growing season (days) <200 >200

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 Growing regions Arid and semiarid as well as Humid and sub humid
uplands of sub-humid and regions
humid regions

Cropping system Single crop or intercropping Intercropping or double

cropping

Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion

❖ Techniques to reduce evaporation and transpiration loss:

1. Mulches
2. Anti transpirants: Any material that is applied on transpiring plant surface for reducing water
loss is called Antitranspirants. The best anti transpirants reduce transpiration losses up to 30-
40%.
➢ Stomata closing:
✓ Transpiration mostly occurs through stomata on the leaf surface.
✓ Some fungicides like PMA (phenyl mercuric acetate) and herbicides like atrazine in low
concentrations serve as anti transpirants by closing of stomata.
✓ PMA is known to inhibit mesophyll photosynthesis.
✓ Examples: PMA, Atrazine and Co2
➢ Film forming Antitranspirants:
✓ The plastic and waxy materials, which form a thin film on the leaf surface, retard the escape
of water due to formation of physical barrier.
✓ The success of these chemicals is limited since they also reduce photosynthesis.
✓ The desirable characteristics of film forming type of Antitranspirants are they should form a
thin layer; they should be more resistant to the passage of water vapour than carbon dioxide
and the film should maintain continuity and should not break.
✓ This film forming anti transpirants may be of either thin film or thick film.
✓ Thin film forming type: Hexadecanol
✓ Thick film forming type: Mobi leaf, Polythene S-60
✓ Other examples: silicon, oils and waxes
➢ Leaf Reflecting type:
✓ These are the white materials, which form a coating on the leaves and increase leaf reflectance
(albedo).
✓ By reflecting the radiation, they reduce leaf temperatures and vapour pressure gradient from
leaf to atmosphere and hence reduces transpiration.

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 ✓ About 5% of kaolin spray reduces the leaf temperature by 3-4°C and decrease in transpiration
by 22 to 28 per cent.
✓ Celite and hydrated lime are also used as reflectant type of anti transpirants.
➢ Growth retardant type:
✓ These chemicals reduce shoot growth and increase root growth and thus enable the plants to
reduce transpiring surface and resist drought conditions.
✓ They increase root/shoot ratio.
✓ Eg : Cycocel – (2-chloroethyl) Trimethyl ammonium chloride (CCC), Phosphon–D, Maleic
Hydrazide (MH)
3. Wind breaks
4. Weed control
5. Zero Tillage

PLASTIC MULCHING FOR CROP PRODUCTION

❖ Mulching is the process or practice of covering the soil/ground to make more favourable
conditions for plant growth, development and efficient crop production. Mulch technical term
means ‘covering of soil’
❖ Types of mulch film:
➢ A wide range of plastic films based on different types of polymers have all been evaluated
for mulching at various periods in the 1960s.
➢ LDPE, HDPE and flexible PVC
➢ Today the vast majority of plastic mulch is based on LLDPE because it is more economic in
use.
❖ Basic properties of mulch film:
➢ The early mulch film used were of 60–75-micron (240-300 gauge) thickness, and today it is
possible to have 15-micron thick film due to advent of film extrusion technology.
➢ Normally a one to one and half meter width film can be easily adopted to different conditions.
❖ Mulch colour: The colour of the mulch affects
1. Soil temperature
2. Temperature of air around the plants
3. Soil salinity
a) Due to lesser quantity of water used
b) Due to reduction in evaporation and prevention of upward movement of water.
c) Transparent film - Deposits more salt on soil surface
d) Black film - Restricts water movement and upward movement of salt is reduced.
1) Weed flora - Black film
2) Insect control - Opaque while film acts as golden colour and attracts insects.

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❖ Selection of mulch:
➢ The selection of mulches depends upon the ecological situations and primary and Secondary
aspects of mulching.

Rainy season Perforated mulch

Orchard and plantation Thicker mulch

Soil solarization Thin transparent film

Weed control through solarization Transparent film

Weed control in cropped land Black film

Sandy soil Black film

Saline water use Black film

Summer cropped land White film

Insect repellent Silver colour film

Early germination Thinner film

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 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
➢ Watershed management is a term used to describe the process of implementing land use
practices and water management practices to protect and improve the quality of the water
and other natural resources within a watershed by managing the use of those land and water
resources in a comprehensive manner.
❖ Water harvesting
➢ Water harvesting (WH) is a technique of collection and storage of rainwater into natural
reservoirs or tanks, or the infiltration of surface water into subsurface aquifers (before it is
lost as surface runoff).
❖ Dryland Agriculture:
➢ All India Co-ordinated research project for Dryland Agriculture was launched by ICAR in
1970 in collaboration with Government of Canada and later Central Research Institute for
Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) was established at Hyderabad.

WATER SENSITIVE CROP

➢ The crops which are grown for their fresh leaves or fruits are more sensitive to water shortage
than the crops which are grown for their dry seeds or fruits. Based on their sensitivity the
crops can be indexed as below.
Low Low to Medium Medium to high High
Cassava Alfalfa Beans Banana
Millets Cotton Citrus Cabbage (IBPS
AFO 2019)
Red gram Maize Soybean Fresh Green
Groundnut Wheat (IBPS AFO Vegetables
2019)
Rice
Sugarcane
Tomato

FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION

❖ Temperature requirement of different crops
❖ Nearly 50% of yield is attributed to the influence of climatic factors.

110 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Precipitation includes all water which falls from atmosphere such as rainfall, snow, hail,
fog and dew.
❖ The range of temperature for maximum growth of most of the agricultural plants is
between 15 and 40ºC.
❖ The temperature of a place is largely determined by its distance from the equator (latitude)
and altitude. If relative humidity is 100% it means that the entire space is filled with water
and there is no soil evaporation and plant transpiration.
❖ Relative humidity influences the water requirement of crops.
❖ Relative humidity of 40-60% is suitable for most of the crop plants. (AFO-2018)
❖ Wind movement for 4 – 6 km/hour is suitable for more crops.
❖ When wind speed is enormous then there is mechanical damage of the crops (i.e.) it
removes leaves and twigs and damages crops like banana, sugarcane.
❖ Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by microbes in the soil and is available to crop plants
through symbiotic (Rhizobium) or non-symbiotic (Azospirillum) association.
❖ Soils with low pH is injurious to plants due high toxicity of Fe and Al.
❖ Edaphic factors affecting soil. Plants grown in land completely depend on soil on which
they grow. The soil factors that affect crop growth are:
1. Soil moisture
2. Soil air
3. Soil temperature
4. Soil mineral matter
5. Soil organic matter
6. Soil organisms
7. Soil reactions

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 111

 IMPORTANT SUMMARIZED DATA

First in India
First hybrid variety in India Pusa meghdoot (Bottle gourd)

First hybrid variety of maize Ganges-1 & Ganga-101 (1961)

First Single Hybridization of Paras

Maize(single cross) variety

First hybrid variety of sorghum (1964) CSH-1

First hybrid variety of millet (1965) HB-1

First hybrid variety of cotton (1970) H-4 & Varalakshmi

First hybrid variety of safflower DSH-1

First hybrid variety of mustard NRCHB-506

First Tomato Hybrid Variety Karnataka hybrid-1

First hybrid variety of tobacco GTH-1

First hybrid variety of Bt cotton - Bollguard (cry 1AC gene)

First semi-dwarf variety of Basmati Pusa Basmati1

rice-

Which variety came first in India IR-8

(introduced) - (1966)

First dwarf variety of rice developed in Jaya

India(1969)

First super rice variety for saline and Lunishree

alkaline soils

First virus disease TMV (Tobacco Mosaic Virus)

First plant parasitic bacteria Fire blight of apple

112 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Zero tillage was invented in which America
country?

First Herbicide - 2, 4-D

The first commercial fertilizer is Single super phosphate (SSP)

The first man-made cereal- Triticale (wheat X Rye) (1890)

World's first transgenic crop Bt Cotton

The first hybrid variety of commercially Mallika

grown mango is-

In which year conducted first 1970

agricultural census in India -

World food Prize First winner '- Dr. M.S. Swaminathan

First Director General of ICAR- Dr. B.P. Pal

First hybrid varieties of crops

S.No. Crop name Variety Name

1. Maize Ganges-1, 1961
2. Sorghum CSH-1 (1964)
3. Pearl Millet HB-1 (1965), Atwal
4. Cotton H-4, (1970), CT Patel
5. Rice CORH-1, 1994
6. Tobacco GTH-1
7. Sunflower BSH-1, 1980
8. Pigeon pea ICPH-8, 1991
9. Sugarcane CO-205, 1926
10. Castor Aruna

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 113

 11. Basmati rice PRH-10
12. Mango Amrapali, Mallika, RN singh
13. Mustard NRCHB-506
14. Safflower DSH-129

MUTANT VARIETIES OF CROPS:

Crop Mutant Varieties

Rice Jagannath, Prabhavati
Chickpea BGM-48, BGM-413
Pea Hans
Arhar Trombay, Vishakha-1
Wheat Sarbati sanora
Cotton MCU-7, MCU-10
Tobacco Jayshri, Bhavya
Moong Dhulli, Pant mung 2, MUM 2
Urd CO-1, Sarla
Mango Rosica
Turmeric BSR-1

MOISTURE CONTENT IN CROP SEEDS:

Crops At harvesting (%) At storage (%)

Rice 23 14
Wheat 25-30 12
Soybean 16-17 13-14
Groundnut 30-40 <8
Sorghum 21-24 12
Maize 20-25 12
Barley 18-20 12
Pearl millet 20 10-12
Pulse - 10-12
Oilseeds 18-20 <8

114 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

MOISTURE CONTENT OF GRAINS FOR SAFE STORAGE

Crops Moisture Content (%)

Paddy, raw rice 14
Parboiled rice 15
Wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, finger 12
millet and pulses

Groundnut pods, rape and mustard 6

TEMPERATURE REGIMES

Particular Cool season crop (0c) Warm season crop(0c)

Minimum 0-5 15-20

Optimum 25-30 30-38

Maximum 30-38 45-50

Optimum temperature regimes for different stages of crop (oc)

Crop stage Optimum temp. (0c)
Rice
Blooming 26.5-29.5
Panicle initiation 20-22
Ripening 20-25
Average growth Period 21-37
Wheat
Germination 20-25
Tillering/vegetative 16-20
Accelerated growth 20-23
Proper grain filling 23-25 for 4-5 weeks
Sugarcane
Germination 21

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 115

 Tillering/formative 26.6
Vegetative 29.4
Ripening 18.8
Pigeon pea
Germination 30-35
Vegetative growth 20-25
Flowering & pod setting 15-18
Maturity 35-40
Potato
Germination 25
Vegetative growth 20
Tuber growth 17-19
Highest tuberization 20 (day)
14 (Night)
Tuber development stop 29
Other cereals
Maize germination 21
Maize entire growth 32
Sorghum germination 18-21
Sorghum growth 26-30
Pearl millet growth 27-30
Other crop
Chickpea entire growth period 15-25
Growth of pea 13-18
Growth of green gram 25-32
Entire growth period of jute 18-30
Growth of groundnut 21-26.5
Soybean germination 22
Growth of soybean 26-29
Sunflower growth 20-25
Cotton germination >16
Cotton vegetative growth 21-27
Tobacco germination 27-32

According to TNAU

116 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Crops Minimum Optimum Maximum
Temperature (o C) Temperature (o C) Temperature (o C)
Rice 10 32 36-38
Wheat 4.5 20 30-32
Maize 8-10 20 40-43
Sorghum 12-13 25 40
Tobacco 12-14 29 35

Cardinal temperature for the Germination of some important crops

Sr. No. Plant Cardinal Temperature 0C

Minimum Optimum Maximum
1 Rice 10-12 30-32 36-38
2 Sorghum 8-10 32-35 40-42
3 Maize 8-10 32-35 40-44
4 Wheat 3-4.5 25 30-32
5 Barley 3-4.5 20 38-40
6 Sugar beat 4-5 25 28-30
7 Tobacco 13-14 28 35
8 Carrot 4-5 8 25
9 Peas 12 32-34 40
10 Oats 4-5 25 28-30
11 Lentil 4-5 30 36

Protein Content in Pulses

Crop Protein %
Gram 21.1
Pea 22.5
Arhar 21-25
Lentil 25
Urd 24
Moong 25
Cowpea 23.4

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 117

 Protein Content in Cereals

Crop Protein %
Rice 6-7 %
Maize 10 %
Bajra 11-12 %
Wheat 11-12 %
Sorghum 10-12%
Barley 11.5 %

Protein Content in Oilseeds

Crop Protein %
Soybean 42 %
Groundnut 26%
Sesame 18-20 %
Linseed 36 %
Safflower (Cakes) 40-45 %

Oil Content in Crops

Crops Oil %
Coconut 60 %
Sesame 46-52%
Groundnut 45- 58 % (AFO 2022)
Castor 35-58 %
Rape seed and Mustard 33-35 %
Soybean 20 %
Sunflower 45-50 %
Niger 35-45 %
Maize 4–5%
Cottonseed 15 – 25 %

Protein Known as

118 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Structural Protein Known as
Muscle protein Collagen
Silk protein Fibrolin
Hair and wool protein Keratin
Soybean protein Glycinin
Wheat Protein Gluten
Rice Oryzein
Barley Albuminodes
Maize Zein

Toxic chemicals and their relation to plants

Gossypol Cotton

Neurotoxin (BOAA) Lathyrus

Erucic acid Mustard

Aflatoxin peanut

CN glucoside dhurin / HCN / Fever

Resins Mango

Polyphenolics Safflower,

Lathiragins Lathirus Sativus

Cucurbitacins Cucurbits

Toxic Substances found in different fodder and Food crops:

Crop/plants Toxic substance

Sorghum HCN/Dhurin/Prussic acid

Alfalfa/Lucerne, Berseem Saponins

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 119

 Pearl millet, Napier grass Oxalic acid

Sweet clover (Melilotus sp.) Coumarins

Leucaena leucocephela (Subabul) Mimosine

Lathyrus/Khesari Lathogen/Neurotoxin (BOAA)

Safflower Polyphenolics

Sudan grass, White clover, Sorghum Cyanogenic glycosides

Mustard Erucic Acid

French bean Hemagglutinin Trypsin and Amylose

inhibitors

Pigeon pea and Cowpea Trypsin inhibitors

General Recommended Fertilizer Doses (N:P: K Ratio):

Crops N:P: K Ratio

Cereal Crops 4: 2: 1

Pulse Crops 1: 2: 1 or 1: 2: 2

Oilseed crops 3: 2: 1

Fodder/Fibre crops 2: 1: 4

Root crops 2:1:1

Fruit types and edible parts of different crops:

All cereals crops and grassesCaryopsis Endosperm and Embryo

Most of leguminous crops Legume/Pod Seed/Cotyledons

i.e., gram, pea, Arhar

120 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Groundnut Lomentum Seed/Cotyledons

Qualitative prospects of different crops

Process Value (%)

Milling of rice 60

Hulling in Rice 66

Shelling in wheat 60

Milling of wheat 70-74

Shelling in pea 49

Shelling in chickpea 49

Shelling in Groundnut 70

Inflorescence of crops
Inflorescence Crop
Arrow Sugarcane
Axillary Cotton
Axillary raceme Pulses- Black gram, Chickpea, Green gram, Pea, Pigeon
pea, moth bean, Lentil, Soybean
Raceme Ground nut, Mustard, Castor, Sun hemp, Tobacco
Cymose Sesame, Linseed, Jute, Potato
Capitulum Sunflower, Niger
Head Sorghum, Safflower
Panicle Rice, Porso millet
Spike Wheat, Barley (NSC 2018)
Ear Pearl millet

Terms related to specific crop:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 121

 Crop Term Detail
Sugarcane Wrapping, Tying, The act of giving support to sugarcane
Propping
Sugarcane Trashing/De- Removal of extra dry and green lower leaves from
trashing sugarcane
Sugarcane Arrowing Sugarcane flower
Sugarcane Ratooning Second crop from first crop’s vegetative part
(IBPS AFO 2020)
Lucerne Looping Removal of all top branches in fodder
Banana Propping The act of giving support to Banana
Tobacco, BananaDe-suckering Removal of suckers

Maize De-tasseling Removal of male part from flower

Groundnut Pegging Formation of peg from flower (IBPS AFO 2019)
Groundnut Popping When kernel (Edible part) are not developed in
pod of groundnut, occurred due to calcium
deficiency.
Groundnut, Earthing up Act of giving more soil for growth as well as
Potato, support (Growth in groundnut and potato and
Sugarcane support in sugarcane)
Cotton Ginning Separation of fibre from cotton seed
Cotton Delinting seeds are removed from kapas (Cotton fibre)
Cotton Topping Removal of upper buds
Gram Nipping or Removal of upper buds
Topping
Sunflower pinching/ To promote more and longer branches
nipping
Castor Nipping Removing of apical meristem buy hand or knife to
promote only one bud development (40-45 DAS)
Tobacco, Tea Curing Drying of leaves
Tea Tipping Plucking of leaves from tea (A normal process)
Tobacco Rabbing Burning of straw on the surface to make seedbed
free from pest.

