SUBMITTED BY :

Nidhi Kumari (BT/15066/21)

Anjali KUMARI (BT/15068/21)

MODULE 3
Multipath Propagation

Multipath propagation is a phenomenon in

wireless communication where a
transmitted signal reaches the receiving
antenna via multiple paths. This occurs due
to reflections, refractions, and diffractions
of the signal by objects in the environment,
such as buildings, trees, and mountains.
Each path has a different length, resulting in
different delays and phase shifts for the
received signal.

Causes of Multipath Propagation:

 Reflection: The signal bounces off objects

 like buildings, walls, and the ground.
 Refraction: The signal bends as it passes
through different layers of the
atmosphere with varying densities.
 Diffraction: The signal bends around
obstacles like buildings and hills.

Effects of Multipath Propagation:

 Constructive and Destructive

Interference: When multiple copies of the
signal arrive at the receiver with similar
phases, they add up constructively,
resulting in a stronger signal. Conversely,
if they arrive with opposite phases, they
cancel each other out, leading to a weaker
or even zero signal.
 Fading: The rapid fluctuations in the
amplitude and phase of the received
 signal due to multipath interference.
 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI):
Overlapping of symbols in the received
signal, making it difficult to distinguish
between them.

Types of Fading

1. Small-Scale Fading:
o Fast Fading:Rapid fluctuations in signal
strength over a short distance or time.
 Rayleigh Fading: Occurs when there is
no dominant line-of-sight path.
 Rician Fading: Occurs when there is a
dominant line-of-sight path along with
multipath components.
o Slow Fading:Gradual changes in signal
strength over a longer distance or time.
 Log-Normal Shadowing: Caused by
 large-scale obstacles like buildings
and hills.
1. Large-Scale Fading: Gradual attenuation
of the signal over large distances due to
path loss and shadowing effects.

Mitigation Techniques for Multipath Fading

1. Diversity Techniques:
o Frequency Diversity: Using different
frequency bands to reduce the impact
of fading.
o Time Diversity: Transmitting the same
information at different time intervals to
avoid deep fades.
o Space Diversity: Using multiple
antennas at the transmitter or receiver
to reduce the effects of fading.
o Polarization Diversity: Using antennas
 with different polarizations to reduce
the impact of fading.
1. Equalization: A technique to compensate
for the effects of inter-symbol
interference.
2. Channel Coding: Adding redundancy to
the transmitted signal to improve error
correction capabilities.
3. Adaptive Modulation and Coding:
Adjusting the modulation and coding
schemes to the channel conditions.

In-Depth Points

 Multipath Delay Spread: The difference in

arrival times of the different multipath
components.
 Coherence Bandwidth: The range of
frequencies over which the channel can
 be considered flat.
 Coherence Time: The duration over which
the channel remains relatively constant.
 Doppler Spread: The spread of
frequencies caused by the relative motion
between the transmitter and receiver.


 Delay Spread and Doppler Spread: These

parameters characterize the severity of
multipath fading and the effectiveness of
mitigation techniques.

Free Space Propagation Model: Overview

The Free Space Propagation Model

describes how radio signals travel through
an unobstructed environment. It’s often
used as a baseline for analyzing how other
factors (such as obstacles, interference, and
multipath) affect signal strength. The model
assumes that the signal travels in a straight
line (line-of-sight) and is used in
environments like satellite communication
and open-air communication links.

1. Basic Principles of Free Space

Propagation

 Line-of-Sight (LoS): Free Space

Propagation occurs in an environment
without obstacles between the
transmitter and receiver. The signal
propagates directly without reflections or
diffractions.
 Power Decay with Distance: As the signal
travels, its power decreases with the
square of the distance from the source, an
effect governed by the Inverse Square
 Law.
 Frequency Dependence: Higher
frequencies experience more significant
attenuation. Thus, the model shows
variations depending on the frequency of
the transmitted signal.

2. Path Loss in Free Space Propagation

 Definition of Path Loss: Path loss (PL) is

the reduction in power density
(attenuation) as a signal propagates. In
free space, this loss results solely from the
spreading of the signal over distance.
 Path Loss Formula: PL(dB) = 20log⁡10(d)
+20log⁡10(f) −147.55PL(dB) = 20\log_{10}(d)
+ 20\log_{10}(f) - 147.55PL(dB)=20log10(d)
+20log10(f)−147.55where:
o ddd is the distance between transmitter
 and receiver (in meters).
o fff is the frequency of the signal (in Hz).
o 147.55 is a constant when distance is in
meters and frequency is in Hz.
 Impact of Distance and Frequency: Path
loss increases with both the distance and
frequency, making it challenging to
maintain signal strength over long
distances or high frequencies.

3. Free Space Path Loss (FSPL)

 Definition of FSPL: Free Space Path Loss is

the amount of signal power lost during
propagation in free space due to the
spreading of the wavefront.
 FSPL Formula: FSPL(dB)=20log⁡10(d)
+20log⁡10(f)−20log⁡10(c)FSPL(dB) = 20\
log_{10}(d) + 20\log_{10}(f) - 20\log_{10}
 (c)FSPL(dB)=20log10(d)+20log10(f)
−20log10(c) where ccc is the speed of light
(3 \times 10^8 m/s).
 Implications: FSPL indicates that higher
frequencies and longer distances require
more power to maintain the same signal
strength, as the energy disperses over a
larger area.

