Rock determination

The determination of the lithology is essential for proper installation, good assessment of the aquifer
and improving the general knowledge of the area. Unfortunately, the rotary methods make
determination of the lithology difficult since most cuttings are the size of dust.

This guide assists the determination process by offering the following aids:
 A step by step procedure to describe the lithology.
 A description and photo of the most common rock types within Uganda.
 A description and photo of the most common rock types as borehole sample.
 A colour table for proper colour determination.
 A grain ruler for proper grain size determination.
 A table for estimating the amount of dark minerals.

There are many manuals and books (e.g. Collins photo guide) available on the market for rock
determinations. These however, are usually in great detail and provide a large variety of rocks. In
practice, determination with much less classifications is found necessary. A mistake that is often
made in the lithology descriptions is that the only the interpretation (e.g. granite) is given and not the
description on which the interpretation is based.

Texture, grain size, minerals and colours are the most important terms for describing

Step by step procedure

The following aspects need to be noted for a proper analysis:

IMPORTANT: Do NOT WASH the entire sample. All the small grains, dust and other aspects
such as indications for weathering are lost. It is however, advisable to clean the larger chunks
of the sample for proper studying.

DEPTH:
The depth of a lithology change is very important as it is often related to screening, casing and
possible water strikes. Therefore, it is necessary to check the cuttings regular and to keep up with the
drilling. It is not advisable to do the logging after drilling has been finished.

PARTICLE SIZE:
The particles are the pieces of the sample. Use abbreviations in the borehole logging. The following
are proposed:

D= Dust
S= Small pieces (less than half a centimeter)
L= Large pieces

Combinations are also possible. For instance when a fracture is encountered in the hard rock, the
pieces will vary from D to C.

GRAIN SIZE (GS):

The grain size can only be assessed from large pieces. The dust and the loose grains are not
representative for the original rock as they have been crushed to pieces. From the available pieces,
try and assess the grain size. There is a standardized classification on a grain size ruler, which is
given in the appendix. Do use it as it is very difficult to assess it without reference.

In the case of unconsolidated materials, the grain size can be easier determined. Especially for sandy
aquifers, the grain size is important as it might influence the screening.

GS = Grain Size C= Colour M= Minerals T= Texture R= Remarks

OVERALL COLOUR (C):
Colour is a very subjective factor and therefore a colour table is given in the appendix. When
determining colour, it is important to stand in natural light. The overall colour is determined when
overlooking the whole sample, including dust / mud.

MINERALS (M):
Hardrocks are build up from various minerals. The type of hardrock is basically depending on which
minerals are present. A simple analysis of the minerals is thus needed. The minimum is considered to
be a mentioning of the colour of the three main minerals and their percentage of the whole (reminder:
the percentages added up should never be above 100 %). Estimating the percentage is tricky and
especially the dark minerals are over estimated. Therefore, an assisting table is given in the appendix.
Minerals can be assessed from small and large particles.

NOTE: Some rocks and unconslidated materials exist from only one mineral.

TEXTURE (T):
The texture is the overall appearance of the actual rock (visible in the larger pieces). It is difficult to
assess without reference and thus it is recommended to use the examples presented in the appendix.
Unconsolidated materials do not have any texture.

REMARKS (R):
In these remarks conspicuous aspects should be noted. This could be a shiny appearance, large
chunks, sticky material etc.

INTERPRETATION:
This is the final step in the notation of the lithology. In theory, there are numerous possibilities. In
practice, within Uganda, there are less possibilities. The tables below give assistance in interpretation.
It has been specifically designed for use in Uganda.

The following steps are considered to be necessary:

1. Determine whether the sample is from the overburden or if concerns a hardrock
2. Go to the respective table.
3. Determine which options are possible. Use both the descriptions as well as the supplied pictures.
Realise that the pictures do not show all varieties of a certain rock type. After some experience, it
will not be necessary to go each time through the entire table.
4. Use the final table to eliminate between the options still left open.

Do not make a forced interpretation of the rock. A wrong interpretation is worse than a good
description without an interpretation. It could well be that your rock does not fit in one of the below
given lithologies. In that case, describe as well as possible and give along a representative example
with the drilling logs.

Checking a geological map of the area can already give a good idea what to expect. Do not rely
blindly on them however, as on the local scale more differences are present than on a regional scale.

IMPORTANT: Do NOT WASH the entire sample. All the small grains, dust and other aspects
such as indications for weathering are lost. It is however, advisable to clean the larger chunks
of the sample for proper studying.

Rocks are built of various minerals, like a house is built of different coloured bricks. It is important to
first mention the main minerals and their appearance, as they will often be referred to when describing
the rocks.