122 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Jute Retting Tied bundles of jute stalks are taken to the tank by
which fibres get loosened and separated from the
woody stalk (RRB SO 2020)
Jute Stripping Process of removing the fibers from the stalk after
the completion of retting
Jute Ribboning/ In ribbon retting, ribbons are stripped out
Ribbon retting mechanically from the stem of mature jute plants,
coiled and allowed to ret under water.
Tomato Stalking Tie the stems of tomato plants to the support
structure every 6 or 8 inches as they grow.
Rice Parboiling Process of partially boiling of rice in the husk.
Sunflower heliotropism The fascinating phenomenon of flowers following
the sun across the sky
Paddy Beushening Cross ploughing in paddy field
Potato Dehaulming Cutting of plant before the harvesting of potato
Banana Denavelling Removal of male bud in banana
Banana Choke/Choking A condition in banana
plants in which the fruit bunch fails to emerge, or
emerges abnormally twisted
Sorghum Nicking Synchronisation of flowering in the two parents
Paddy Rope pulling/ Removal of youngest flag leaf of paddy
Flag leaf clipping
Bajra Jerking First tillers are pulled out or removed which will
result in uniform flowering of all the tillers
Tobacco Flooping Refers to wilting of tobacco due to waterlogging.
Leguminous Ley Farming the growing of grass or legumes in rotation with
pastures grain or tilled crops as a soil conservation
measure. (IBPS AFO- 2020)

Sensitive stage

Crop Sensitive stage

Rice Panicle initiation
Wheat CRI (IBPS AFO 2019)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 123

 Maize Tasseling & silking
Groundnut Peg penetration & Pod development
Sunflower Head formation & Early grain filling
Cotton Square formation & Boll formation & development

Tobacco Topping
Soybean Flowering & pod filling
Flower crops Bud formation & development
Ornamental Flowering

Water requirement in crop

S. No. Corps Duration inWater requirementNo. of irrigations

days (mm)
1 Rice 135 1250 18
2 Wheat 110 500-650 5-7
3 Groundnut 105 550 10
4 Sorghum 100 350 6
5 Maize 110 500 8
6 Sugarcane 365 2000 24
7 Ragi 100 350 6
8 Cotton 165 550 11
9 Black gram 80-90 280 Depends upon season

10 Soybean 110-120 320 5-7

11 Sesame 90-120 150 3-4
12 Sunflower 120-130 450 5-6
13 Pulses 90-120 350 4

Test weight of crop seeds (grams)

Crop Test weight(g)

Rice 25
Basmati rice 21

124 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Wheat, barley 30-40
Cotton, pigeon pea 72
Pea 100
Mustard 3-5
Sorghum 25-30
Tobacco 0.25- 0.30
Linseed, safflower 10
Lucerne 2-4
Sunflower 40-50
Soybean 55
Cowpea 80
Green gram 34-36
Pearl millet 5-7
French bean 38-44

Note: Test weight= 1000 seed and seed index= 100 seed

Optimum pH range for different crops

Crop Soil pH
Tea 4.0-6.0
Rice 5-6.5
Wheat, Barley, Oats, Sorghum, Maize, Sugarcane, 6.0- 7.5
Berseem, Sunflower
Chickpea, lentil, Soybean, French Bean 5.5-7.0
Sugar beet 6.5-8.0
Potato 5.0-5.5
Tobacco 5.5-7.5
Pearl millet, cotton, Cowpea, Groundnut 5.0-6.5

Indicator Crops

Deficiency Indicator Crop

Nitrogen Maize , Sorghum ,Leguminous plants (Pulses)
Phosphorus Tomato ,Maize, Lucerne, Cereals, Duranta

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 125

 Potassium Maize, Lucerne , Cotton, Potatoes, Banana, Cucurbits
Magnesium Cotton (leaf reddening)
Calcium Cauliflower, tomato (blossom end rot of fruits), sugarbeet
Sulphur Lucerne , Clover , Cereals, Tea
Zinc Maize, Paddy(Khaira disease), Tomatoes , Potatoes, Beans, Citrus
Copper Citrus, Cereals
Iron Ornamental plants, Acacia, Eucalyptus, Gooseberry, Sugarcane,
sorghum, citrus
Boron Lucerne, Coconut, Guava, Cauliflower (RRB SO 2018)
Manganese Citrus, sunflower, sugarbeet
Molybdenum Cauliflower (whiptail) (RRB SO 2018), Cabbage

Size Classes and Broad Size Groups of Holdings:

S. No. Size-Groups Classes (in hectares) Percentage of number of

land holding
1 Marginal 0.50-1.00 67.1%
2 Small 1.00-2.00 17.9%
3 Semi medium 2.00-4.00 10%
4 Medium 4.00-10.00 (NABARD-2021) 4.3%
5. Large 10.00 and above 0.7%

Units of Measurement:

Weather element Units

o
Temperature C
Vapour pressure Mm of Hg
Relative humidity Percentage (%)
Wind direction Degree (0 t0 360o) directions
Wind speed Km hr-1
Rainfall and evaporation Mm day -1
Bright sunshine duration Hrs.
Cloud cover Okta (0 to 8)
Atmospheric pressure Milli bars/mm of Hg/Pascals

126 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Isolation distance (Meter) of different crops for seed production

Crop Foundation seed Certified seed

Wheat 3 3
Rice 3 3
soybean 3 3
groundnut 3 3
Barley 3 3
Oat 3 3
Small millet 3 3
Linseed 50 25
Taramira 100 50
Sesame 100 50
Maize (OPV) 400 200
Pearl millet(OPV) 400 200
Pearl millet (Hybrid) 1000 200
Safflower 400 200
Sunflower 400 200
Self-Compatible rapeseed & mustard 50 25

Chickpea, green gram, Urad bean, 10 5

cowpea, Field pea, Rajma, Cluster bean,
Moth bean, Indian bean, Methi,
Lathyrus

Potato 5 5
Cotton 50 30
Jute 50 30
Self-incompatible rapeseed & mustard 100 50

Lucerne, Berseem, 400 100

Pigeon pea, Sorghum, Rice hybrid 200 100

Castor, Sorghum hybrid, 300 150

Important act

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 127

 Act Year
DIPA: - Destructive insect pest act Feb. 1914 (madras)
Essential Commodity Act 1955
Seed Act 1966, enforce in 1969
Insecticide Act 1968, enforce in 1971
Fertilizer control order 1957 (redefined 1985)
Seed control order 1983
Seed policy 2002

Types of chemical toxicity:

S.No. Poison color Type of poisoning

1- Red Extremely toxic
2- Yellow Highly toxic
3- Blue Moderately toxic
4- Green Less toxic

Particle size in spraying chemicals (Droplet size):

For the control of flying insects 10 to 50 microns

For the control of surface living insects 1- 30 to 150 microns

For the control of plant diseases 30 to 150 microns

For the control of weeds 100 to 300 microns

ICAR awards related to agriculture:

➢ Sardar Patel Outstanding ICAR Institution Award
➢ National and Zonal Krishi Vigyan Kendra Awards
➢ ICAR Norman Borlaug Award
➢ Panjab rao Deshmukh Outstanding Woman Scientist Award

128 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Jag jivan Ram Abhinav Kisan Puraskar/ Jagjivan Ram Innovtive Farmer Award
(National/Zonal)
➢ N. G. Ranga Farmer Award for Diversified Agriculture
➢ Chaudhary Devi Lal Outstanding All India Coordinated Research Project Award
➢ Jawaharlal Nehru Award for P.G. Outstanding Doctoral Thesis Research in Agricultural
and Allied Sciences
➢ Lal Bahadur Shastri Outstanding Young Scientist Award
➢ Vasantrao Naik Award for Research Application in Dryland Farming System (IBPS AFO
2016)
➢ Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Award for Outstanding Research in Agricultural Sciences
➢ Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Outstanding Extension scientist
➢ Dr. Rajendra Prasad Award for technical books in agriculture and allied sciences in hindi

Important Facts:
➢ Cereal grain contains 60-70% of starch.
➢ Only 5% of starchy staple food comes from root crops.
➢ Whole cereal grains contain 20-30% of the daily requirements of the minerals such as
selenium, calcium, zinc and copper.
➢ The wastes or stalk of pulses is called the ‘haulm’ or ‘stover’.
➢ Fiber obtained from fiber crops is a elongation of epidermal cells/hairs.
➢ Very few crops can perform well when relative humidity is 80% and above.
➢ Cereals are deficient in Lysine amino acid and legumes are deficient in methionine amino
acid.
➢ Reclamation disease of cereals is due to copper deficiency.
➢ Bench terracing is done when slope is more than 15% (Range will be 16-33%)
➢ Sowing pattern used in dry land is broadcasting.
➢ Maize is known as erosion permitting crop.
➢ Cowpea and groundnut are known as erosion resistant crops.
➢ Phenyl Mercuric acetate (PMA) is a chemical used in agriculture crops in order to reduce
transpiration.
➢ Agronomic measures are used to reduce erosion where slope is less than 2% and mechanical
measures are used to supplement the agronomical practices where the land slope is more
than 2%.
➢ Contour bunding has slope of 6% and used in arid and semi-arid areas, graded bunding has
slope of 2-10% and zing terracing has slope of 3-10%.
➢ Contour and graded bunding mostly used in India.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 129

 ➢ Mostly used soil & water conservation method in hilly & mountain areas: Contour
bunding (AFO-2022)
➢ Harvesting Index: Economic yield (Grain)/ Biological yield (Grain + Straw) ×100
➢ National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) is located at: New
Delhi
➢ Directorate for Farming system research is located at Modi Puram, Uttar Pradesh
➢ Evapotranspiration (ET) constitute nearly 99% of the total water uptake.
➢ Fertiliser Association of India (FAI) was established in 1955 with the objective of bringing
together all concerned with the production, marketing and use of fertilisers.
➢ National Academy of Agricultural Research Management is located at Hyderabad,
Telangana, India. It was established by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in 1976,
to address issues related to agricultural research and education management, in India.
➢ Chairman of National Commission for Farmers- Dr. M.S. Swaminathan
➢ Generally, kharif pulse have chromosome number 2n = 22 (except horse gram 2n = 24).
➢ Generally, Rabi pulses have chromosome number 2n = 14 (except chickpea 2n = 14, 16).
In case of Kabuli channa it is always 2n= 16
➢ Mode of germination in pulses:
➢ Rabi pulses shows hypogeal kind of germination in which cotyledons remain in soil (except
rajma).
➢ Kharif pulses shows epygeal kind of germination in which cotyledons emerge out from soil
(except arhar)
➢ Most of the legumes fulfil their 75% nitrogen requirement through root nodule (symbiosis).
➢ Highest consumption of phosphorus in pulses.
➢ Payable interest rate on KCC is 7%.
➢ Seed rate of Bt cotton is 1.5 kg/Ha.
➢ Common crop grown in paira & utera system is lathyrus.
➢ Nutrient needed for peg formation in groundnut is calcium.
➢ Rotavator is used for primary and secondary tillage implement.
➢ Seed requires light for germination are known as positive photoblastic.
➢ Beusening practice is related to rice done at 30-45 days after sowing (to reduce straw and
increase grain).
➢ Nutrient require for biological N fixation is Molybdenum
➢ Most outstanding crop for green manuring is Sunhemp.
➢ 2.471 Acres=1 hectare or 1 acre = 0.405 hectare, 1 Kanal = 0.051 ha.
➢ C=(F-32) ×5/9
➢ F= C (9/5) + 32
➢ K = C+273

130 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ “Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Unnat Krishi Shiksha Yojana” for training of farmers
in organic farming and sustainable farming.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 131

 DOUBTS ASKED BY STUDENTS

1. Difference between Critical stage and Sensitive stage?

➢ Critical stage and Sensitive stages are same in case of irrigation. The critical stages or
otherwise known as sensitive stages of different crops for irrigation water requirement.
2. Is there any difference between photo insensitive and day neutral plants?
➢ The variety which flowers at specific photoperiod is called photosensitive and which does
not require a specific photoperiod for flowering is called photo - insensitive. Day neutral
plants can be also called as photo – insensitive plants.
3. Difference between watershed, catchment area and command area?
➢ Watershed: A watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a common
outlet such as the outflow of a reservoir, mouth of a bay, or any point along a stream channel.
➢ Catchment Area: Catchment areas are locations in low lying regions in which water from
higher areas collect into a single water body.
➢ Command Area: Command area is a part of catchment area.
4. Agroecological zones: 15,127, 20, 60(sub zones) explain?
➢ With the 329 million hectares of the geographical area the country presents a large number
of complex agro-climatic situations. Planning commission has divided the country into 15
broad agro-climatic zones based on physiography, soils, geological formation, Climate and
cropping patterns.
➢ In Agro-climatic zones under National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) the country
was divided into 127 agro-climatic zones.
➢ Agro-ecological regions by the National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS
& LUP): The National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP) came up
with 20 agro-ecological zones based on the growing period as an integrated criteria of
effective rainfall, soil groups, delineated boundaries adjusted to district boundaries with a
minimal number of regions. Subsequently, these twenty agro-ecological zones were sub-
divided into 60 sub-zones.
5. Sunflower- short day plant or day neutral?
➢ According to TNAU: These plants flower in all photoperiod ranging from 5 hours to 24 hours
continuous exposure.
➢ E.g., Tomato, cotton, sunflower, cucumber, peas and certain varieties of tobacco.
6. What is difference between milking stage and dough stage in Rice?
➢ The milk stage is observed when a milky white substance begins to accumulate, usually
seven to 10 days after heading. The dough stage occurs about a week later as the milky
substance begins to change and become the texture of bread dough. When rice grains first
become firm, they are at the physiological maturity stage.

132 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

7. Epigeal and Hypogeal germination explanation
➢ Seedlings that raise their cotyledons above the soil surface are said to be epigeal, while those
whose cotyledons remain in the soil are termed hypogeal.
➢ Kharif Pulses: epigeal except Arhar
➢ Rabi Pulses: Hypogeal except Rajma

8. Chart on seed multiplication ratio

➢ Seed Multiplication Ratio is the number of seeds to be produced from a single seed when
it is sown and harvested.

Crop Seed Multiplication Ratio

Wheat 1:20
Paddy 1:70 to 1:80
Maize 1:80 to 1:100
Sorghum 1:100
Bajra 1:200
Ragi 1:80 to 1:100
Gram 1:10 to 1:12
Blackgram 1:40
Cowpea 1:40
Red gram 1:100
Potato 1:4
Groundnut 1:8
Cotton 1:50

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 133

 Mustard 1:100
Jute 1:100

9. What is LEISA
➢ LEISA - Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture
➢ Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) is agriculture which makes
optimal use of locally available natural and human resources (such as soil, water, vegetation,
local plants and animals, and human labour, knowledge and skill)
10. Classification by Troll
➢ Trolls’ climate classification is suitable for agriculture purpose.
➢ Troll classified climate based on temperature and humid months.
➢ Main drawback of Troll’s classification is continuity of humid months is not considered.
➢ Climatic regions based on modified Troll’s Classification:

Climate Number of humid months Per cent of geographic

al area of India
Arid <2.0 17.00
Semiarid-dry 2.0-4.5 57.17
Semiarid-wet 4.5-7.0 12.31
Humid >7.0 1.10

11. Examples of important intercrops ex: Wheat-Mustard etc.

➢ Intercropping is divided into: Row intercropping, Strip intercropping, Mixed intercropping
or Mixed cropping, Relay intercropping or Relay cropping.
➢ Example: Sorghum, pearl millet and cowpea are mixed and broadcasted in rainfed
conditions; Maize + greengram (1:1), Maize + blackgram (1:1), Groundnut + Rredgram
(6:1); Groundnut + redgram (6:4) strip; Black gram/ Green gram + Maize;
Mustard/Potato/Onion + Sugarcane; Sugarcane+Mustard+Onion; Sugarcane + Potato
12. Typhoon system of drip? (asked in ACC mock test)
➢ In the subsurface system, the laterals are buried in the soil at desired depth along the crop
rows. These laterals have emitters fixed inside and are known as inline drippers. They are
fixed at desired intervals which emit the water right in the root zone of the crop and only a
little quantity of this water comes to the surface. Hence, in this system, the chance for the
loss of water through surface evaporation is very less. Different types of sub-surface laterals
with emitters are available commercially. Biwall and Typhoon are some of them. Typhoon
is type of emitter of drip, mostly used in sugarcane.
13. Examples of trap crops (asked in daily test)

134 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 1. Okra in cotton for bollworm
2. Castor in Soybean for Spodoptera
3: Mustard in cabbage for Diamond back moth
4. Marigold in tomato for borer
14. Types of sprayers, their efficiency and where they can be used?
➢ Given in Entomology and engineering Notes
15. Please tell us about aquifers and related terms.
➢ Aquifer is defined as “a single geologic formation or a group of geologic formations that
can transmit and yield water in usable quantities”
➢ Aquiclude is defined as a geologic formation that can store significant amount of water but
does not have the capability to transmit a significant amount of water. Clay is an ideal
example of aquiclude.
➢ Aquitard is defined as a geologic formation that can store some water as well as can transmit
water at a relatively low rate compared to aquifers. Sandy clay is an ideal example of
aquitard.
➢ Aquifuge is defined as a geologic formation that can neither store nor transmit water. Solid
granite is an ideal example of aquifuge.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 135

 FIELD CROPS

Cereals crop
Rice

Common name: Rice

Botanical name: Oryza sativa (AFO

2021)

Family: Gramineae

❖ Important Facts about Rice

➢ Chromosome no.: 2n= 24
➢ Rice stem is called Culm.
➢ The rice inflorescence known as panicle.
➢ Fruit type is caryopsis.
➢ Rice is a self –pollinated crop and short-day plant.
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal.
➢ Hulling percent in rice is 66 %.
➢ Protein in white rice - 6-7%,
➢ Protein in brown rice - 7-9%
➢ The main protein in Rice is Oryzenin.