4. Antenna Gain and Effective Area

 Transmitter and Receiver Antennas: In

real-world applications, antennas at both
the transmitter and receiver affect the
received signal strength.
 Antenna Gain (G): Antennas focus the
transmitted power in a particular
direction. Gain is a measure of how much
power an antenna can direct in the
 desired direction.
o Formula for Received Power: Pr=
Pt×Gt×Gr×(λ4πd)2P_r = P_t \times G_t \
times G_r \times \left(\frac{\lambda}{4\
pi d}\right)^2Pr=Pt×Gt×Gr×(4πdλ)2where:
 PtP_tPt is transmitted power.
 GtG_tGt and GrG_rGr are the gains of
the transmitter and receiver antennas.
 λ\lambdaλ is the wavelength of the
signal.
 Effective Area (A_e): The effective area of
an antenna is related to its gain and
impacts the amount of power it can
receive.
o Formula: Ae=λ24π×GA_e = \frac{\
lambda^2}{4\pi} \times GAe=4πλ2×G.

5. Link Budget Analysis

 Definition: Link Budget calculates the
expected received signal strength by
accounting for all gains and losses.
 Components:
o Transmitter Power (P_t): Initial signal
strength at the transmitter.
o Free Space Path Loss (FSPL): Loss due
to distance and frequency.
o Receiver Sensitivity: Minimum signal
strength required by the receiver to
decode the signal.
o System Gains and Losses: Includes
antenna gains, cable losses, and any
additional attenuation.
 Link Budget Formula: Pr=Pt+Gt+Gr−PLP_r =
P_t + G_t + G_r - PLPr=Pt+Gt+Gr−PLwhere:
o PrP_rPr is the received power in dBm.
 o PtP_tPt is the transmitted power in dBm.
o GtG_tGt and GrG_rGr are the antenna
gains in dB.
o PLPLPL is path loss in dB.

6. Applications of Free Space Propagation

Model

 Satellite Communication: The Free Space

Model is essential for calculating path loss
and link budgets in satellite-to-earth and
inter-satellite links, where line-of-sight
communication is predominant.
 Microwave Line-of-Sight Links: Used for
high-frequency terrestrial communication
links that require clear line-of-sight, such
as cellular backhaul links.
 Wireless LANs and Point-to-Point Links:
For short-range communication,
 particularly in open areas where obstacles
are minimal.

7. Limitations of Free Space Propagation

Model

 Only Valid in Ideal Conditions: The Free

Space Model assumes no obstacles,
interference, or reflections, which rarely
occur in practical environments.
 Doesn’t Account for Multipath Fading:
Real-world propagation often includes
multiple paths due to reflections, causing
constructive and destructive interference.
 Weather and Atmospheric Conditions:
Variations in weather (e.g., rain fade,
humidity) can affect the actual signal
strength, which is not accounted for in
this model.
 Assumes Omnidirectional Radiation: In
reality, antennas may radiate in specific
patterns, making the assumption of
isotropic (equal in all directions) radiation
impractical.

8. Mathematical Derivation of Free Space

Path Loss (FSPL)

 Starting with the Friis Transmission

Formula for power received (PrP_rPr):
Pr=PtGtGrλ2(4πd)2P_r = \frac{P_t G_t G_r \
lambda^2}{(4\pi d)^2}Pr=(4πd)2PtGtGrλ2
 Converting to decibel form (dB):
FSPL(dB)=10log⁡10(PtPr)=20log⁡10(d)
+20log⁡10(f)−147.55FSPL(dB) = 10\log_{10}\
left(\frac{P_t}{P_r}\right) = 20\log_{10}(d) +
20\log_{10}(f) - 147.55FSPL(dB)=10log10
(PrPt)=20log10(d)+20log10(f)−147.55
 This relationship shows how both distance
and frequency impact the path loss,
critical in planning wireless
communication systems.

9. Practical Considerations for Using the

Free Space Model

 Environmental Factors: While calculating

theoretical path loss, engineers need to
consider real-world deviations due to
interference, diffraction, and refraction.
 Choice of Frequency: Lower frequencies
can travel longer distances with less
attenuation, ideal for long-range
communication but susceptible to
interference.
 System Design: Use of higher-gain
antennas or repeaters can help overcome
 high path loss in line-of-sight setups.

Propagation Path Loss

Propagation path loss refers to the

attenuation of a radio signal as it travels
from a transmitter to a receiver. This
attenuation can be caused by various
factors, including:

 Free-space path loss: This occurs due to

the natural spreading of the radio wave as
it propagates through space. It is
proportional to the square of the distance
between the transmitter and the receiver.
 Absorption loss: This occurs when the
radio wave is absorbed by objects in the
environment, such as buildings, trees, and
water.
 Scattering loss: This occurs when the
 radio wave is scattered in different
directions by objects in the environment.
 Diffraction loss: This occurs when the
radio wave bends around obstacles, such
as buildings and hills.