Minerals:
Quartz Quartz is by far the most common mineral. It is light coloured grey or white and
usually transparent. It is hard and often has a glassey gleam to it. The grains
are often round and with an uneven surface.
Feldspar Feldspar is light coloured, pinkish or cream. It is not transparent and often has a
rectangular shape.
Mica These are shiny or glimmering minerals. They appear as flakes and are very

GS = Grain Size C= Colour M= Minerals T= Texture R= Remarks

 thin. Most common are black mica (mineral name: biotite) and silvery mica
(mineral name: muscovite)
Hornblende & These are dark minerals, usually rectangular or bar shaped. Can be very small
Pyroxene or up to a few mm. In the latter case it can have a smooth, gleaming surface.
The difference between the two is only possible by usage of a microscope.

Overburden:
Clay GS: Not visible
C: Any (gray and brown most common)
Pictures M: Not visible clay minerals
T: None
R: Sticky; can be rolled into a roll and in a O-shape without breaking Not
visible
Sandy Clay GS: Grains are party visible
C: Any (gray and brown most common)
Pictures M: Quartz grains and not visible clay minerals
T: None
R: Can be rolled in a role, but no O-shape can be made without breaking
Sand GS: Fine-coarse (0.02 mm to 2 mm) - use grain ruler
C: Brown - white-yellow
Pictures M: Mainly quartz
T: None
R: Lacks all cohesion. Note the variation in grain size.
Gravel GS: Larger than 2 mm
C: Any (each grain has its own colour)
Pictures M: Mostly quartz
T: None
R: Will be crushed by rotary head
Laterite GS: Mostly not visible, or small grains
C: Brown, reddish or yellowish
Pictures M: Clay and sandy minerals
T: None
R: Can be very hard. Is always located a at the top of the overburden.
Variances can be sandy laterite or lateritic clay.

Hardrock:
These can be recognized by the fact that a hammer bit is needed to penetrate. Additionally, most
cuttings will be the size of dust. For all the below rock types, the distinction between fresh rock,
weathered rock and fractured rock must be made:

Fresh rock: most particles are dust

Weathered rock: at the top of the fresh rocks; different colour (usually darker), softer than fresh
rock. Located mostly at the interface between overburden and fresh rock
Fractured rock: larger cuttings than fresh rock, sides of cuttings may be coloured following
weathering.

GS = Grain Size C= Colour M= Minerals T= Texture R= Remarks

Hardrock:
Shale (stone) GS: Not visible
C: Black, grey, yellowish
Pictures M: Clay minerals not visible
T: Wel-marked bedding planes
R: Weak rock, breakable by hand
Sandstone GS: Variable sizes from not visible up to 2 mm
C: Any but predominantly yellow or brown (caused by limonite), red
Pictures (hematite), black (bitumen)
M: Mainly quartz; feldspar possible
T: Mostly uniform appearance, layering is possible
R: Small inclusions of various minerals possible
Marble GS: Variable sizes from not visible up to a few mm
C: Any but predominantly light coloured.
Pictures M: Mainly CaCO3
T: Mostly uniform appearance (sugarlike), layering is possible
R: Reacts to HCl acid. Can easily be scratched by metal.
Not common in Uganda, only in the utmost north and east
Phyllite GS: Individual flakes not visible (smaller than 0.2 mm)
C: Light coloured, shiny appearance, silvery or greenish look
Pictures M: Shiny flakes (mica) with quartz
T: Strong layering; wavy surface
R: Difference with a schist is that with a phyllite most flakes are too small
to spot separately.
Schist GS: Individual flakes visible (bigger than 0.2 mm)
C: Light coloured, shiny appearance, silvery or greenish look
Pictures M: Mainly flakes (mica’s) with quartz
T: Strong layering; wavy surface
R: Difference with a phyllite is that with a schist most flakes can be spotted
separately.
Quartzite GS: Can vary from not visible to 2mm. Within a rock usually very uniform
C: Light coloured, mostly white, grey, brown and red possible
Pictures M: Quartz, flakes (mica) possible
T: Massive stone, mostly uniform appearance
R: Glassey glimmer possible. When fractured, it is often water bearing.
Granite GS: Individual grains always visible (>1mm). Some can be up to a cm.
C: Light coloured; grey, reddish, brownish and yellowish (dark minerals
Pictures never more than 20 % Use table in appendix for assistance).
M: Mainly three minerals: Quartz (greyish); feldspar (light coloured) and
black flakes (biotite)
T: Massive rock, random structure
R: Very common in Uganda. Pay attention to weathering and fracturing as
those are possible water bearing.
Pegmatite: variety with very large crystals. Often water bearing.
Difficult to recognise from drilling sample
Granodiorite: Dark coloured granite