136 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Highest nitrogen loss in rice field occurs due to denitrification process.
➢ Aroma in rice is due to presence of “Di-acetyl 1 propaline” chemical.
➢ Phalguna variety tolerance to Fe toxicity.
➢ Most dominated weed species in rice field is Echinochloa spp.
➢ ''Regional center of international rice Research Institute'' is recently established in
India at: Varanasi (NSC-2018).
➢ Golden rice is genetically modified and is rich in: Vitamin-A (NSC-2018)
➢ IRRI and its national research partners have developed Golden rice to complement
and to address the deficiency of: Vitamin A (AFO-2022)
❖ Oryza sativa has 3 varietal types
Indica Grown in India (Tropical rice)
Japonica Grown in Japan (Subtropical rice)

Javanica Grown in Indonesia. (Wild rice)

❖ Climate:

➢ Rice crop needs a hot and humid climate.

❖ Temperature:

Max= 36-380C

Optimum = 30-320C

Minimum= 10-120C

➢ The average temperature required throughout the life period of the crop ranges from 21
to 370C.
➢ At the time of tillering the crop requires a higher temperature than for growth.
➢ At the time of ripening, the temperature should be between 20-25 0C.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 137

 ➢ Temperature requirement for blooming is in the range of 26.5 to 29.5 0C.
❖ Soil:
➢ Clay or clay loams are most suited for rice cultivation.
➢ A major part of rice crop in India is grown under low land condition.
❖ Acidic soil is good for rice cultivation it grows well in soil having a pH range between 5-
6.5. (As per the norms by IRRI)

❖ Sowing Time:
Local name Season Sowing Time Harvest Time
Aus (cultivated inKharif May- June Sept.-Oct.
Bihar and Bengal)
Aman (paddy of Rabi)Winter June-July Nov.-Dec
Boro (cultivated inSpring Nov-Dec March-April
West Bengal and
Orissa)

❖ Seed rate:
Method Seed Rate
Broadcasting 100kg/ha
Drilling 60 kg/ha
Hybrid rice 15 kg/ha
Dapog method 1.5-2 kg/m2
SRI system 5-6 kg/ha

❖ Paddy cultivation in low land: -

➢ Cultivation in Low land Soils - these are of two types.
✓ Direct sowing method - In this method, sowing the seeds of paddy in the field through
broadcast method.
✓ Transplanting method - Preparation of seedlings in nursery and transplanting to field.
➢ Cultivation in row planting method - In this method, sowing is done in rows or broadcast
in fields.

138 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Paddy cultivation in upland soils - This method is adopted on 60 percent of the total
arable land in the country. In this method, 40 percent of the total yield of rice is obtained.
This method is prevalent in rainfed areas or in non-irrigated areas.
✓ Its main methods are.
➢ Broadcasting method
➢ Sowing in rows / behind plow / sowing through drills
➢ Row planting Method
❖ Types of Paddy Cultivation: -Sowing of seeds directly in the field. It has the following
methods -
✓ Direct sowing in no-till land
✓ Broadcasting method
✓ In line sowing
❖ Transplanting of paddy plants: - Nursery preparing in about 1/10 of the total area under
paddy transplantation. And in the age of 20-30 days, they transplant in the fields.
✓ It has the following methods -
✓ Nursery for transplanting
(a) Wet method
(b) Dry method
➢ SRI (System of Rice Intensification)- This technique was invented in 1983 by Father Henry
U Laulaini in Madagascar. SRI method is a technique of paddy cultivation, through which
particularly good production of paddy is possible even with very little use of water. It is also
called System of Rice Intensification - SRI method. In India, 7-10 tonnes per hectare
production have been taken at many places.
➢ Dapog / Mat Nursery:
✓ This method of raising nurseries has been introduced in India from Philippines.
✓ It is also called an upland nursery.
✓ In Mat nursery seedlings are established in a layer of soil mix, arranged on a firm surface
(Concrete floor/ polythene sheet/ seedling trays).
✓ Seedlings are ready for planting within 11-14 days after seeding (DAS).

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 139

 ❖ Spacing
Method Spacing

Transplanting 20 ×10 (cm.)

Hybrid rice 20 × 15(cm.)

SRI method 25× 25 (cm.)

❖ Transplanting of Rice:
Season/Method DAS
Kharif season 21-25 DAS
Rabi season 30-35 DAS
SRI method 10-12 DAS
Dapog method 11-14 DAS
Dry land areas 30-35 DAS

❖ Oil content in rice bran:

Raw Rice bran 12-18 percent

Parboiled bran 20-28 percent

De-oiled bran 1-3 percent

140 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Manure & fertilizer:

FYM: 250- N: 100 kg

300 q/ha /ha

P: 60 kg K: 50
/ha kg/ha

➢ Use of organic fertilizers:

✓ BGA - Use it often in those paddy fields in which the water is abundant. This gives about
20-30 kg of nitrogen per hectare to the paddy crop, which saves 50 - 60 kg of urea
fertilizer.
✓ Azospirillum - This non-symbiotic bacterium collects environmental nitrogen for
plants. This culture is particularly suitable for crops that are grown in waterlogged or
overly moist land. With the use of Azospirillum, up to 10 percent increase in yield of
paddy crop can be achieved.
❖ Water Requirement:
➢ Total water requirement is 1100-1250.
➢ Average Water requirement – 1100 mm
➢ Average Water requirement (SRI) – 700 mm
➢ The daily consumptive use of rice varies from 6-10 mm

Stages of growth Water requirement Percentage of total water

(mm) requirement

Nursery 40 3.22

Main field preparation 200 16.12

Planting to panicle 458 37.00

initiation

Panicle initiation to 417 33.66

flowering

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 141

 Flowering to maturity 125 10.00

➢ Rice field submergence in 5cm deep water during the reproductive and grain formation
stage is beneficial.
➢ Stage-wise water requirement for paddy:

➢ Operation wise water requirement of paddy :

Operation Water requirement (mm)

Nursery 40
Land preparation 200
Field irrigation 1000
Total 1240

❖ Critical Irrigation stage:

➢ Panicle initiation (Most critical), Heading and flowering.
➢ Primordia growth to flowering (40-60 days) in dwarf rice. At these stages, submergence
(5 cm) of water is must.
❖ Varieties:
➢ First hybrid variety - CORH - 1 (MGR - 1)
➢ First Basmati hybrid variety - PRH - 10
➢ World’s first high yielding dwarf variety of rice evolved through conversion breeding by
IRRI is Pusa Basmati-1.
➢ Protein rich rice variety is Sabarmati.
➢ IR-8 = Dee-geo-woo-gen X Peta (from Indonesia)
➢ First time in India, TN-1 (2kg in 1964-65) was introduced from IRRI.
➢ IR-8 (World's magical paddy variety) was introduced in India in 1966 and IR-8 outyielded
TN-1.
➢ Literally meaning of Dee-gee-woo-gene: Brown tipped short legged.
➢ Jaya (Variety of Magical Paddy in India) = T.N.-1 (from Taiwan) X T-141 (Indian Variety)
, first rice variety is developed under India’s rice programme. It outyielded T.N.-1 & IR-8
both; hence called ‘Miracle Rice’ in India.
➢ Padma is the reverse cross product of the parent of Jaya.
➢ Padma = T.141 X TN-1

142 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Jagannath: Mutant Variety of T.141
➢ Pusa Basmati-1: World’s first high yielding dwarf variety under quality rice has been
developed by IARI through convergent breeding.
➢ Deep water rice varieties: Chakia-59, Madhukar, Jalamgan, Jaisuria, jaladhi 1 & Jaladhi
2, Pantdhan II. Jalapriya.
➢ Aromatic (scented) Rice: Sabarmati, Basmati-370, Karnal local, Dehradun Basmati (T-3),
Pusa Basmati-1, Kasturi, Taraori Basmati, Basmati-385, Haryana Basmati-1.
➢ Non Basmati superfine rice-
➢ IR-64, PR-’106, Gaurav & Punjab No. – 1
❖ Disease:
Akiochi disease (AFO 2022) H2S toxicity

Khaira disease Zn deficiency

Montek disease rice root nematode

White eye Fe deficiency

➢ Dead heart and white ear are caused by yellow stem borer or rice.
➢ Killer disease of rice is Bacterial Leaf Blight (BLB) and tungro virus.
➢ Iron toxicity is the major problem to rice production in highly acid Ultisols, Oxisols and
acid-sulphate soils. Varietal tolerance is only solution. ‘Phalguna’ variety exhibits some
tolerance to Fe-toxicity.
❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen

Blast of Rice Pyricularia oryzae

Brown Spot Helminthosporium oryzae

Sheath blight Rhizoctonia solani

False smut Ustilaginoidea virens

Udbatta disease Ephelis oryzae

Foot rot or Bakanae disease Fusarium moniliforme

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 143

 Bacterial leaf blight (Kresek”) Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Oryzae

❖ Major Insect:

Zoological Name
Insect
Green leafhopper Nephotettix virescens
Brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens
Rice Gundhi bug Leptocorisa acuta
White backed plant hopper Sogatella furcifera
Thrips Stenchaetothrips biformis

❖ Moisture at storage:
➢ Different varieties of paddy mature in about 100 - 150 days. The grain contains about 20 -
25 % moisture at harvesting time.

❖ Yield:
Region Yield
India (Average yield) 3. 62 tonnes/ha

Indigenous variety 25-30 q / ha

Broadcast method 15-20 quintal / ha

Dwarf varieties 50-80 q / ha

Punjab & southern state 55-60 q/ha

144 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

WHEAT

Common Name: Wheat

Botanical name: Triticum spp.

Family : Gramineae/Poaceae

❖ Important facts about Wheat:

➢ Chromosome number: 2n =42

➢ Wheat crop is hexaploid and developed by using outcrossing. (RRB SO 2020)
➢ In India it is second important stable food crop.
➢ C3, Long day plant
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal
➢ The flower portion of wheat is known as -Head/Ear/Spike.
➢ Fruit type of wheat is Caryopsis.
➢ Test weight of wheat grain is about 40 gm. While test weight of Phalaris minor is only
2gm.
➢ Protein content in wheat 10-11% (Gluten).
➢ Harvest index = 40-45 per cent
➢ Minimum germination percentage of wheat is 85 % (IBPS AFO 2020)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 145

 ➢ Dwarf gene introduced in wheat to develop dwarf wheat is Norin.
➢ Norin-10 is a source of: Dwarf gene in wheat (AFO-2022)
➢ Norin- Nor (Rht) = Reduced height (Rht1 and Rht2).
➢ Grain: Straw ratio in Mexican wheat – 1: 1.5, in new plant types of cereals 1: 1.
❖ Wheat classification

Diploid 2n = 14 Triticum bioticum, Triticum monococcom

Tetraploid 2n= 28 Triticum dicoccom (Emmer wheat), Triticum

durum (Macroni wheat)

Hexaploid 2n = 42 Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) (Mexican dwarf

(RRB SO species)
2020)
Triticum spharococcum (Indian dwarf species)

❖ Triticum species grown in India:

Common Name Botanical Name Remarks

Common Bread T. aestivum It is most commonly grown in India

wheat, Mexican
Dwarf Wheat.
Emmer wheat T dicoccum Suitable for preparation of south Indian
dish Uppumav.

Indian dwarf wheat T. sphaerococcum

Macroni wheat T. duram Best wheat for drought conditions or

under restricted irrigation conditions

❖ Climate:

➢ Wheat is a Rabi season crop.

➢ Cool and moist weather during the vegetative growth period.
➢ Warm and dry weather during grain formation.
❖ Temperature:

146 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Minumum= 4.50C

Optimum = 210C

Maximum= 320C

❖ Soil:
➢ Soils with a clay loam or loam texture, good structure and moderate water holding capacity
are ideal for wheat cultivation.
➢ Optimum pH: 6-7.5
❖ Seed Rate:
Sowing in the Furrow behind 90-100 kg per hectare
the plow
Broadcasting 150 kg
By Seed drill 80-100 kg per hectare
By Dibbler 25-30 kg per hectare
Late Sowing 125-150 kg per hectare
Timely Sowing 100 kg per hectare
Dwarf Variety 100 kg per hectare
Indigenous long growing 75-80 kg per hectare
Variety
FIRBS (Furrow Irrigated 75 kg per hectare
Raised Bed)

❖ Spacing:
➢ It varies with varieties.
➢ Tillering variety requires wider spacing.

Type of Wheat Spacing

Irrigated wheat 22.5 cm & 8-18 cm between plants

Rain fed wheat 25-30 cm x 5-6cm.

Late sown 15-16cm

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 147

 ❖ Depth: 5cm depth is ideal for wheat sowing. The dwarf wheats should be sown only at 5-6
cm depth as they have shorter coleoptiles. Seeding depth of 8-10 cm results in poor
germination and produced yield.
❖ Manure and fertilizer:

N For irrigated
FYM: 10-15 crops:120-150 kg
tonnes/ha
Rainfed: 40-60kg

60kg P2O5 at
planting is good K: 40 kg/ha

❖ Critical phases for irrigation are:

Type of Stage Name of Stage DAS

Most Critical Stage CRI (AFO 2019) 20-25 DAS

Second most critical Stage Flowering 85-90 DAS

Third Important stage Jointing & Milk Stage 100-105DAS

❖ Irrigation: - In wheat generally 6 irrigations recommended:

Irrigation Stage Time

First irrigation CRI stage 21-25 days
Second irrigation Late jointing stage 40-45
Third irrigation Tillering stage 60-65
Fourth irrigation Flowering stage 80-58
Fifth irrigation Milking stage 100-110
Sixth irrigation Dough stage 115–120

Availability of irrigation Number of irrigations

148 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Having an irrigation CRI
Two irrigations available on CRI, Late jointing
the
Three irrigations available on CRI, Blooming, Milking
the
Four irrigations available on CRI, Late tillering, Flowering, Milking stage
the
Five irrigations available on CRI, Late Tillering stage, Late jointing, Flowering,
the Milking stage
On the availability of six CRI, Tillering stage, Late jointing, Flowering,
irrigations Milking stage, Dough stage

❖ Growth stages in wheat in North India

Vegetative Reproductive
✓ Germination: 5-7 days ✓ Boot leaf: 70-75 DAS
✓ CRI: 20-25 DAS ✓ Flowering: 85-90 DAS
✓ Tillering: from 15 days at 4-5 days ✓ Milking: 100-105 DAS
until 45 DAS ✓ Dough: 105-110 DAS
✓ Jointing: Peak plant growth 45-60 ✓ Maturity: 115 – 120 DAS
DAS

❖ Sowing time: October to December

➢ First week of November

➢ Late sowing- second fortnight of November
➢ Sowing methods
✓ There are mainly four methods of sowing -
(i) Broadcasting method: - is the oldest and simplest method of sowing.
(ii) Sowing in the Furrow behind the plow - these are of two types.
✓ Kera method - This method is adopted where moisture is high.
✓ Pora method - is adopted in areas with low humidity.
(iii) Seed drill: - By this method, seed rate and plant distance can be adjusted at will.
Dwarf variety’s germination is good with this method.
(iv) Dibbler: - This method is adopted by scientists. This method costs more than the
dwarf.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 149

 (v) FIRB method (Furrow Irrigated Raised bed): - In this method, raised beds and
drains are made for the purpose of saving irrigation water. In this way, half the
irrigation water is saved.
❖ Moisture Percentage:
➢ At the Time of Storage: For safe storage moisture content of grain should be ranges from
10 -12 %
➢ At the time of Harvesting: Moisture content at harvesting stage in wheat is: 25-30 %
❖ Water requirement:
➢ 550-650 mm
➢ Average no. of irrigation required is 6.
➢ In heavy soil-4 irrigation, each of 6 cm.
➢ IW/CPE ratio is 0.90.
❖ Weeds of wheat crop:
Objectional weed Convolvulus arvensis (Hirankhuri)

Associated weed Phalaris minor (Mimicry weed), Avena fatua

and Chenopodium album

Horrible weed Sorghum halepense

Satellite weed Phalaris minor & Avena fatua

➢ Phalaris minor (weed) is controlled by Tribunil/Dosanex/Isoprturon @ 2 kg a.i. /ha 32-35

days after sowing (DAS). Dosanex and Isoprturon also control wild Oat (Avena fatua).
❖ Wheat Varieties:

Single gene dwarf Sonalika, UP-262, WL-711, Girija

Double gene dwarf Kalyansona, UP-215, Arjun, Pratap, Janak

Triple gene dwarf Jawahar, Jyoti, Hira, Moti, Sangam, UP-301, UP-319

Timely to be sown HD 2967, HD-CSW-18 DBW-187, Pusa - 3226 (Pusa

Glorious)

Late sown Sarbati sanora, Sonalika, Safed lerma, UP-301, Sanora-

64, Raj 3765, UP 2425, UP-2338

150 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Rainfed timely sown C-306, Sujata, Mukta, K-8027, HW 2004, N59

Marconi wheat Jayraj, Meghdoot, Malvika, HD-4530, Bansi

Bred wheat C-306, C-3, K-65, K-68,

For salt affected soil Lok1, Raj 3077, KRL 1-4, PBW 19

❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen
Black or stem rust - Puccinia graminis tritici
Brown or leaf rust Puccinia triticina (P. recondita
Yellow or stripe rust Puccinia striiformis
Loose smut Ustilago nuda tritici
Karnal bunt - Neovassia indica
Hill bunt or Stinking smut Tilletia caries / T.foetida
Flag smut Urocystis tritici
Tundu or yellow ear rot(Bacteria Corynebacterium tritici + Anguina
+Neamtode) tritici
Molya disease Heterodera avenae (Nematode)
Ear-Cockle of wheat Anguina tritici
Powdery mildew - Erysiphe graminis var. tritici
Blight disease (Fungal) Alternaria triticina

➢ Treatment (For Rust): - Growing resistant variety - UP-115, HD-204, W-147, Pratap
✓ Sow at the right time. Do not irrigate more and give less nitrogen fertilizer.
✓ Dithane-m-45 or Dithane Z-78 spraying 0.2 per cent.
❖ Major Insect:
Wheat Aphid Macrosiphum miscanthi

Climbing cutworm/armyworm Mythimna separata

Ghujhia Weevil Tanymecus indicus

Termites Odontotermes obesus

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 151

 ❖ Harvesting - Harvesting of wheat grains when there is 20-25 percent moisture in the grains.
Let it dry 2-3 days after harvesting.
❖ Yield:

Irrigated area 40-45q/ha.

