Energy sources

what are energy sources?

Energy sources refer to how we

generate power to meet our
needs.
NON-renewable energy
sources
 Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are formed from ancient
plants and animals that lived millions
of years ago. They include coal, oil,
and natural gas. When we burn these
fuels, they release energy that we can
use to power things like cars, factories,
and homes. However, burning fossil
fuels also releases pollution, so it's
important to find cleaner energy
sources too.
 Coal
Coal is a fossil fuel. It started forming
over 350 million years ago, through
the transformation of organic plant
matter.

Coal is a combustible black or

brownish- black sedimentary rock
usually occurring in rock strata in
layers or veins called coal beds or coal
seams.
 Coalification
It is the formation of coal from plant material by the processes of
diagenesis and metamorphism.
Types of coal
 Oil
Oil is a type of fossil fuel formed from
the remains of ancient marine
organisms, such as plankton and algae,
that lived millions of years ago. When
these organisms died, they sank to the
bottom of seas and oceans and were
covered by layers of mud and
sediment. Over millions of years,
under intense pressure and heat,
these organic materials transformed
into a thick, flammable liquid called
crude oil.
Source Rock
A source rock is a type of sedimentary
rock that contains enough organic
material to generate oil and natural
gas through a process known as
thermal maturation. It’s essentially the
"birthplace" of fossil fuels, where
organic matter is transformed under
pressure and heat over millions of
years into hydrocarbons, which can
then migrate to reservoir rocks where
they accumulate and are extracted.
Simple petroleum system
Simple petroleum system
Petroleum geology
 Components of
crude oil
• Hydrocarbons: Crude oil is primarily
made up of hydrocarbons, which are
chains of hydrogen and carbon
atoms.
• Impurities: Crude oil also contains
sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, metals, and
other compounds, which are
removed during the refining process.
Conventional vs unconventional oil and gas
Aspect Conventional Oil and Gas Unconventional Oil and Gas

Porous and permeable rock Low permeability and porosity;

Reservoir Characteristics
formations with natural pressure hydrocarbons trapped in rock matrix
Standard drilling methods; natural Advanced methods (e.g., fracking,
Extraction Techniques
flow horizontal drilling)
Generally lower costs; easier Higher costs; more complex
Production Cost
extraction extraction methods

Oil and gas can flow freely to the Requires stimulation (e.g.,
Flow Characteristics
surface fracturing) to release hydrocarbons
North Sea oil, Middle Eastern oil
Examples Barnett Shale, Alberta oil sands
fields
Fossil fuel power generation