GS = Grain Size C= Colour M= Minerals T= Texture R= Remarks

Gneiss GS: Individual grains always visible (>1mm). Some can be up to a cm.
C: Light coloured; grey, reddish, brownish and greenish
Pictures M: Mainly three minerals: Quartz (greyish); feldspar (light coloured) and
black flakes (biotite)
T: Massive rock, coarse grained structure with foliation (layering of the
minerals)
R: Can be distinguished from granite only by the presence of foliation.
Very common in Uganda. Pay attention to weathering and fracturing as
those are possible water bearing.
Diorite (Gabbro) GS: Fine to coarse grained
C: Light to dark grey, greenish-grey, black grey
Pictures M: Dark (not shiny) minerals dominate. quartz (greyish), feldspar (light
coloured) and mica’s in small quantities
T: Random structure
R: Appearance of a very dark granite
Andesite GS: Larger grains within smaller not visible (or fine grained) grains
C: Grey, brownish, reddish, greenish
Pictures M: Black minerals are less than 40 %. Rectangular (relatively large) black
minerals (pyroxene-sometimes gleamy)
T: Porphyritic structure (big grains within small grained groundmass)
R: Lighter coloured than basalt
Basalt GS: Fine, dense grained groundmass with larger minerals.
C: Dark coloured; grey to black, brownish, possible greenish
Pictures M: Black minerals are more than 40 %. Rectangular (relatively large) black
minerals (plagioclase)
T: Porphyritic structure (big grains within small grained groundmass), solid
appearance.
R: Common in Uganda. Often water bearing.
Dolerite: coarse grained basalt
Amphibolite GS: Fine to coarse grained
C: Grey, grey-green, to dark green, green-black.
Pictures M: greenish minerals, white patches possible
T: Massive structure, sometimes orientated. Can have shiny gleam
R: Greenish appearance is typical.

After some experience and use of the above information, often the choice of rock comes down to two
or three options. The most common situations are discussed below:

Similar rocks:
Quartzite or Marble
Quartzite is much harder. Marble can be scratched by a metal object, whereas quartzite cannot.
Marble will react (start bubbling) when in contact with HCL-acid. Quartzite is much more common in
Uganda, for marble is only found in the north and east.

Quartzite or Sandstone
In principal sandstone has layering. In practice, this is difficult to see. Sandstone has -as the name
implies- a sandlike appearance (round grains). Quartzite usually has a very uniform appearance,
sometimes looks like sugar. Quartzite can be found as a thin layer, between for instance gneisses. If
the surrounding area consists of rocks like gneiss, granites, and basalts, then it is likely that the found
rock is quartzite. In case profiling (prior to the drilling) has shown that the site is on an anomalous
zone, quartzite is much more likely. In case the surrounding area consists of rocks like phyllites and
schists the rock is likely to be sandstone. CHECK A GEOLOGICAL MAP.

GS = Grain Size C= Colour M= Minerals T= Texture R= Remarks

Sandstone or Gneiss/granite
The difference is quite well visible, even if only dust is available. Sandstone consists mostly of one or
maybe two minerals (uniform colour) , whereas gneisses and granites at least consist of a dark
mineral and light minerals. The latter can normally be split into quartz and feldspar. Granite/gneiss is
much more common in Uganda.

Granite or a diorite (gabbro)

The distinction is quite easy. A granite consists of maximal 20 % of dark mineral, whereas a diorite
has much more (up to 50%). Use the table on estimating percentages in the appendix if needed.
Diorite is a lot less common. There is an intermediate between the two, called a granodiorite.

Granite or Gneiss
This difference is very tricky without use of a microscope or having large pieces of rock. In theory,
THE difference is that layering (actually foliation) exists in gneiss. It is recognisable by minerals
showing a preferred orientation. Mica’s can form small black layers. In case of reasonable doubt, it is
better to label the rock as granite/gneiss.

Schist or a Phyllite
With schists the individual flakes of mica (shiny, flaky mineral) are visible. With phyllite, this is not
possible, even though it’s surface is shiny.

Schist or Amphibolite
This problem will not occur often in Uganda. A schist can contain a lot of the mineral amphibolite,
which is visible in green layers. Such schists are called amphibolite schists. Strictly speaking theu
are therefore still schists (recognisable by the large amount of mica and the presence of quartz).

Andesite or Basalt
Andesites are a lot lighter coloured than basalts, Andesite has a maximum of 40 % black minerals,
whereas they make up more than 40 % of a basalt. (Note: a grey matrix is considered to be light
coloured).

Andesite or Amphibolite
Amphibolite almost always has a greenish shimmer. Andesite however, can in some cases also
possess this. Andesites have on the contrary to Amphibolites almost always a porphyric structure,
which means that larger crystals are embedded in a finer grained groundmass. Amphibolite looks
more massive and can have white patches.

Amphibolite or Basalt
Amphibolites almost always have a greenish shimmer. Basalt is in general much darker. Basalt can
have a porphyric structure (large grains in fine groundmass). Amphibolites can gleam a bit.

GS = Grain Size C= Colour M= Minerals T= Texture R= Remarks