Non- Irrigated area 15–20 quintals per hectare

Rainfed condition 20-25q/ha

Grain 40 -50 quintal/ ha

Straw 80 -90 quintal/ ha

India (Average Yield) 30q/ha

MAIZE

Common Name: Maize/Makki

Botanical Name: Zea mays

Family : Poaceae

152 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Important facts of Maize:
➢ Origin: Central America and Mexico
➢ Chromosome number: 2n=20
➢ Maize is Protandrous, monoecious plant and cross-pollinated crop.
➢ Day length- Short day plant
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal type
➢ It is C4 plant.
➢ Maize protein is called zein.
➢ Protein content of Maize: 10 %
➢ Oil % in maize: 4-5 %
➢ Rabi maize is extensively grown in: Bihar
➢ Maize is known as Queen of cereals.
➢ Quality protein maize varieties released by using “Opaque 2”
➢ White Bud: Zinc Deficiency.
➢ Maize protein is Zein and deficient in tryptophan and Lysine.
❖ Maize grain types:

Common Name Botanical Name Remarks

Flint corn Zea mays indurata Entire outer portion of kernel is hard
starch. Commonly cultivated in India.

Dent corn Zea mays indentata About 95% of production in USA is

dent corn

Sweet corn Zea mays saccharata Sweetest among all

Flour corn Zeamays amylacea Kernel is largely composed of soft

starch with little or no hard starch.

Popcorn Zea mays everta Its kernel is small and extreme form of
flint corn. When heated to 170°C, the
grain swells and burst and turning
inside out.

Waxy corn Zea mays ceretina Due to waxy appearance of the kernel,
it is called as waxy corn.

Pod corn Zea mays zunicata Husked primitive type.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 153

 ❖ Climate:
➢ Maize is a warm weather plant.
➢ Kharif season is the main growing season in northern India.
➢ Maize requires considerable moisture and warmth from germination to flowering.
❖ Temperature:

Minimum= 8-100C

Optimum = 32-350C

Maximum= 40-440C

➢ The temperature should be 24-30 0C, suitable for maize growth.

➢ The appropriate temperature is 250 C at the time of flowering and grain preparation.
❖ Soil:
➢ Maize is best adapted to well drained sandy loam to silty loam soil.
➢ The crop is very sensitive to water logging.
➢ It can be grown successful in soils whose pH ranges from 5.5 to 7.5.
❖ Reproductive Part:
➢ Tassel: The terminal male flower clusters are called tassel.
➢ Silk: The style is an exceptionally long silky filament, bears the female hairy cluster of
which is known as silk.

❖ Time of sowing:

154 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Rabi Between October and the end of
November

Zaid February - March

Kharif June - July

❖ Methods of sowing - There are mainly three methods of sowing -

✓ Broadcasting method
✓ Row method
✓ Dibbler Method

❖ Seed rate for Normal:

Type of Maize Seed Rate

Kharif crop 15-20 kg /ha
Hybrid maize 25 kg/ha
Fodder purpose 40-50 kg/ha (IBPS AFO- 2016)
Composites 18-20 kg / ha
Zayed 20-25 kg / ha (for cobb)

❖ Irrigated maize:

Seed Rate Grain Maize: 20 Kg/Ha

Baby Corn: 25 Kg/Ha
Spacing 60cm ×25 cm (Row ×Plant)

❖ Rainfed Maize:

Seed Rate Hybrids: 20 Kg/Ha

Varieties: 25 Kg/Ha

Spacing 45cm ×20 cm (Row ×Plant)

❖ Critical stages of growth:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 155

 For Nitrogen application (1) Germination (2) Knee high (3) Tasseling stage.

❖ Critical stage of water:

➢ For moisture and nutrients point of view period between tasseling and silking stage is
critical.
❖ Depth:
➢ Dibble or drill the seeds at a depth of 4 cm.
❖ Root system:
➢ The root system of maize is fibrous and deep. It is usually well developed.
❖ Three types of root system
✓ Seminal roots
✓ Crown roots
✓ Brace or prop roots

❖ Total water requirement: 500 – 600 mm.

❖ Varieties of different maize type:
Fodder maize African tall, J1006
Sweet corn Composite Madhuri, Composite Priya
Pop corn Amber pop, V L Amber. Pop, Pearl pop corn

Baby corn Prakash, Parvati, VL 42

Quality protein corn Shakti, Shakti man 1 and 2, HQPM 1
Flood prone area Diara3
Drought resistant Prakash, Megha

➢ Composite varieties are Jawahar, Vikram, Kisan, Amber, Sona, Vijay.

➢ Lysine rich varieties: Protina, Shakti, Rattan released in 1971.
➢ First time in 1961, four double cross hybrids were released: Ganga-1, Ganga 101,
Deccan, Ranjeet. Later on, other double cross hybrid were released – VL54, Himalayan
123, Hi-starch, Ganga 2, Ganga 3 and Ganga 5.
➢ Top cross is produced by crossing a single cross (A x B) with an open pollinated variety
and such cross is commonly used for testing the General Combining Ability (GCA) of the
inbreeds. Trop cross varieties are Ganga 2 and Hi-starch.
➢ Composites are Jawahar, Vikram, Kisan, Amber, Sona and Vijay.
➢ Among composites, Amber has highest yields potential (50-55 q grain/ha). In 1967 these
were released for the first time in the world.

156 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Lysine rich composites (around 10-11% protein and 3.5 to 4% lysine) are Protina, Shakti,
and Rattan; released in 1971, such varieties are called opaque-2 composites. Quality protein
maize (QPM) are released by using Opaque -2 gene e.g., Shakti man 1, Shakti man 2, and
HQPM 1
❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen

Leaf blight Helminthosporium maydis

Head smut Sphacelotheca reiliana

Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina

Downy mildew/Crazy top Peronosclerospora philippinensis

❖ Major Insect:
Insect Zoological Name

Maize shootfly Atherigona orientalis

Stem borer Chilo partellus

Pink stem borer Sesamia inferens

Shoot bug Peregrinus maidis

Web worm Cryptoblabes gnidiella

❖ Harvesting & Threshing -

✓ Harvesting of the crop should be done within 90-110 days of sowing. Flowering starts
30–50 days after sowing and can be used to eat green corn after 60–70 days. Maturity
comes after 45 days of fertilization. Maize is harvested at 20-25 percent moisture in the
grains.
❖ Yield:

Type/Region Yield

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 157

 Hybrid 50-60 q/ha

Composites 40-50 q/ha

Fodder 300-400 q/ha

Average yield in India 2.75 tonnes/Ha

❖ Baby corn: -
➢ When silk comes out on the upper part of the plant two to three days after the corn is present,
this system is called baby corn. Baby corn is a good source of calcium iron and vitamins
21-57 g / 100 g of phosphorus in most vegetables are found in, but 86 milligrams are found
in baby corn. Baby corn cultivation first started in Thailand in the world.
❖ Suitable varieties: - VL-42, MEH-135, HIM-129, Golden Baby, Mridula etc. are the main
varieties.
❖ Sowing Time: - February to September
❖ Suitable distance: - 45x20 cm
❖ Irrigation: - This crop requires 400-450 ml of water.
❖ Harvesting and harvesting: - Harvesting 45-50 days after sowing. An average yield of 15-
20 quintals per hectare of peeled baby corn is obtained.

158 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

SORGHUM

Common Name: Sorghum, Jowar

Botanical Name: Sorghum bicolor

Family: Gramineae

❖ Important facts of Sorghum:

➢ Origin: East Central Africa
➢ Chromosome number: 2n=20, n=10
➢ Sorghum is known as “Camel crop” because it has the capacity to withstand against
drought.
➢ Sorghum crop for fodder purpose should be used after 50 % flowering because sorghum
leaves at knee stage possess a high amount of Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) which is
poisonous to the animals.
➢ Under draught condition if animals are grassed of sorghum leaves with 0.5gm of HCN
may be die.
➢ The best high yield variety of Rabi Jowar: M 35-1
➢ Drought and Salinity tolerant variety of sorghum: CSH-1
➢ First hybrid in 1964: CSH-1
➢ Most important male sterile variety: Combine kafir -60
➢ Sorghum is a C4 plant.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 159

 ➢ Sorghum is an often-cross pollination crop.
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal

❖ Climate:
➢ Sorghum requires warm climate but can be grown under a wide range of conditions.
➢ Sorghum plants can tolerate high temperature throughout their lifecycle.
➢ Total water requirement: 350 mm
❖ Temperature:

Minimum= 8-100C

Optimum = 32-350C

Maximum= 36-380C

❖ Soil:
➢ Soils with clay loam or loam texture.
➢ It does well in pH range of 6.0-8.5 as it tolerates considerable salinity and Alkalinity.
➢ The black cotton soil of central India is very good for its cultivation.
❖ Seed Rate, Spacing & Sowing Time:
Particulars Optimum Quantity/Time

Seed Rate Common 12-15 kg /ha

Fodder Purpose 30 -35 kg/ha

Depth 3-4 cm

Spacing (45 × 12) cm

Plant Population 1,80,000 plants (Approx.)

Sowing Time Last June to first week of July

160 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Manure & Fertilizer:

FYM : 10-15 N : 100 kg /ha

tonnes/ha

P : 50 kg /ha K : 40 kg/ha

❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen
Downy Mildew Peronosclerospora sorghi
Anthracnose and red rot - Colletotrichum graminicolum
Rust Puccinia purpurea
Ergot or Sugary disease Sphacelia sorghi
Grain smut / Covered smut Sphacelotheca sorghi

❖ Major Insect:
Insect Zoological name
Shoot fly Atherigona varia soccata
Sorghum midge Contarinia sorghicola
Shoot bug Peregrinus maidis

❖ Moisture at the time of Harvesting: The right stage for harvest is when grains have become
hard having less than 25 % moisture.
❖ Yield:
Type Yield
Rainfed condition 25-30 q/ha
Fodder 300-400 q/ha
Hybrid sorghum (Grain) 40-50 quintal per hectare

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 161

 BARLEY

Common Name: Barley

Botanical Name: Hordeum vulgare

Family: Gramineae

❖ Important Points
➢ Chromosome - 2n = 14 (diploid)
➢ Origin Place - Ethiopia (Northwestern Asia)
➢ Dwarf gene - UJU
➢ Husk free varieties - Dolma
➢ Country to find dwarf gene of barley - Japan
➢ Inflorescence - spike or spikelet (it is a type of racemose inflorescence) (NSC 2018)

162 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Stem - culm
➢ Fruit – Caryopsis
➢ Nutritive value: 11-12 percent protein, 1.8 percent phosphorus, 0.08 percent calcium, 5
percent fiber.
➢ Climate -
✓ Temperate climate, cold weather at the time of growth and hot weather at the time of
ripening are required.
✓ Barley is a Rabi season crop.
✓ 12–15°C is required for crop growth and 30°C for ripening.
➢ Soil:
✓ Fertilizer is a deep loam soil / barley salt tolerant crop.
✓ pH: 6.5-8.5
➢ Improved species:
✓ Three species of it are found in India.
✓ Hordeum vulgare (six row barley)
✓ Two rows barley.
✓ Hordeum Irregular & H. distichon
➢ Major Varieties: -
✓ Dolma - It is a non-peeled variety.
✓ Rekha - It holds high quality malt.
✓ BSH - 46 These are frost tolerant variety. There is no possibility of rotting the seeds.
✓ RD - 2052 - It is resistant to Molya disease.
✓ RD-387 - It is tolerant to nematode and Molya disease.
✓ HB - I - This is the first hybrid species.
➢ Sowing Time: -
Sowing Time Spacing Depth Seed Rate

non- 15 - 30 line to line 20-22 irrigated 4- irrigated 75 kg

irrigated November cm areas 5 areas per
cm (Early) ha

irrigated 15 - 20 plant to plant 10 cm irrigated 100

condition November areas kg /
(Late) ha

Line to line 23-25 non- 6-8 non- 80 -

(unirrigated cm irrigated cm irrigated 100
areas) areas areas kg /
ha

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 163

 Sowing in 100
Saline Soil kg /
ha

➢ Sowing methods
✓ In line sowing -
✓ Kera (for irrigated areas)
✓ Pora funnel method (for non-irrigated areas)
✓ Broadcasting method
✓ By seed drill
➢ Manures and Fertilizers: -
✓ Dung manure - 120 - 150 quintal / ha
✓ For irrigated area - 80: 50: 50 NPK per hectare
✓ For non-irrigated area - 50: 30: 30 NPK per hectare
✓ For late sowing - 40: 30: 20 NPK per hectare
➢ Water management: -
✓ Water requirement - 250-300 mm
➢ Major Disease
Leaf strip Disease Helminthosporium graminium

Yellow rust Puccinia dalumaram

Brown rust Puccinia hordei

Black rust Puccinia graminis tritici

Loose smut disease Ustiligo nuda (Seed Borne)

Powdery mildew disease Erysiphi gramanis

Molya disease nematode, (Heterodera avenae)

➢ Yield:

Grain yield 30-35 q / ha

Straw yield 40-45 q / ha

164 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

PEARL MILLET

Common Name: Bajra

Botanical Name: Pennisetum glaucum

Family : Gramineae

❖ Important facts about Pearl Millet:

➢ Origin: Africa
➢ Chromosome number: 2n=14, n=7
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal type
➢ 80 per cent phosphorus in grain stored in the form of ‘phytate’
➢ 1st Hybrid: HB-1 (Tift 23A x BIL 3B) in 1965
➢ HB-4 -1st hybrid developed by using local male parent, duration 80-85 days.
❖ Climate:
➢ Pearl millet is a rapid-growing warm weather crop.
➢ It has a high degree of resistance for drought conditions.
➢ The rainfall at flowering time is harmful as it washes off the pollen and consequently there
is poor seed setting.
➢ Temperature of 28 to 32ºC is optimum for vegetative growth.
❖ Bajra grains contain about –

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 165

 Moisture:
Protein: 11.6 % Fat: 5%
12.4%

Minerals: 2.7% Carbohydrates: 67%

❖ Soil:
➢ It does best on well drained sandy loams.
➢ It is sensitive to waterlogging.
➢ Pearl millet is sensitive to acidic soils.
❖ Seed rate:
Particulars Optimum Quantity/Time

Seed Rate Common 4-5 kg /ha

Fodder Purpose 10-12 kg/ha

Depth 2-3 cm

Spacing (45 × 12-15) cm

Plant Population 166000 plants/ha (Approx.)

Sowing Time June-July (It is chiefly a rainfed crop during monsoon

season.)

❖ Manure & Fertilizer:

FYM: 10- N: 100 kg

15 /ha
tonnes/ha

P: 50 kg
K: 40 kg/ha
/ha

166 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Major Disease:

Disease Pathogen

Downy mildew Sclerospora graminicola

Smut Tolyposporium penicillariae

Rust Puccinia pennisetti

Ergot or Sugary disease Claviceps fusiformis

❖ Moisture at the time of Harvest: Harvest the crop when grains are hard enough having
about 20 % moisture.
❖ Yield:

Type of Bajra Yield

Rain fed crop 12 to 16 quintals/ha

Irrigated crop 25 to 35 quintals/ha

Fodder 300-400q/ha

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 167

 FIBER CROPS

COTTON

Common Name: Cotton, Kapas

Botanical Name: Gossypium spp.

Family: Malvaceae

❖ Important facts about Cotton:

➢ Chromosome number:

Desi Cotton 26

American Cotton 52

➢ Origin: India
➢ Cotton is known as white gold.
➢ King of Appraisal fiber.
➢ Cotton length is measured by Arealometer.
➢ It is a facultative short day.