Outdoor Propagation Models

Outdoor propagation models are used to

predict the path loss of radio signals in
outdoor environments. Some of the most
common outdoor propagation models are:

 Free-space path loss model: This model is

used to predict the path loss of radio
signals in free space, without any
obstacles.
 Two-ray ground reflection model: This
model takes into account the reflection of
the radio wave from the ground. It is used
 to predict the path loss of radio signals in
environments with flat terrain.
 Okumura-Hata model: This model is an
empirical model that is widely used to
predict the path loss of cellular radio
systems. It takes into account the effects
of terrain, frequency, and antenna height.
 COST-231 Hata model: This model is an
extension of the Okumura-Hata model
that is more accurate for higher
frequencies.

Indoor Propagation Models

Indoor propagation models are used to

predict the path loss of radio signals in
indoor environments. Some of the most
common indoor propagation models are:

 Log-distance path loss model: This model

 is a simple model that assumes that the
path loss is proportional to the logarithm
of the distance between the transmitter
and the receiver.
 Ray tracing model: This model is a more
accurate model that simulates the
propagation of radio waves in indoor
environments by tracing the paths of
individual rays.
 Statistical channel model: This model is a
statistical model that is based on
measurements of the radio channel. It is
used to predict the probability
distribution of the received signal
strength.

Factors Affecting Propagation Path Loss

 Frequency: Higher frequencies are more

 susceptible to path loss than lower
frequencies.
 Distance: The path loss increases with
distance.
 Obstacles: Obstacles, such as buildings,
trees, and walls, can block or scatter the
radio wave, increasing path loss.
 Antenna height: Higher antennas can
reduce path loss.
 Antenna gain: Higher antenna gain can
increase the received signal strength.

In-Depth Notes

 Path loss exponent: The path loss

exponent is a parameter that
characterizes the rate at which the path
loss increases with distance.
 Shadow fading: Shadow fading is a type of
 fading that occurs when the radio wave is
blocked by obstacles.
 Multipath fading: Multipath fading occurs
when the radio wave reaches the receiver
via multiple paths.
 Doppler spread: Doppler spread is the
spread of frequencies in the received
signal due to the relative motion between
the transmitter and the receiver.

Channel Parameters: A Deep Dive

In wireless communication, the channel

through which signals propagate is often
complex due to multipath propagation and
the relative motion between the transmitter
and receiver. To characterize these channels
and design effective communication
systems, several key parameters are used:
1. Delay Spread (τ)

 Definition: Delay spread is a measure of

the time dispersion of a signal as it
propagates through a multipath channel.
It represents the difference in arrival times
of the earliest and latest multipath
components.
 Impact: A large delay spread can lead to
inter-symbol interference (ISI), which can
degrade the performance of digital
communication systems.
 Mitigation Techniques: Equalization
techniques, such as linear equalization or
decision feedback equalization, can be
used to mitigate the effects of ISI.

2. Doppler Spread (B_d)

 Definition: Doppler spread is a measure of

 the rate of change of the channel's
frequency response due to the relative
motion between the transmitter and
receiver.
 Impact: A large Doppler spread can cause
rapid fluctuations in the received signal
amplitude and phase, leading to fading.
 Mitigation Techniques: Diversity
techniques, such as frequency diversity
and time diversity, can be used to combat
the effects of fading.

3. Coherence Bandwidth (B_c)

 Definition: Coherence bandwidth is the

range of frequencies over which the
channel has a relatively constant
frequency response.
 Impact: If the signal bandwidth exceeds
 the coherence bandwidth, the channel is
considered frequency-selective, and ISI
can occur.
 Mitigation Techniques: Equalization
techniques can be used to mitigate the
effects of ISI.

4. Coherence Time (T_c)

 Definition: Coherence time is the duration

over which the channel's frequency
response remains relatively constant.
 Impact: If the symbol duration is greater
than the coherence time, the channel is
considered time-varying, and the
channel's characteristics can change
significantly during the transmission of a
symbol.
 Mitigation Techniques: Adaptive
 modulation and coding schemes can be
used to adjust the transmission
parameters to the changing channel
conditions.

5. Large-Scale Fading (LSF)

 Definition: LSF refers to the slow, large-

scale variations in received signal strength
over large distances due to shadowing
from obstacles like buildings and terrain.
 Impact: LSF can significantly reduce the
received signal strength, affecting the link
budget and overall system performance.
 Mitigation Techniques: Antenna diversity,
power control, and link adaptation can be
used to mitigate the effects of LSF.

6. Small-Scale Fading (SSF)

 Definition: SSF refers to the rapid

 fluctuations in received signal strength
over short distances or time intervals due
to multipath propagation.
 Impact: SSF can cause deep fades,
resulting in significant signal degradation
and potential outages.
 Mitigation Techniques: Diversity
techniques, equalization, and channel
coding can be used to mitigate the effects
of SSF.