168 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Germination type: Epigeal
➢ The oil content in the cotton seed ranges from 15-25 % depending on the verities.
➢ Cotton seed cake is a good organic manure and contains about 6.5% N, 3% P, 2% K.
➢ Honeybees are principal pollinators.
➢ Seed cotton (Seed + lint) and cotton seed (Without lint)
➢ Cotton fiber is simply an elongation/outgrowth of an epidermal cell of seed coat. The long
outgrowth forms the ‘staple or lint’.
➢ Sympodial/cymose – Cotton growing branches.
➢ Monopodial/racemose – cotton stem branches or lateral branches.
➢ Square is the appearance of flower bud in cotton.
➢ Fibre quality is judged by- Staple length and fibre fineness.
➢ Micronaire is an instrument to measure fineness.
➢ Maturity of fibre is judged by Arealometer.
➢ The staple length of cotton fibre of short staple grade is less than 19 mm (PRE-PG-2018)
➢ Chemical Delinting of cotton seed can be done with Sulphuric Acid (IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ It is a highly salt tolerant crop (IBPS AFO 2018)
➢ For the agronomic production cotton is the main crop of Western plateau and hills
agroclimatic zone: (NABARD- 2021)
❖ Type of Cotton:

Desi Cotton Gossypium arborium

Gossypium harbaceum

American Cotton Gossypium hirsutum

Gossypium barbadense

❖ Comparative study of Desi and American Cotton:

Particulars Indian cotton American cotton

Seed rate (kg/ha) 10-12 18-20

Ginning per cent 36-42 28-32

Oil content (per cent) 26.0 18.0

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 169

 Cotton Name Plant height (m.) Fiber length(cm.)
Gossypium 1.5-2.0 1.25-2.0
arborium
Gossypium 1-1.5 1.5-2.50
harbaceum
Gossypium hirsutum 1.5 1.8-3.0
Gossypium 1.5 3.6-5.0
barbadense

❖ Climate:
➢ Cotton is a warm season crop.
➢ Minimum temperature of 16 oC is required for germination.
➢ For Proper vegetative growth 21-27 oC
➢ It can tolerate temperature as high as 43 oC.
❖ Soil:
➢ Black soil is best suitable for cotton.
➢ Cotton can be successfully grown on all soil except sandy, saline, and waterlogged soil.
➢ Cotton needs a fertile soil with good moisture holding capacity.
➢ Water requirement: 550 mm
❖ Seed rate, Spacing & Plant Population:

Type of Cotton Seed Rate Spacing Plant Population (Per

Hectare)

Desi Cotton 10-15 kg/ha. 60×15cm 1,11,111 plants

American Cotton 18-20 kg/ha. 60×30cm. 55600 plants

Hybrid Cotton 2-3 kg /ha. 100×60cm 1,66,666 plants

Bt Cotton 1-1.5 kg/ha. 10,000 plants

Ultra-Narrow Row 19×19cm 2,77,000 plants

(Developed in USA)

❖ Sowing Time:

170 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Region Month

Irrigated condition April - May

Non-irrigated condition June - July

North India 1st fortnight of May

Central India Last week of June to 1st week of July

In Tamil-Nadu September - October

❖ Manure & Fertilizer:

FYM: 15-20 N: 40-60 kg /ha

tonnes/ha

P: 25-30 kg /ha K: 25-30 kg/ha

❖ Critical stage of Irrigation: Flowering, Boll formation

❖ Ginning:
➢ Separation of fiber from the seed cotton is known as Ginning.
➢ In general, its range 33% (30-35%)
❖ Topping:
➢ Removal of terminal growing point once from each plant at a height of 1-1.2m (80-90 DAS)
to protect further terminal growth and to encourage sympodial branching and boll
development by diverting the energy flow.
❖ Nipping:
➢ Nipping is done 80-90 days after sowing.
❖ Bt. Cotton:
➢ Bacillus thuringensis is a soil bacterium that produces proteins lethal to insect larvae
affecting the digestive system of boll worms.
➢ GM cotton is only crop permitted by Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee
(GEAC) under Ministry of Environment and Forestry first permitted on March, 2002.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 171

 ➢ Varieties of cotton:
Interspecific Varalaxmi, DCH-32 (hybrid), HB-224, DHB-105

Intraspecific H-4, 6, Savita, Surya(hybrid), JKHY-1

➢ Cotton Management: Application of plant modifiers such as planofix (α-NAA) and

Cycocel (CCC) at 10 ppm near flowering (80-90 DAS) to protect further terminal growth
and to encourage sympodial branching and boll development by diverting the energy flow.
➢ Bad opening of bolls or Tirak: Bad opening of bolls is known as ‘tirak’ due to growing
cotton in soil with saline subsoils, decrease in N-content and increase in tannin content
during flowering and boll-formation phase and water starvation.
➢ Nepiness: Sometimes fibre thickness is not uniform, and knots present on the fibre are
also not distributed uniformly. It causes low grade.
❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen
Angular Leaf Spot or Black Arm Angular Leaf Spot or Black Arm Disease:
Disease:
Vascular Wilt Disease Fusarium oxysporum sp. Vasinfectum
Anthracnose Disease Colletotrichum gossypii
Root Rot Rhizoctonia bataticola

❖ Major Insect:
Insect Zoological name
American bollworm (Fruit borer) Helicoverpa armigera
Pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella
Spotted bollworms Earias vittella
Cotton Stem Weevil Pempheres (Pempherulus) affinis
Leaf roller Sylepta derogata
Leafhopper Amrasca (Biguttula biguttula)
devastans
Red cotton bug Dysdercus cingulatusi
Whitefly Bemisia tabaci

172 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Cotton aphid Aphis gossypii

❖ Yield:

Type of Cotton Yield

Average yields 11–17 quintals / ha

Common 15-20 q/ha.

Hybrid 25-30 q/ha

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 173

 JUTE

Common Name: Jute

Botanical Name: Corchorus spp.

Family: Tiliaceae

❖ Important Facts of Jute

➢ Origin: India
➢ Chromosome number: 2n= 14
➢ Jute is a parenchymatous fibre.
➢ Jute crop does not have hybrid seeds.
❖ Two types of cultivated varieties:
➢ Corchorus capsularis :
✓ It is hardy in nature and can grow well both on high and lowlands and able to tolerate
waterlogging conditions.
✓ It is also known as white Jute/Tita.
✓ Covers 70 % area of total Jute cultivation.
➢ Corchorus olitorius:

174 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ✓ Grown on well drained high lands only.
✓ It is also known as Mitha Pat/Tossa.
❖ Climate:
➢ Jute thrives best under a warm and humid climate with temperature range from 24 to 37oC.
➢ Optimum temperature being around 34oC.
❖ Soil:
➢ Jute can be grown on all kinds of soils from clay to sandy loam but loamy alluvial soil suits
it most.
➢ Laterite and gravely soils are not suitable for Jute crop.
➢ Normal soil pH 6-7.5.
❖ Sowing time:
Type of Jute Month

Capsularis March-April

Olitorious April –May

✓ Generally, April sowing gives the best results in both types of Jute.
❖ Seed rate:
Jute type Line sowing (kg/Ha) Broadcasting (kg/Ha)Spacing (cm)

Olitorius/ Tossa 5 7 25 x 5

Capsularis/ White7 10 30 x 5
Jute

❖ Production:
Green plant yield 45 to 50 tons per hectare

Fiber yield 2.0 to 2.5 t (20-25 q) per hectare

❖ Steeping/Soaking:
➢ After 2-4 days of harvesting the plants are shaken for complete leaf shedding and they are tied
in bundles of about 20-22cm in diameter.
❖ Process of Fibre Extraction:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 175

 Bundle Squeezing
Retting Strepping Washing
stalk excess

Storage/ Kucha
Bailing Sundry
Transport Packing

❖ Retting (RRB SO 2020):

➢ Retting of jute is a micro biological (Microbial) process.
➢ The fibre is obtained from Phloem by retting. Retting consists of disintegration of tissues by
micro-organism. Disintegration starts from cambium and extends to phloem and cortex.
➢ Retting is a process in which the tied bundles of jute stalks are taken to the tank by which
fibers get loosened and separated from the woody stalk.
➢ The bundles are steeped in water at least 60 cm to 100 cm depth.
➢ Gently flowing, deep, clear, and soft water are congenital for an ideal retting.
➢ The retting process is completed in 8 to 30 days, when the barks separate out easily from the
stick or wood and the fibers are ready for extraction.
➢ Optimum temperature for retting is about 34 oC.
➢ It completes within 10-15 days during July while 18-20 days during August-September
and 21-30 days after sept. (i.e., Oct.-Oct.)
❖ Stripping (Fiber Extraction):
➢ Stripping is the process of removing the fibers from the stalk after the completion of retting.
❖ Ribboning:
➢ This practice is very common in China and Taiwan, but not popular in India.
➢ It consists of peeled out of raw bark from the green plant, immediately after harvest and
bundles of the ribbons thus obtained are retted.
❖ Harvesting:
➢ For fibre purpose – Jute is harvest before flowering.
➢ Fiber crop based on economic use- JUTE (RRB SO 2018)
➢ Ideal stage for harvesting – small pod stage/initiation of pod formation (135-140 DAS)
➢ Ideal stage of jute harvesting is small pod formation or initiation of pod formation (130-
135 DAS).
➢ Jute harvesting lasts from June to October.
➢ Olitorius species grow in 4-5 months and Capsularis in 6-7 months.
➢ Jute is harvested any time between 120 days to 150 days when the flowers have been
shed, early harvesting gives good healthy fibers.

176 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ The plant from 8 to 12 feet high are cut with stickles at or close the ground level.
➢ The harvested plants are left in field for 3 days for the leaves to shed.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 177

 LEGUME CROPS

CHICKPEA

Common Name:
• Chickpea

Botanical Name:

• Cicer arietinum(Desi gram/Brown)

• Cicer Kabulium(Kabuli/Whitegarm)

Family:

• Leguminaceae / Papilonaceae

❖ Important facts about Chickpea:

➢ Chromosome no.: 2n =14 (Desi gram/Brown),16 (Kabuli/White gram)
➢ Kabuli/White gram- bold seed, yield poor, taller plant, branching poor.
➢ Origin: S.W. Asia
➢ India is the largest producer of Gram in the world sharing 65% area & 70 % of total
global production.
➢ Gram is major pulse crop in India followed by Pigeon pea.
➢ The sour taste of leaves and pods is due to the presence of Malic acid 90-96% and oxalic
acid 4-10%.
➢ Gram is a C3 plant.
➢ Gram is a long day plant.
➢ Gram fruit is known as Pod.

178 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Protein content in Gram 21.1 %
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal
❖ Climate:
➢ Chickpea is a winter season crop.
➢ It is highly susceptible to frost at flowering stage.
➢ It is generally grown under rainfed condition.
❖ Soil:
➢ Gram is grown on all kinds of soil, sandy loam to clay is considerable to be most suitable.
❖ Seed rate, Sowing Time, Spacing, Plant Population & Depth:

Seed Rate Sowing Time Spacing Plant Depth

Population
Early sown 75-80kg/ha 2nd fortnight of30 ×10 cm 3,33,333 plants8-10cm
Late sown 80-100 kg/ha October

❖ Depth: The seed should be placed 8-10cm deep because the shallow sown crop is more liable
to be damaged by wilt.
❖ Varieties:
➢ Pusa 256 (BG256): Most common and best for rainfed condition.
➢ C-235: Widely adopted for dryland, tolerant to Ascochyta blight.
➢ Gaurav: resistant to Ascochyta blight
➢ Avrodhi: resistant to wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) (and JG-74)
➢ Kabuli chamatkar and Udai are chickpea varieties from Haryana (IBPS-AFO 2016)
❖ Root system:
➢ The roots usually include a central strong tap root, with numerous lateral branches that
spread out in all directions in the upper layer of soils.
➢ There are numerous nodules on roots.
➢ The rhizobium bacteria present in these nodules fix up atmospheric nitrogen.
❖ Nipping/Topping:
➢ Nipping is the process of plucking the apical buds after 30-40 DAS, in order to stop apical
growth for promotion of lateral bud branching, yielding more pods, and yields.
➢ It can be done by a flock of sheep.
➢ Chemical for nipping TIBA @ 75 PPM Tri-iodo- benzoic Acid.
❖ Critical Stage: Pre flowering, Pod Development
❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 179

 Wilt Fusarium oxysporium sp. ciceri
Stem Rot Sclerotinia sclerotinia
Botrytis Grey mold Botrytis cineria
Rust Uromyces cicer
Powdery mildew Oidiopsis taurica
Ascochyta Blight Ascochyta rabiei

❖ Major Insect:
Insect Zoological name
Gram Pod Borer Helicoverpa armigera
Cut worm Agrotis ipsilon
Termites Odontotermes obesu
Semilooper Autographa nigrisigna

❖ Yield:
Desi gram 20-25 q/ha
Kabuli 12- 15 q/ha

180 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

PIGEON PEA

Common Name:
• Pigeon Pea

Botanical Name:
• Cajanas cajan

Family:
• Leguminaceae / Papilonaceae

❖ Important Facts about Pigeon Pea:

➢ Chromosome number: 2n = 22
➢ Origin: Africa
➢ Pigeon pea is also called as Arhar, Tur, Red gram.
➢ After chickpea, Arhar is the second most important pulse crop.
➢ The flowers are often cross-pollinated but some time cross pollinated. An average cross
pollination is 20 percent. A plant produces many flowers of which only 10 percent set pods.
➢ C3 , Short day plant.
➢ Hardy crop, most drought tolerant crop among major pulse.
➢ Harvest index is 19 % lowest in among pulses.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 181

 ➢ Germination type: Hypogeal
➢ Arhar crop works as mini fertilizer crop.
➢ It has the capacity to tolerate moisture stress to a greater extent because of its deep/ tap
rooted system.
➢ Protein content is 25 percent.
➢ Comparison between Arhar and Tur:

Plant characters Arhar Tur

Plant height (meter) 5-6 2-3
Flowering In Dec-Feb In Sept-Nov
Maturity Late (150-180 days) Early (100-150 days)

❖ Climate:
➢ Pigeon Pea is mainly grown in tropical & Sub-tropical.
➢ The crop prefers a moist and warm climate during the periods of its vegetative growth.
➢ It is highly susceptible to frost at flowering stage.
➢ Temp of 18 – 27°C is desirable
➢ However, it may vary to tolerate <10°C & >35°C
❖ Soil:
➢ It does best on fertile and well drained loamy soils.
➢ The saline- alkaline and waterlogged soils are unfit for its cultivation.
❖ Critical stage of Irrigation: Pre-flowering, Pod development

Seed Rate Sowing Spacing Plant Population Depth

Time
12-15 kg/ha- 15 June- Irrigated Early 60× Kharif- 55,000 4-6 cm
Pure Crop July crop 30cm plants/ha
Irrigated late 75 x 30
crop cm
Mixed crop- 6- In unirrigated 90 x 30
8 Kg/ ha areas cm

❖ Varieties of Pigeon pea with different characters:

Characteristics Varieties

182 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Early maturing (120 DAS) UPAS 120, Manak, Paras, Prabhat

Suitable for Rabi planting Sharad, bahar, Pusa 9

Drought and temperature tolerant Manak

Wilt resistant Amar, Azad, Maruthi, Pusa 9, Mukta

➢ Alachlor and Pendimethalin (as pre-emergence) and Basalin (as post-emergence) are
used to control weeds in pigeon pea field.
❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen

Sterility mosaic Virus (Vector : Eriophyid mite-Aceria

cajani)

Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporium

Rust Uredo cajani

❖ Major Insect:
Insect Zoological name

Gram pod borer Helicoverpa armigera

Plume moth Exelastis atomosa

Spotted pod borer Maruca testulalis

Field bean pod borer Adisura atkinsoni

Red gram pod fly Melanagromyza obtusa

Eriophyid mite: Aceria cajani (Vector of red gram

sterility mosaic virus)

❖ Harvesting and Sowing:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 183

 ➢ Early crop of Arhar is harvested in December January and late crop is harvested in March-
April.
➢ About 75 percent of the pods should be harvested when cooked. Its threshing is done with
the Pullman thresher.
❖ Yield:

Grain (Irrigated areas) 20-25 quintals/ha

Sticks 50-60 quintals/ha
Mixed crop 2-8 quintals/ha

➢ In storage time grain moisture should be 10-11%.

184 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

PEA

Common Name:
• Pea

Botanical Name:
• Pisum sativum

Family:
• Leguminaceae / Papilonaceae

❖ Important Points:
➢ Chromosome no. : 2n =14, n=7
➢ Origin: Mediterranean region of southern Europe and to western Asia.
➢ Germination type : Hypogeal
❖ Two types of peas are generally cultivated:

Garden pea Field Pea

Pisum sativum var. Hortense Pisum sativum var. arvense

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 185

 It is also called table pea. In this type the ripe, mature seeds are used as
the pulse (Dal)

In this type young, green seeds are mostly in

vegetables and also for canning purpose.

❖ Climate:
➢ Field pea requires a cool growing season, moderate temperatures are essential
throughout the growing season.
➢ For germination about 22 oC temperature is considered favorable.
➢ The optimum monthly temperature suitable for its growth is 13-18 0C
❖ Soil:
➢ A well-drained soil is essential for successful production of field pea.
➢ Field pea is highly sensitive to water logging; hence a well-drained loam soil is
considered best for pea cultivation.
➢ They tolerate a moderate soil pH range (6.5-7.5). The optimum pH is 6.5
❖ Seed rate, Spacing & Sowing Time:

Seed Rate Spacing Sowing Time

Garden pea 100-120 kg/ha 30x10cm Second fortnight of

October (For Field
Peas)- North India

Field pea 75-80 kg/ha Sowing after

October- Drastic
Yield reduction

❖ Critical stage of Irrigation: Pre-flowering, Pod development

❖ Maturity of pea is measured by: Tendrometer
❖ Variety:
➢ Arkel variety is sickle shaped pods.
➢ Sylvia: Whole pod is edible.
➢ Aparna is first dwarf variety.
❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen

186 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. pisi

Powdery mildew Erysiphe polygoni

Rust Uromyces fabae

❖ Yield:

Garden pea 80-120 q/ha.

Field pea 20-25 q/ha

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 187

 OILSEED CROPS:

SOYBEAN

Common Name:
• Soybean

Botanical Name:
• Glycine max

Family:
• Leguminaceae / Papilonaceae

❖ Important Points
➢ Origin: Eastern Asia or China. (State exam Rajasthan-2017)
➢ It is also known as wonder crop or yellow jewel and meat for the poor.
➢ Inflorescence: Raceme
➢ Fruit: Pod
➢ Soybean is C3 and short-day plant.
➢ Soybeans contain 42 % protein and 20 % oil.

188 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Germination type: Epigeal
➢ Due to presence of enzyme Lipoxidase, soybean is not used as dal which produces off
flavour.
➢ Linoleic acid: 56-60% (Soybean) (Unsaturated fat), in Sunflower: 64%, in safflower
78% (highest)
➢ Greenness in soybean grains is due to chlorophyll and yellowness to anthocyanin
pigments.
❖ Climate:
➢ Soybean grow well in warm and moist climate.
➢ Minimum Temperature : 10 0c
➢ Optimum temperature : 26.50c-30 0c
➢ Soil temperatures of 15.5 0c or above favor rapid germination and vigorous seedling
growth.
❖ Soil:
➢ Well drained and fertile loam soils with a pH between 6.0-7.5 are most suitable for the
Soybean.
➢ Sodic and saline soils inhabit germination of seeds.
❖ Seed rate & Spacing:

Seed Rate Spacing Plant Depth ofSowing Time

Population Sowing
Common 70-80 30x10cm 3-4 lakh3-4 cm 3rd week of June to
kg/ha plants/ha 1st fortnight of July

Late 100-120 Kharif June July

planting kg/ha
Kharif 70-80 Spring February -
kg / ha March
spring 100 kg /
season ha

❖ Critical stage of Irrigation:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 189

 Sprouting Flowering Pod filling
stage. stage. stage.

Grain
development
stage.
➢ Nodule formation starts 2-3 weeks after sowing and nitrogen fixation start 2 weeks after
nodule formation up to 6-8 weeks.
➢ Nodule formation by Rhizobium japonicum.
➢ First nodules are visible on 10th days after sowing.
❖ Weed control:
➢ Nitrofen (TOK-25) Pre-emergence selective herbicide for all annual grasses and broad-
leaved weeds, @ 1.5-2.0 kg a.i./ha in 800-1000 lit. water.
➢ Fluchloralin (Basalin): Pre-plant incorporation @ 1kg a.i./ha
➢ Metribuzin (sencor): Pre emergence herbicide effective against annual grasses and broad
leave weeds @ 1 kg a.i. /ha.
❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen
Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina
Collar rot / Sclerotial blight Sclerotium rolfsii.
Yellow mosaic Virus (Vector: white fly –Bemisia
tabaci)

❖ Major Insect:
Insect Zoological name

Girdle beetle Oberea (Obereopsis) brevis

Stem Fly Melanagromyza sojae

Tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera litura

Bihar hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua

190 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Harvesting:
➢ Soybean crop takes 90-140 days to prepare.
➢ Done at 20 percent seed moisture, when leaves start dropping pods dried.
➢ Pod formation stage is ideal to harvest for fodder purpose.

❖ Yield:
➢ At harvest the moisture content of the seeds 15-20 %.
➢ Improved varieties of Soybean yield 30-35 quintals of grain per hectare.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 191

 GROUNDNUT:

Common name: Groundnut

Botanical name: Arachis hypogea

Family: Leguminosae

❖ Important Points:
➢ Origin: Brazil in south America
➢ Chromosome no.: 2n= 40, n=20
➢ Known as Peanut/earthnut/monkey nut
➢ Groundnut is a modified fruit. Fruit of groundnut is Nut and fruit type is Lomentum.
➢ Gynophore of groundnut is known as Peg (Intercalary meristem from fertilized flower).
➢ Ratio of flower: Pegs: Pods is 7: 4: 1.
➢ Self-Pollinated
➢ C3, Short day plants
➢ Germination type: Hypogeal
➢ Groundnuts contain 45 % oil in kernel and 26 % protein in kernel.
➢ Shelling %: 70 %
➢ Groundnut cake contains 7-8 percentage nitrogen.
➢ Generally, Groundnut grown during Rabi season gives higher yield as compared to kharif
season crops due to fewer incidences of insect and pests and diseases.
➢ Check Basin irrigation is most suitable irrigation method for groundnut.

192 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ IW/CPE ratio of groundnut is 0.6.
➢ Earthing-up is done in groundnut crop at 35 to 45 days after sowing to facilitate proper
development of pegs beneath soil and increases number of seeds per pod.
➢ Groundnut has lowest Seed Replacement ratio (IBPS AFO 2019)
❖ Classification:

Classification:

Erect/Bunch Spreading/traili
type ng type

Arachis Arachis
hypogaea var. hypogaea var.
fastigiata procumbens

❖ Climate:
➢ Groundnut is essentially a tropical plant.
➢ It requires a long and warm growing season.
➢ It seems that plant will grow best. A temp range of 25-30°C
➢ < 20°C and > 35°C growth gets retarded
❖ Soil:
➢ Groundnut thrives best in well-drained sandy and sandy loam soils, as light soil helps
in easy penetration.
➢ Clay or heavy soil are not suitable for this crop.
➢ Soil with pH between 6.0-6.5.
❖ Seed rate:

Bunch varieties 100-120 kg/ha Depth

Spreading varieties 80-100 kg/ha 5 cm

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 193

 ❖ Depth: Sowing should be done about 5 cm deep behind the plough or with the help of dibbler
or seed planter.
❖ Sowing time, Spacing and Plant Population:

Sowing Time Spacing Plant Population

Kharif Last week of Bunch 30 x15 Bunch 2.22

June to 1st week cm lakh/ha
of July
Rabi November – Spreading 45 x 15 Spreading 1.48
December cm lakh/ha

Rabi 4.44
lakh/ha

❖ Methods of sowing: -
➢ Sowing behind plow
➢ Dibbler method
➢ By seed planter method
❖ In groundnut:

In
groundnut

7-8% N 1.5 % P 1.5 % K

❖ Critical Irrigation stage:

194 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Flowering

Pegging

Pod
formation

❖ Aflatoxin: Aflatoxin is produced in groundnut when infected by Aspergillus flavus group of

fungi mainly during in storage.
❖ Bitterness of kernel is due to aflatoxin (toxic substances) developed by two reasons:
➢ When pod moisture content is > 8 percent
➢ Fungus namely Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus.
❖ Resistant varieties against Aflatoxin are CGC-2,7 and Faizpur.
❖ Major disease:
Disease Pathogen

Early leaf spot (Fungal) Cercospora arachidicola

Late leaf spot (Fungal) Cercospora personatum

Rust Puccinia arachidis

Stem rot Sclerotium rolfsii

❖ Major Insect:
Insect Zoological name

White grubs (Major pest): Holotrichia consanguinea,

Aphids Aphis craccivora

Groundnut bud borer Anarsia ephippias

Pod borer Anisolabis stalli

Pod bug Aphanus sordidus

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 195

 Groundnut leaf miner Aproaerema modicella

Note: Bud necrosis of Groundnut is caused due to thrips (RRB SO 2018)

❖ Yield:
Bunch Type 15-20 q/ha

Spreading Type 20-30q/ha

196 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

MUSTARD:

Common name: Mustard

Botanical name: Brassica spp.

Family: Cruciferae (AFO 2021)

❖ Important Points:
➢ B.N: Brassica spp.
➢ Family: Cruciferae
➢ Origin: China
❖ Harvest Index- 25%
❖ Pungency is due to isothiocyanate, enzyme hydrolysis product of Glycosinolates
❖ Mustard species:

B. campestris Sarson

B. napus Rapeseed

B. juncea Brown mustard (Indian)

B. nigra Black mustard

B. carinata Ethiopian mustard

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 197

 B. rapa Toria

Eruca sativa Taramira

❖ Climatic requirements:
➢ Mustard thrives well in dry and cool climate, therefore mustard mostly grown as Rabi
season crop.
➢ This crop does not tolerate frost.
➢ Mustard crop requires the temperatures between 10°C to 25°C.
➢ Optimum 18-25°C with cool, dry clear weather
❖ Soil:
➢ Mustard can be grown in wide varieties of soils that ranges from light to heavy loamy
soils.
➢ Soil ideal pH range for Mustard is 6.0 to 7.5.
❖ Sowing time, Depth, seed rate and spacing:

Sowing Time Depth Seed Rate Spacing

Sept – Oct 6 cm (For better Pure 4-6 kg/ha Mustard 45cm x

months germination) mustard /Rai 20cm

Toria: last Mixed 2 – 3 kg/ Toria 30 x

fortnight of crop hectare /Rapeseed 10cm.
September Rapeseed 4 kg / ha

Note: Mustard crop planted at a spacing of 50 × 20 cm will have 100000 plants per hectare
(BHU-2018)

❖ Total water requirement - 400mm

❖ Critical stage of irrigation:
➢ Rosette stage (20-30 DAS)
➢ Siliqua formation stage
➢ Moisture at pre-flowering and pod filling stage is critical.
❖ Varieties:
➢ Pusa Jai Kisan: Its first variety Brassica juncea developed in the world. Variety
development is through somatic hybridization
➢ NRCHB-506 : It is the first hybrid of mustard in India developed from Directorate of
Rapeseed and Mustard Research ,Bharatpur Rajsthan

198 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen

Sclerotinia Stem Rot Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

White Rust Albugo candida
Downy Mildew Peronospora parasitica
Alternaria Black Spot Alternaria brassicae

❖ Major Insect:
Insect Zoological name
Diamondback moth Plutella xylostella
Leaf webber Crocidolomia binotalis
Mustard saw fly Athalia lugens proxima
Cabbage head borer Hellula undalis
Mustard aphid Lipaphis erysimi
Painted bug Bargrada hilaris cruciferarum

❖ Harvesting and Threshing:

➢ The rapeseed crop is ripened in 90-100 days and the mustard crop 120-150 days.
❖ Yield:

Rapeseed 14-20 q/ha

Mustard 20-25 q/ha

Mustard + Rapeseed 3-5 quintals

pure unirrigated crop 10-12 quintal

irrigated crop 12-15 quintal

unirrigated rye 15-20 quintal

irrigated rye 20-25 quintal / ha

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 199

 SESAMUM:

Common name: Sesamum

Botanical name: Sesamum indicum

Family: Pedaliaceae

❖ Important Points:
➢ Origin: India
➢ Sesame crop contains 18-20 % Protein and 50 % oil.
➢ It is regarded as queen of oilseeds
❖ Climate:
➢ It is generally cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical.
➢ Ideal temperature for sesame cultivation is between 25 °C – 27 °C
➢ A rainfall of 500-650 mm
❖ Soil:
➢ Soil is well drained and light loamy soil for better growth performance.
➢ Adding well rotten Farmyard Manure to the soil is beneficial in getting higher yields.
➢ Sandy soils and saline are not suitable for sesame cultivation.
❖ Seed rate, depth and spacing:

200 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Seed rate Depth Spacing

3-4 kg/Ha Not more than 3 cm 30 x 30 cm

➢ Critical stage of Irrigation: 4-5 leaf stage, Flowering, Pod formation

❖ Major Disease:
Disease Pathogen
Sesamum phyllody Phytoplasma(Transmitted by the
vector Orosius albicintus)
Bacterial blight Xanthomonas campestris pv. sesami
Cercospora leaf spot / White Cercospora sesami
spot

❖ Major Insect:
Insect Zoological name

Leaf Webber, roller and capsule borer Antigastra catalaunalis

Hawk or Dead head moth Acherontia styx

Linseed gall fly Dasyneura sesame

Gall fly Asphondylia sesami

Leaf hopper Orosius albicinctus

Aphids Aphis gossypii

❖ Yield:
➢ Average: 8-10 q/ha.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 201

 SUNFLOWER

Common name: Sunflower

Botanical name: Helianthus annus

Family: Compositae

❖ Important Points
➢ Chromosome no.: 2n= 34
➢ Origin: Southern United states & Mexico
➢ Auxin activity is more in Apical portion of flower.
➢ Sunflower is a facultative short-day plant.
➢ The head of sunflower is called as Capitulai.
➢ Sunflower contains 45-50% oil.
➢ Germination type: Epigeal
❖ Climate: The crop requires a cool climate during germination and seedling growth.
➢ Seedlings tolerate frosts moderately well until they reach the four to six leaf stage of
development.
➢ It requires warm weather from the seedling stage up to flowering stage and warm and
sunny days during flowering to maturity.

202 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Temperature:
➢ Temp range 8-34°C
➢ Optimum 20 & 25°C
➢ Requires cooler (15-20°C) growing period and warmer maturing period (20-25°C)
➢ Base minimum is 10°C
❖ Soil:
➢ Sunflower can be grown on a wide range of soils and tolerates a moderate pH range
and some salinity.
➢ It thrives best on deep loam soils with good drainage and irrigation facilities.
➢ The optimum range of soil pH for this crop is 6.5 to 8.5.
➢ Complete failure in sandy soil with pH 4.6

❖ Sowing time, Seed Rate, depth and spacing:

Sowing Time Seed Rate Depth Spacing

Kharif July to 1st Normal 8- 10 3-4 cm depth for Kharif 60 x 20

week of kg/ ha better stand. cm
August
Rabi November Hybrid 6-7 kg / Rabi 45 x 20
1st to 2nd Varieties ha cm
week
Summer February
2nd week

❖ Critical stage of irrigation:

➢ Bud initiation (35-40 DAS)
➢ Flower opening (55-65 DAS)
➢ Seed filling (65-90 DAS)

Disease Pathogen

Alternaria blight Alternaria carthami

Leaf spot Cercospora carthami

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 203

 Powdery mildew Erysiphe cichoracearum

❖ Major Disease:

❖ Major Insect:
Insect Zoological name

Capitulum borer (Head borer) Helicoverpa armigera

Bihar hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua

Shield bug Galeatus scrophicus)

Green jassid Amsacta biguttula

❖ Yield:
➢ The sunflower crop is ready for harvest when moisture in seed is 20 percent.
➢ Average yield: 18-20 q/hectare.

Package variety 15-20 q / ha

Hybrid variety 20-30 q / ha

204 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

SUGARCANE

Common Name: Sugarcane

Botanical Name: Saccharum spp.

Family: Gramineae

❖ Important Points:
➢ Chromosome no.: 80
➢ Sugarcane is octoploid in nature and propagated by vegetative outcrossing: (NABARD-
2021)
➢ Origin: Indo-Burma.
❖ Sugarcane is also known as:
➢ Heavy feeder crop,
➢ Intermediate day length & perennial plant,
➢ Most important cash crop,
➢ Highest water consuming crop.
❖ India’s position in area and production of Sugarcane is 2nd.
❖ Brazil > India > Cuba > China
❖ Cuba is known as Sugarcane bowl of world.
❖ India’s leading sugarcane producing states are UP>MH>TN.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 205

 ❖ Sugarcane has highest P2O5 consumption (IBPS AFO 2018)
❖ Classification:
➢ S. officinarum: Noble/thick/and juicy cane, low fiber, content, 2n:80
➢ S. barberi: Indian cane, medium sucrose and high fiber content. 2n: 82-124
➢ S. sinense: Chinese cane, medium sucrose, high fiber content. 2n: 118
➢ S. spontaneum (Wild)
➢ S. robustum (Wild)
❖ Classification:

Classification

Tropical cane Indian cane Wild cane

Saccharum Saccharum Saccharum Saccharum Saccharum

officinarum barberi sinensis spontaneum robustum

❖ Climate:
➢ Sugarcane is a tropical plant.
➢ It grows most successfully in those regions where the climate is more or less tropical.
➢ Water requirement is 2000 mm.
➢ It is a long duration crop.
➢ Best temperature suited for sugarcane is 28-32°C.
➢ For ripening, relatively low temperatures in the range of 12° to 14° are desirable.
❖ Soil:
➢ Sugarcane cane be grown on all types of soil ranging from sandy loam to clay loam.
➢ Well drained loamy soil is best suitable for sugarcane.
➢ Saline, alkaline and acidic soil are not suitable for this crop.
➢ Optimum soil pH required is 6.5-7.5
❖ Planting season: In India, sugarcane is planted thrice a year –
Season Month Planted in region Crop Duration

206 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Spring (About 85 Feb.- March North India 12 Month
percent of the area
in India is sown in
this season)

Autumn (Sowing Sept.- October North India 12 Month

in this season
yields 15-20
percent more
yield.)

Adsali/Eksali July-Aug. South India 18 Month

❖ Prominent sugarcane-based cropping system in tropical and subtropical regions of the

country
Sub-tropical Tropical region

Paddy- Autumn Sugarcane-ratoon- Bajra-Sugarcane(pre-seasonal)-Ratoon-

wheat wheat

Green gram- Autumn Sugarcane- Paddy-Sugarcane-Ratoon- Finger millet

ratoon-wheat

Maize- Autumn Sugarcane-ratoon- Paddy-Sugarcane-Ratoon- Wheat

wheat

Kharif Crops-Potato-Spring Paddy-Sugarcane-Ratoon- gingelly

Sugarcane-ratoon-Wheat

Kharif Crops-Mustard-Spring Paddy-Sugarcane-Ratoon- urd

Sugarcane-ratoon-Wheat

Kharif Crops-Pea/Coriander-Spring Cotton-Sugarcane-Ratoon–wheat

Sugarcane ratoon-Wheat

Kharif Crops-Wheat-late Planted Sugarcane-Ratoon-Kharif rice-Winter rice

Sugarcane-ratoon-Wheat

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 207

 ❖ Seed rate:
➢ Planted setts should have 3 buds with 10-to-12-month age.
3 budded 35,000-40,000 setts/ha

2 budded 80,000 setts/ha

1 budded 1, 20,000 setts/ha

➢ Immature crop of sugarcane gives better germination because due to nitrogenous substances
and glucose.
➢ Upper 1/3 portion of sugarcane plant is mainly used for sowing. The upper 1/3 of the
sugarcane contains a high amount of soluble nitrogen-rich substances, moisture, glucose.
Normally only 50-60 percent of the sugarcane buds germinate.
➢ Zero tillage is mostly practiced in Sugarcane.
➢ Saline soil is unfit for cultivation of sugarcane.
➢ Blind/light hoeing is done at 1 week after planting.
➢ Earthing up is done at 4 months after planting to protect from lodging, facilitate irrigation
and economical water use efficiency.
❖ Planting method:
➢ Flatbed planting: Shallow furrow 8-10 cm deep, spacing 75-90 cm, generally 3 budded
setts, end to end planting. Popular in North India and some part of south India.
➢ Furrow method: Deep furrow 10-15 cm in North India while 20 cm deep furrow in
south India. Practiced in eastern UP and peninsular India in heavy soils.
➢ Trench/Java method: u shaped trenches, 20-15 cm deep furrow at 75-90 cm, common
in java and coastal areas.
➢ Partha method: South TN, field is divided into ridges and furrow and 3 budded setts
are planted at an angel of 45o on ridges, leaving at least one bud above the soil. After
germination or shoots are emerges from buds when plants attain a height of 20-25 cm,
the setts are pressed horizontally.
➢ Spaced planting techniques: developed at IISR, Lucknow, single budded setts are
planted in nursery @ 20 q/ha or 18000 setts/ha, after 45-60 days single budded setts are
transplanted in field.
➢ Winter nursery system: developed at IISR, Lucknow, 3 budded setts let close together
in the nursery bed in the month of December. After 5-6 weeks when setts are sprouted,
polythene sheets are removed. Such type of setts is called ‘Slip setts’ and the sett rate is
70 sq/ha for 3 budded thick variety and 50 q/ha for thin variety.

208 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Rayungans method: Indonesian team meaning a developed cane shoot with single
sprouted bud. A portion of field is selected for Rayungan production is left at harvesting
time. Top of the cane is cut off which results auxiliary buds began to sprout. After 3-4
weeks sprouted buds are separated in a single bud sett and transplanted on ridges. It is
not practiced in India due to high cost.
➢ Sablang/sprouting method: Tillers, soon after they develop their own root are separated
from the mother plants are planted separately. It is successfully grown in java and Cuba.
➢ Tjeblock method: Improvement over Rayungans method because it takes care of proper
availability of energy and nutrient to all the buds. Upper buds of both Tjeblocks and
mother canes, which sprout in due course of time are planted by cutting them into setts
a Rayungans.
➢ Algin method: Upper most nodes are collected while stripping the canes of crusting,
then is planted in wheat field in rows after every 4 rows of wheat at 90 cm x 50 cm.
Developed by Allahabad Agricultural Institute, Allahabad.
❖ Nutrient management:
N 150-250 KG 50% Basel Dose

25% after 3 months of planting

25% after tillering stage

P 100-150 KG

K 100-150 KG

S 15-20 KG

ZnsO4 10 KG

➢ Higher dose of nitrogen enhances vegetative growth, resulting in reduced sucrose

content.
➢ Application of nitrogen fixing (Azospirillum and Glucan acetobacter) and phosphate
solubilizing (Phospho bacteria) bio-fertilizers were found to reduce the requirement of
chemical fertilizers to the extent of 25%.
❖ Irrigation Phases of Sugarcane:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 209

 Germination phase – 0 to 60 DAP

Formative phase – 60-130 DAP

Grand phase – 130-250 DAP

Maturity phase – 250-365 DAP

➢ Most critical stage for irrigation is Formative stage.

➢ Formative (Tillering) and Grand phase are the most sensitive for water stress.
Crop stages Time (day) Water requirement (cm)

Germination 60 days from sowing 30

Tillering 60 to 130 days 55

GGP 130 to 250 100

Ripening 250 to 365 65

❖ Improved varieties: - improved varieties were developed in India in 1912 at SBI

Coimbatore. Sir T S Venkataraman developed the first Interspecific sugarcane hybrid
in India is CO-205.
❖ Major varieties: CO-419 - wonder varieties are CO-313, CO - 392, CO-327, CO - 1148,
COJ-671, CO - 8371, CO - 85004, etc.
❖ Co8152 is the gamma ray mutant of sugarcane from Co527 (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Symptoms for Judging Sugarcane maturity:
➢ Arrowing and plant’s growth is stopped.
➢ Cane become brittle, produces metallic sound and breaks easily at nodes (most
important symptoms)
➢ Buds swell out at nodes.

210 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Sugarcane crop is considered matured, if samples of juice taken from the middle
portions of the stalks show the hand refractometer (Brix (Brix
hydrometer/Refractometer)) reading from 18 to 22. (PRE-PG-2018).
➢ TSS for sugarcane ripening determination- brix: 20 (AFO-2022)
➢ Glucose content is < 0.5 per cent when tested by Fehling solution.
❖ Crop Logging:
➢ Crop Logging is a method of plant analysis for assessing nutrient requirement of crops,
given by H.F. Clements.
➢ It was used in sugarcane in Hawaii.
➢ Potassium (K) is responsible for translocation of sugar in sugarcane.
❖ Institute/Organization related to sugarcane:
➢ Breeding Institute (SBI), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
➢ Institute of Sugarcane Research, (IISR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
➢ Indian Sugar Institute (ISI), Kanpur
➢ Indian Sugar Mills Association, New Delhi
➢ National Federation of Cooperative Sugar Factories Ltd (NFCSF), New Delhi
➢ AICRP on sugarcane was stated in 1970-71.
❖ International:
➢ International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, Mauritius,
➢ Brazilian Society of Sugar and Ethanol Technologists, Brazil.
❖ Recovery: In north India, the crop is harvested earlier (in 10-12 months) yields about 600-
1000 Quintals per hectare and in south India harvested later (in 18 months). It yields about
800-1300 Quintals per hectare.

Juice by ordinary crusher 50-65%

Juice by Power crusher 60-70%

Juice by Vacuum crusher 70-75%

Sucrose Content in Cane 13-24%

Gur recovery from Juice 10 %

Crystallized Sugar from Gur 62.5%

Molasses 3.5-4 %

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 211

 Rab 18 -20 %

❖ Major disease:
Disease Pathogen

Red rot Colletotrichum falcatum (Perfect stage:

Physalospora tucumanensis)

Smut Ustilago scitaminea

Sett rot or Pineapple disease Ceratocystis paradoxa

Wilt Cephalosporium sacchari

Gummosis Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vasculorum

Red stripe Pseudomonas rubrilineans

Ratoon stunting Clavibacter xyli sub sp. xyli

Grassy shoot Phytoplasma

❖ Major Insect:

Insect Zoological name

Early shoot borer Chilo infuscatellus snellen

Internode Borer Chilo sacchariphagus indicus

Top Shoot Borer: Scirpophaga excerptalis

Sugarcane Wooly Aphid Ceratovacuna lanigera

Mealybug Saccharicoccus sacchari

Scale Insects Melanaspis glomerata

Whiteflies Aleurolobus barodensis

212 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Yield:
N. India 60-100 tonnes/ha

S. India 80-130 tonnes/ha

With proper management 700-900 quintal / ha

Average yield 60-70 t/ha

Unseeded sugarcane 1000–1200 q / ha

Juice yield 65-75 percent

Sugar yield 6-10 per cent from juice

Sucrose content 14-17 per cent

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 213

 TOBACCO:

Common Name: Tobacco

Botanical Name: Nicotiana tabacum

Family: Solanaceae

❖ Important Points:
➢ Chromosome no. : 2n=48
➢ Origin : Central America.
➢ Its fruit is the capsule.
➢ It is a self-pollinated crop.
➢ 2000–5000 seeds are produced in a flower.
➢ There are about 11 million seeds in one kg.
❖ Indian tobacco has two spp.:

Nicotiana tabacum Nicotiana rustica

214 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Plant height 150-250 cm, Large and Plant smaller than tabacum
narrow leaf

Nicotine content is 0.5-5.5 % Nicotine content is 3.5 – 8%

Used for smoking and chewing Used for hookah, chewing, and snuff
purpose purpose.

Grown on light soils Mostly grown on heavy soils.

❖ Classification Based on Use of tobacco’s:

1. Hookah tobacco (0.2–1.5% nicotine)
2. Bidi tobacco (6-8% nicotine)
3. Cigar tobacco (2-3% nicotine)
4. Cheroot Tobacco (3-4% Nicotine)
5. Inhale tobacco (from 3.2 to 4.8% nicotine)
6. Wrapping a tobacco (2 - 3.5% of nicotine)
7. Cigarette tobacco (1-2% nicotine)

❖ Climate:
➢ Tobacco is a tropical crop.
➢ Sensitive Waterlogging.
➢ Average temp of 26°C.
➢ Tobacco seeds require about 21°C temperature for germination.
➢ Rainfall / irrigation during active vegetative growth is essential
❖ Soil:
➢ Tobacco is adapted to moderately acidic soils with a pH ranging from 5.5 to 6.5.
➢ Tobacco is cultivated in light to heavy loam soils.
➢ Sodic soil is unfit for tobacco production because the plants absorb a lot of chloride
ions which results a poor burning quality of leaves.
Tobacco 's type Suitable soils

Bidi tobacco Light loam to mid loam

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 215

 Cigarette tobacco Smooth loam , red loam, and alluvial soil

Cigar - Filler Heavy soil

Cheroot Sandy to sandy loam

Cigar wrapping Light to loam soil

Chewing and hookah Loamy loam to smooth loam

❖ Sowing time and seed rate:

Sowing Time Seed rate

Second fortnight of August 2-3 kg/ha

❖ Planting time:
➢ In the nursery, sowing of seeds is done at different times according to the areas.

Cigarette Tobacco August or September

Beedi Tobacco First week of July

Cheroot Tobacco Early August

Hookah Tobacco Mid-November to Mid-December

Sowing in Uttar Pradesh (done (a) August to mid-September

twice)
(b) February to March

❖ Transplanting of plants in the field:

➢ When the plants reach 10-15 cm height, they can be planted in the field.
➢ The plants become transplantable in 35-45 days.
➢ Transplanting should always be done in the evening.
Tobacco variety Distance (in cm)

Cigarette tobacco 85 x 85

216 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Bidi tobacco 90 x 90

Hookah tobacco 60 x 45

Chewing tobacco 75 x 75

Cheroot tobacco 60 x 60

Sniffing tobacco 75 x 60

Cigar tobacco 90 x 45

❖ Improved varieties of tobacco based on use -

➢ Cigarette Tobacco (Flue cured Virginia) Bhagya Shree, Godavari Special, Dhanadevi,
Kanak Prabha, Virginia Gold etc. 7
➢ Bidi Tobacco: Kalayu, Pilayu, Gandhayu, Kalipat, Anand-2, Anand-119, Nipani,
Sangli, Mirji, S-20 etc.
➢ Chewing Tobacco: Bhagyalakshmi, Vairam Thangam, Maraga Dhan, Bhavani Special,
Gandak Bahar, Sona, Prabha, Anand - 145 (Chewing Zarda), Gujarat Calcutta - 1
➢ Cigar Tobacco - Wrapper - Dakshi Shed Ring, Rangpur Sumatra Filling - Havana - 381,
Olor - 10.
➢ Hookah tobacco (kolkatiya): Jeti, Chama, Motihari, Hemati, Sonar, Betri etc.
❖ Important Operation:
➢ Topping: Removal of flower heads either alone or with few upper/top leaves from the
plant to improve the size and quality of leaves.
➢ De-suckering:
✓ After topping auxiliary bud grow; removal of such lateral branches or suckers/
auxiliary buds is called de-suckering.
✓ The main aim of topping and de-suckering is to divert energy and nutrient from flower
head to leaves.
➢ Priming:
✓ Removal of mature leaves
✓ Entire harvest needs 5-6 priming.
✓ Used in cigarette and wrapper tobacco.
➢ Curing:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 217

 ✓ It is essentially a drying whereby most of the moisture of leaf is removed to impart
required color, texture, and aroma to the final product.
✓ 85-90 percent relative humidity is best for tobacco curing.
✓ E.g., Flue curing used for cigarette process.
❖ Curing:
Types of Tobacco Related curing process

Cigarette Flue curing

Cigar, Cheroot, Chewing Rack curing

Hookah and Snuff Ground/ Sun curing

Chewing /Hookah Pit curing

Bidi, Snuff, Chewing, Hookah Fire curing

❖ Methods of curing:
(a) Air curing:
✓ In this method, ropes are tied on them by wearing thick bamboo. And 4-5 leaves hang
together. This work is done in an open place, but thatch etc. is also used in the rainy
season.
✓ This process is completed in 45-60 days.
(b) Sun curing:
✓ In this method, before planting in some places, the plants hang the sticks on the poles
and then collect the plants in a heap. The fermentation process occurs by gathering in
a pile. Stacks are kept in reverse at 4-5 days interval. This action is completed in 4-5
months.
(c) Flue curing:
✓ This method of preparation is used in cigarette tobacco. The work of making is done in
a special type of room. In which wood and coal are burnt to produce heat and smoke.
Due to these, the starch of the leaves turns into sugar.
(d) Fire curing:
✓ It is used in chewing tobacco.
✓ This action is completed in 5-6 months.
✓ At the time of hatching, brown spots appear on the leaves, which is called spawning.

218 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Harvesting:
❖ Priming Method:
✓ Ripe leaves are removed many times in this method.
✓ The first priming is done in cigarette tobacco, 70-75 days after transplanting and the
next priming at a difference of about one week. 2-3 leaves are plucked in a priming.
✓ A total of 5-6 priming crops are harvested, depending on the number of leaves (may be
18 - 26) and the season.
❖ Harvesting of entire plant:
✓ Beedi tobacco is cooked in 145 days and cheroot tobacco is cooked in about 90-100
days after transplanting.
✓ Hookah and food tobacco are cooked 100-120 days after transplanting.
❖ Yield:
✓ Its economic yield is the weight of the leaves of tobacco. The yield per hectare from
different varieties of tobacco are as follows –

Bidi Tobacco 650 – 900

chew tobacco 800-1600

Hookah (cherry) 1200-1600

Cigarette Tobacco 750 – 900

Cigars and Cheroot 1000 to 1200

Hookah Tobacco (desi) 750-800

❖ Storage:
✓ Tobacco leaves can be stored for 1-2 years without any damage, due to 10-12 percent
moisture in the tobacco before storage.
✓ It is beneficial to store in air-conditioned rooms at 15-20 0C and 65-70 percent relative
humidity.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 219

 FACTS FROM PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMS

➢ Mustard crop planted at a spacing of 50 × 20 cm will have......... plants per hectare (BHU-2018):
100000
➢ Sugarcane crop is considered matured, if samples of juice taken from the middle portions of the
stalks show the hand refractometer reading from (PRE-PG-2018): 19 to 22
➢ The staple length of cotton fibre of short staple grade is (PRE-PG-2018): less than 19 mm
➢ Vitavax is used as a seed treatment for the control of (PRE-PG-2019): smut
➢ Which one of the following is the peculiarities of Indian agriculture: dependence of seasonal
rainfall (AAO-2018)
➢ The inflorescence of Barley is (NSC -2018): racemose
➢ Golden rice, which is genetically modified, is rich in: (NSC-2018): Vitamin-A
➢ ''Regional centre of international rice Research Institute'' is recently established in India at:
(NSC-2018): Varanasi
➢ Thiram is a? (BHU-2016): Copper fungicide
➢ Origin place of soybean? (AU Jodhpur farm manager-2017): China
➢ Algae which is used to monitor the water quality of estuaries: Ulva(IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ In north India, rivers are perennial during the period of: Whole year (IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ Which seed rate (kg/ha.) should be adopted for maize crops grown for fodder purposes: 50
(IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ Vasantrao Naik Award is given by ICAR for research application in: Dryland Agriculture
(IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ Chemical Delinting of cotton seed can be done with: Sulphuric Acid (IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ Which of the following is not a criteria for selection of watershed: Watershed, where
minimum wages are significantly lower than the actual wages (IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ Kabuli chamatkar and Udai are chickpea varieties from: Haryana (IBPS-AFO 2016)
➢ In Agronomy classification of Crop plants is done as a class for better understanding which of
the following crop is fiber crop based on economic use: Jute (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ Certified seeds are used for better yield of crops. What is the viability of certified tagged seed
from the date of sample testing for all seeds: 9-month (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ In agronomy classified crop plants is done as a classified for better understanding. Which of the
following crop is medicinal crop based on economic use: Mint (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ Which of the following crop had highest yield in ( Kg/ha) during to 2016-17 as per annual
report (2017-18) of Government of India department of Agriculture: Sugarcane (RRB SO-
2018)

220 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Dormancy of seeds occur due to various reasons, and this can be removed by suitable process.
When are seeds subjected to very low temperature of 0-5 degree Celsius to break the embryo
dormancy it is known as: Stratification (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ What is the minimum germination percentage of wheat: 85% (AFO-2020)
➢ Golden revolution related to: fruit (AFO-2020)
➢ Stubble sprout to form next new crop: Ratooning (AFO-2020)
➢ Blue colour tag for which seed type: Certified (AFO-2020)
➢ Ley farming is related to: Leguminous pastures with grain crops (AFO-2020)
➢ Which among the following is highly irrigation sensitive crop: Cabbage (AFO-2019)
➢ Which among the following is medium to high irrigation sensitive crop: Wheat (AFO-2019)

➢ Pegging and pod formation stage has occurred in which among the following crop: Groundnut
(AFO-2019)
➢ Which among the following crop has lowest seed replacement ratio: Groundnut (AFO-2019)

➢ Which among the following crop has CRI as critical irrigation stage: Wheat (AFO-2019)
➢ What is the optimum Relative humidity range for Crop production: 40-60% (AFO-2018)
➢ Highest P2O5 consumption is in which crop: sugarcane (AFO-2018)
➢ Which of the following is a perennial crop: Coconut (AFO-2018)
➢ In Banana, Which nutrient is given in largest amount through fertigation: K (AFO-2018)
➢ What is the annual rainfall of the Humid area in mm : More than 1000 mm (AFO-2018)
➢ Which of the following is a highly salt tolerant crop: cotton (AFO-2018)
➢ Silver fibre Revolution is related to.: Cotton (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ What is envisaged in the concept of lay farming: Leguminous pastures with grain crops
(RRB SO- 2018).
➢ Which crop shows the symptoms of particular nutrient if it is deficient: Cauliflower -Boron
and molybdenum, wheat- magnesium and copper(RRB SO- 2018):
➢ Ratio of rainfall weekly/monthly at 50% probability and potential evapotranspiration is known
as: Moisture Available Index (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ Which one is the gamma ray mutant of sugarcane from Co527: Co8152(RRB SO- 2018)
➢ Which disease of groundnut is caused due to thrips: Bud necrosis (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ Which method of irrigation is developed in Israel and well suited in acute water shortage:
Drip/Trickle Irrigation (RRB SO- 2018)
➢ What is the family of mustard: Cruciferae (AFO-2021)
➢ What is the scientific name of Paddy: Oryza sativa (AFO-2021)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 221

➢ PM Kisan is a Central Sector scheme with 100% funding from Government of India. Under the
scheme an income support of 6,000/- per year will be provided to all institutional land holders:
PMKISAN (AFO-2021)
➢ What is the premium rate in PMFBY for rabi crops, oilseeds and……: 1.5% of SI or Actuarial
rate, whichever is less (AFO-2021)
➢ Which of the following instrument used to measure soil moisture: Tensiometer (AFO-2021)
➢ Which agency helps in the price policy of major agricultural crops for Government: CACP
(AFO-2021)
➢ Seeds are dropped in furrows in continuous flow and are covered with soil: Drilling (AFO-
2021)
➢ The credit of success for KVK goes to: Chandrika Prasad (AFO-2021)
➢ What is smother crop: crop which suppresses weeds growing under it with quick growing
ability and dense foliage (AFO-2021)
➢ Which among the following crop is hexaploid and developed by using outcrossing : Wheat
(RRB SO 2020)
➢ Which of the following is used to map subdivisions of land and gives length and direction to
owner’s land and boundaries : Cadastral map (RRB SO 2020)
➢ Which among the following scheme is related to organic farming in the country:
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (RRB SO 2020)
➢ Retting is related to which crop : Jute (RRB SO 2020)
➢ Farming system which provides more time to absorb runoff water and later it is supplied to
crops: Contour farming (RRB SO 2020)
➢ Mostly used soil & water conservation method in hilly & mountain areas : Contour bunding
(AFO-2022)
➢ Method of drainage that is used in high water table areas, hilly areas, under the surface : Tile
drainage (AFO-2022)
➢ IRRI and its national research partners have developed Golden rice to complement and to
address the deficiency of: Vitamin A (AFO-2022)
➢ Norin-10 is a source of: Dwarf gene in wheat (AFO-2022)
➢ Oil content in groundnut : 44 to 58 (AFO-2022)
➢ TSS for sugarcane ripening determination- brix : 20 (AFO-2022)
➢ Akiochi disease in rice due to toxicity of: H2S (AFO-2022)
➢ Potato tubers are cured at __for 2 days and then at 7 -10 ℃for 10-12 days at 90% relative
humidity: 18o C (AFO-2022)
➢ Which of the following legume fodder: Cowpea and Lucerne (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Which of the following is related to dry farming: Cultivation of crop where the rainfall is
<750 mm (NABARD- 2021)

222 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Agriculture census will be released after how many years every time: 5 years (NABARD-
2021)
➢ Which of the following Conservation measure practice is practiced in hilly and Himalayan
Mountain region : Terrace/Contour terracing (NABARD- 2021)
➢ For the agronomic production cotton is the main crop of which of the following agroclimatic
zone : Western plateau and hills (NABARD- 2021)
➢ According to Agricultural budget 2020-21 economic survey of India what is the agricultural
GVA % of India :19.9 (NABARD- 2021)
➢ ______ is classified as medium farmer according to land holding classification : 4–10-hectare
(NABARD- 2021)
➢ Which of the following is coarse cereal millets: Jowar, bajra, ragi (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Which of the following is not true for mixed cropping: All crops have same life duration and
harvested at same time (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Which type of rain has a drop size <0.5 mm : drizzle (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas: Neon (NABARD- 2021)
➢ The target specific use of inputs for production according to crop requirement on localized
basis: Precision farming (NABARD- 2021)
➢ What is the isolation distance for foundation seed of Onion crop in m : 1000 (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Maximum premium payable by farmer for rabi season for cereals, oilseeds, millets and pulses
will be : 1.5% of SI or Actuarial rate, whichever is less (NABARD- 2021 , RRB SO 2021)
➢ Which among the following crops is octoploid in nature and propagated by vegetative
outcrossing: Sugarcane (NABARD- 2021)
➢ Still well is present in which meteorological instrument: Evaporation pan
➢ Cryopreservation: The process of cooling and storing cells, tissues, or organs at very low
temperatures to maintain their viability.
➢ Silver shoots in Paddy are caused by -Gall midge
➢ Pink boll worm of cotton belongs to Which family -Gelechiidae
➢ Dimorphic Chloroplast present in – Sugarcane
➢ Vivipary problem is more acute in which pulse crop - Green gram
➢ Jute fibre is obtained from - Secondary phloem
➢ Which finger millet variety posses higher harvest index - Shakti
➢ Moong variety 'Pusa Baisakhi' Was developed through - Pure line selection
➢ Which of the following plant crop is the most efficient converter of solar energy- Millet
➢ On which one growth stage competition between weed and crop is more- Germination stage
➢ Sesame plant is- Qualitative short-day plant
➢ Irrigation method is developed by ICRISAT- Furrow irrigation (ridge bed)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 223

➢ IR-8 rice variety is cross of Which one of the following millets can withstand drought and water
logging - little millet
➢ Power tiller is most suitable for the cultivation of: - Paddy
➢ Crop canopy temperature is measured by :- Infra-red thermometer.
➢ Ratio of flower, peg, pod in groundnut is – 7:4:1
➢ Sugandha-5 is a variety of which crop—RICE
➢ Famous variety of rice that is grown in Kerala is—POKKALI
➢ Sahydri Megha is a newly released variety – Rice.
➢ TETRAZOLIUM TEST is able to examine the viability of the seed.
➢ Contour bund is a short term runoff water harvesting technique.
➢ Phule Kalyani is variety of ___ crop- soyabean
➢ Fodder crop Lucerne contains about 15-20 percent crude protein
➢ Root interception occurs by-Ca
➢ Fluff is the seed produced in sugarcane.
➢ Some flowers open during day and closed during night this is called Photonasty
➢ Heterostyly is observed in Brinjal, linseed.
➢ “Paira & Utera” cropping system is closely related to Paddy.
➢ Chief pollinating agent in onion is – Honey bee
➢ Perennial legume fodder is= Stylo (ADO-2020)
➢ Free floating fresh water fern is = Azolla(NSC-2019)
➢ Stem nodulation occurs in which green manure crop=Sesbania aculeata
➢ Guttation occurs in plant through = Stomata and Hydathodes
➢ It is a form of overhead irrigation - Centre pivot irrigation
➢ Ratio of evaporation to potential evapotranspiration is known as - Crop coefficient
➢ XYZ system for hybrid production was proposed for- wheat
➢ Which variety of sugarcane is a gamma ray induced mutant from Co 527- CO 8152
➢ The plant indicator which shows the presence of gold in soil is – VALLOZIA CANDIDA
➢ Rice inflorescence has- 6 Stamen
➢ BBF method widely practiced in Groundnut crop
➢ Sunflower and Buckwheat are example of Green leaf Non-legume manure.
➢ Parboiling of paddy is a Hydrothermal process.
➢ Dead furrow is made by One way MB plough.
➢ Diara cultivation method is associated with- Cucurbits
➢ Tuber crop which is rich protein is Colocasia
➢ SRR (seed replacement rate ) of cotton crop is – 100 %.
➢ Yellow Mosaic variety of Moong is Pant Moong-4.
➢ The gene responsible to high quality maize protein is Opaque -2

224 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Blast resistant variety of rice is – Sabarmati
➢ The frost tolerant crop- Sugar beet
➢ Groundnut plants are self pollinated at : morning
➢ The father of hybrid rice is : Yuan Longping
➢ Sugar recovery from sugar beet is 10 -12 percent.
➢ ‘Parawilt’ of cotton is a physiological disorder
➢ Weight of 1 cotton bale is 170 KG and 1 Mesta bale is 181KG
➢ In maize, soft starch is called amylose and hard starch is called amylopectin
➢ Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced in the
country.
➢ Aravali is a variety of wheat crop.
➢ Taungya cultivation started for the 1st time in –Burma
➢ System of planting is most suitable for sloppy lands in hilly areas=contour system
➢ Cotton and pigeon pea are: =often cross pollinated
➢ Jute is obtained from phloem
➢ First dwarf variety of rice developed in world is TN-1
➢ Maize is sown by corn planter
➢ The micronutrient which takes part in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by legumes is-
Molybdenum
➢ The element involved in the synthesis of tryptophan and IAA is Zinc
➢ Green ear' disease is commonly occurred in the crop of -Bajra
➢ Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) is used to evaluate -Intercropping system
➢ The husk : seed ratio of Isabgol by weight is : 25: 75
➢ scented variety of rice is kasturi
➢ One hectare cm water is equal to 1,00,000 liters
➢ cotton variety with colour lint is –coconadal
➢ Triticale is Intergeneric cross
➢ Pellet Application is used in Paddy Only
➢ The maximum amount of element required for berseem fodder is Phosphorus
➢ seed multiplication ratio for brinjal 1:450.
➢ Vertical mulching is mostly practice in which crop - coffee garden
➢ Plant growth is measured by - crescograph
➢ Leaf colour Chart indirectly tells us the status of in crops = Nitrogen
➢ The branches in cotton which bear fruits are called as = Monopodial Branches
➢ Sugarcane is considered mature, if Brix ratio is = more than 1
➢ In case of sugarcane, the planting material is obtained from -Top one-third of the cane.
➢ Blue chaff disease of oats due to deficiency of-Molybdenum

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 225

➢ Best nitrogenous fertilizer for rice crop-Ammonium Sulphate
➢ Father of pink revolution-Durgesh Patel
➢ Canola is group of plants belongs to – Mustard
➢ The nutrient removed in maximum quantity by paddy crop is:- Potash
➢ Yellow mosaic resistant variety of Moong is:-Pant moong 4
➢ Aroma in rice is due to presence of “Di-acetyl-1-propanil” Chemical
➢ The complimentary interaction between intercrops in the intercropping system is known as
annidation
➢ Father of golden rice is – Dr Ingo potrychus
➢ The most popular method for mango planting is - Sauare
➢ Stomatal transpiration account for how much percent of water loss -80 to 90%
➢ In wheat Rht3 gene is derived from- tom thumb
➢ Indian Institute of Rice Research is located in Hyderabad
➢ Tift-24 A and Kafir-60 are the important sources of male sterility in pearl millet and sorghum
respectively
➢ Wild oat (Avena fatua) exhibit all 3 kinds of dormancy
➢ Queen of Genetics’ is – Drosophila
➢ The pink colour of legumes nodules is due to – Leghemoglobin
➢ Waterlogging in soil favors production of – Ethylene
➢ Harvest index is = Economic yield/Biological yield*100
➢ Mn deficiency occurs in rice grown in- Upland soil
➢ MHAT (Moist and Hot Air Treatment is done to check- Grassy shoot disease in sugarcane
➢ Sugar beet contains 15-16 and sugarcane – 20 sugars
➢ The percentage of bran received from paddy is.: 9-11 % (10%)
➢ Recommended N:P: K-
CROPS N:P: K
➢ CERALS 4:2:1
➢ PULSES 1:2:1
➢ OIL SEED 4:1:4
➢ FODDER 2:1:4
➢ ROOT 2:1:1

➢ Photo respiration rate is highest in C3 plants

➢ Which bioherbicide used for rice crop -Collego
➢ Mesta is second most important crop after jute in India
➢ Seed requirement of true potato seed: 150 g/ha.
➢ Seed replacement rate is higher for wheat crop

226 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Sugarcane is the most efficient converter of solar energy
➢ which type of cutting all branches of fodder crop well be cut- Pollarding
➢ Highest cropping intensity is in Punjab & Lowest cropping intensity is in Manipur
➢ Chemical used for dehaulming of potato is CuSO4
➢ Albedo for rice is 12
➢ Post-harvest losses in cereals accounts for 10%
➢ Jawahar, Vikram, kisan and Sena, the important varieties of maize are Composite varieties.
➢ Concept of natural farming given by Masanobu Fukuoka
➢ WUE - Pineapple - 20gm dry matter /kg water use
➢ C4 plant - 3-5gm dry matter /kg water use & C3 plant - 2-3ghm dry matter /kg water use
➢ Phosphorus response - Cereals > Pulses > Oilseed > Cotton > Jute
➢ T.S. Venkataraman is known as sugarcane Wizard
➢ By-products of sugarcane are bagasse, press mud, molasses
➢ Particle density of soil is always greater than bulk density in cultivated soil
➢ Part per million is equals to mg/kg.
➢ Indian institute of rice research has its national headquarters in Hyderabad.
➢ SRI system of rice cultivation was introduced from which country-: Madagascar
➢ Micronaire in cotton is used to measure :- Fibre fineness
➢ BBF method is widely practiced in which crop:- Groundnut
➢ Podu, Beewar, Penda are local names in various parts of India to denote which kind of
cultivation - Shifting
➢ Asia's first Rice Technology Park to be established in - Karnataka
➢ Which aromatic rice is from North East Region (NER) of India - Joha and Black rice
➢ Which crop species is used in phytoremediation –Mustard
➢ In maize Ganga Safed-2 is a-Double top cross hybrid
➢ flame peeling is used- Onion and Garlic
➢ The highest award presented to an agricultural scientist in the country are Rafi ahmad kidwai
award
➢ Phyllody is the problem of sesame
➢ Seed lot certificate is orange and green
➢ Impurity percentage of the real value of the seed called dockage.
➢ Acid scarification done in cotton crop
➢ Some flowers open during the day and close at night .this is known as :photonasty
➢ To make thread from a mass of jute , cotton etc. – Spanning
➢ Fiber of linseed is called as – Reflx
➢ Recommended dose of sulphosulfuron (g/ha) for wheat is:-25
➢ Ephemerals are those plants that can – evade the drought

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 227

➢ Excess of zn, MN, cu induces Fe deficiency in crops
➢ Highly lime required crops -Soybean and Sugar beet
➢ Recently developed Terminator technology is used in cotton
➢ The first GM potato (Proteto) developed at CPRI, Shimla for increasing protein content in
tubers consists of genes form Grain Amaranthus.
➢ Ratio of ET to PET is known as Crop Coefficient
➢ Water logged and drought susceptible crop = Maize
➢ Father of Jaya first Indian variety of rice Dr shastry
➢ the variety of wheat which is resistant to all rust -choti lerma
➢ JAYA - TN-1* T-141, developed by Shastri,1968 & Padma variety T-141*TN-1
➢ Salt tolerant variety of barley: Amber
➢ Linolenic acid content in Linseed: 66%
➢ Mono unsaturated fatty acid content in safflower is :14%
➢ When the sugarcane crop Ripens, the maximum leaves begin To dry up and fall. Which machine
is used to test the maturity of sugarcane?:-Spectrometer &Refractometer
➢ Father of white revolution or operations flood: ---Dr. Varghese Kurian
➢ Father of Blue revolution: - Dr. Arun Krishnan and Dr. Harilal Chaudhari
➢ Father of golden revolution: -- Nirpakh tutaj
➢ Atrazine is pre emergence herbicide which is recommended for Maize.
➢ Sesbania Aculata is the stem Nodulating Legume.
➢ Paraboiling of Paddy is a Hydrothermal process.
➢ Tile drainage is a form of agricultural drainage system that removes excess sub-surface water
from fields to allow sufficient air space within the soil, proper cultivation, and access by heavy
machinery to tend and harvest crops.
➢ Clean tillage: It refers to working of the soil of the entire field in such a way no living plant is
left undisturbed. It is practiced to control weeds, soil borne pathogen and pests.
➢ Conservation tillage, or minimum tillage, is a broadly defined practice that includes no-till,
strip till, ridge till, and mulch till systems. These techniques maintain plant residues on at least
30% of the soil surface after tillage activities.
➢ The Parshall flume is an open channel flow metering device that was developed to measure
the flow of surface waters and irrigation flows.

228 Agri Coaching Chandigarh