Electrical energy generation using

steam turbines involves three energy
conversions, extracting thermal
energy from the fuel and using it to
raise steam, converting the thermal
energy of the steam into kinetic
energy in the turbine and using a
rotary generator to convert the
turbine's mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is created when tiny
particles inside an atom are split apart
in a process called nuclear fission. This
releases a lot of energy that we can
use to generate electricity. It's like
using the power of atoms!
 Nuclear Energy
Nuclear power plant task: to boil water to produce steam that spins a
turbine and generates electricity.
A controlled nuclear fission reaction is used to provide the heat.
• The fission reaction takes place in a reactor.
• The fuel for a reactor is made from uranium ore mined from the
earth’s crust, then enriched and processed into pellets of uranium
dioxide.
Pellets are packed into fuel
rods which
are then grouped into fuel
assemblies and placed in the
core of a reactor.
 HOW DOES A
NUCLEAR
FISSION
REACTOR WORK?
Control rods are moved in and
out of the reactor core
to regulate the amount of
power produced.
Containment
shell
A containment shell
surrounds the reactor
core to keep radioactive
materials from escaping
into the environment in
case there is an internal
explosion or a melting of
the reactor’s core.
 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE
In addition to a nuclear power plant, the nuclear fuel cycle includes:
• mining uranium.
• processing and enriching the uranium to make fuel.
• using it in the reactor.
• safely storing the resulting highly radioactive wastes for thousands of
years until their radioactivity falls to safe levels.
• retiring the highly radioactive plant by taking it apart.
• storing its high- and moderate-level radioactive material safely for
thousands of years.
THE NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE
 STORING SPENT RADIOACTIVE
FUEL RODS PRESENTS RISKS
• High-level radioactive wastes consist
mainly of spent fuel rods and assemblies.
• After 3–4 years in a reactor, spent fuel rods
are removed and stored in a deep pool of
water contained in a steel- lined concrete
basin for cooling.
• After about 5 years of cooling, the fuel
rods can be stored upright on concrete
pads in sealed dry-storage casks made of
heat-resistant metal alloys and concrete.
 Radioactive wastes
• Deep burial in a geologically acceptable
underground repository is the safest and
cheapest way to store these and other
high-level radioactive wastes.
• All worn-out nuclear plant plants will
have to be dismantled, and their high-
level radioactive materials will have to
be stored safely for thousands of years.
Renewable
Energy
Sources
 WE CAN USE RENEWABLE
ENERGY FOR MANY PURPOSES
Renewable solar energy comes directly from the sun
or indirectly from wind, moving water, and biomass.
Renewable energy can come from geothermal energy from the
earth’s interior.
Renewable energy could provide 20% of the world’s electricity
by 2025 and 50% by 2050.
Wind Energy
The wind blows all around us, and
we can use wind turbines to
capture the wind's energy and
convert it into electricity. It's like a
big fan that creates electricity
when it spins.
 USING WIND TO PRODUCE
ELECTRICITY
Wind turbines have been erected in large numbers at favorable sites to create wind
farms
Since 1990, wind power has been the world’s second fastest-growing source of energy
after solar cells.
Wind turbines can be interconnected in arrays of tens to hundreds. These wind farms or
wind parks can be located on land or offshore.
Harvard University study estimated that wind power has the potential to produce 40
times the world’s current use of electricity.
 USING WIND TO PRODUCE
electricity
Benefits:
• Wind is widely distributed and inexhaustible
• Wind power is mostly carbon-free and pollution-free.
• A wind farm can be built within 9 to 12 months and expanded as needed.
• Homeowners can also use small and quiet wind turbines to produce their own
electricity.
• Wind power has a moderate-to-high net energy ratio.
 USING WIND TO PRODUCE
electricity
Areas with the greatest wind power potential are often far from cities so may
require controversial upgrading and expansion of electrical grid systems.
Winds can die down and thus require a backup source of power, such as
natural gas, for generating electricity.
Some people in populated areas oppose wind farms as being unsightly and
noisy.
Burgos Wind Farm
 Solar Energy
The sun gives off light and
heat energy, and we can
use special panels called
solar panels to capture
the sun's energy and turn
it into electricity. It's like
using the sun's power!
 Photovoltaic Cells
• PV is a term used to describe the process of converting sunlight into
electricity using solar panels. Also known as solar cells, these are the
basic building blocks of solar panels. They are made of semiconductor
materials that absorb light energy and transfer it to electrons, which
then flow through the material as an electrical current.
• Modules and panels. Multiple PV cells are connected together in
chains to form larger units called modules or panels.
• Photovoltaic effect. The process of converting light (photons) to
electricity (voltage).
• Efficiency. The efficiency of a PV cell is the amount of electrical power
it produces compared to the amount of light energy that hits it.
 WE CAN USE SUNLIGHT DIRECTLY TO
PRODUCE ELECTRICITY
• Solar cells have no moving parts, are safe and quiet,
and
produce no pollution or greenhouse gases during
operation.
• The material used in solar cells can be made into
paper-thin rigid or flexible sheets that can be
incorporated into roofing materials and attached to a
variety of surfaces such as walls, windows, and
clothing.
 WE CAN USE SUNLIGHT DIRECTLY TO
PRODUCE ELECTRICITY
• Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical energy
by photovoltaic cells, commonly called solar cells.
• Solar cells have no moving parts, are safe and quiet, and
produce no pollution or greenhouse gases during operation.
• The material used in solar cells can be made into paper-thin
rigid or flexible sheets that can be incorporated into roofing
materials and attached to a variety of surfaces such as walls,
windows, and clothing.
 Top 5 Solar PV plants in operation in the
Philippines

• Solar Philippines Concepcion Solar PV Park

• Cadiz Solar PV Park
• Alaminos Solar PV Park
• Subic Bay Solar PV Park
• Ilocos Norte Solar PV Park
Hydropower
“white coal”
Water can also create energy.
We use dams to collect water in
one place, and when the water
flows through special machines
called turbines, it turns into
electricity. It's like using the
power of flowing water!
 THREE MAIN COMPONENTS
• A dam that creates a large waterfall and stores
enough water to supply the plant at all times.
• A penstock that channels water from its natural
environment (river or lake) to supply the dam
reservoir.
• A powerhouse that houses the turbines driven by the
waterfall and the generator driven by the turbines.
 Types of a Hydroelectric Power Plant
• Impoundment is the most common type of hydroelectric
power plant. Present in this type is a dam which holds the
water from the reservoir.
• Diversion or run-of-river type channels a river, stream or
canal into the penstock. These rely on large elevation drops,
allowing water to fall down the penstock to the turbines
below.
• Pumped storage type works like a battery storing the
generated electricity. Water from a reservoir at lower
elevation is pumped uphill to a reservoir at higher elevation.
 WE CAN PRODUCE ELECTRICITY FROM
FALLING AND FLOWING WATER
• Hydropower uses the kinetic energy of flowing and falling
water to produce electricity.

• Hydropower is the world’s leading renewable energy

source for the production of electricity. In order, the
world’s top six producers of hydropower are China,
Canada, Brazil, the U.S., Russia, and Norway.
 WE CAN PRODUCE ELECTRICITY FROM
FALLING AND FLOWING WATER
• Micro hydropower generators are small floating turbines
that use the power of flowing water to turn rotor blades,
which spin a turbine to produce electric current.

• Dams have been built across the mouths of some bays

and estuaries to capture the energy in ocean water
movement.
Geothermal Energy

Deep inside the Earth, there is heat that

comes from hot rocks. We can use that
heat to make steam and turn it into
electricity. It's like using Earth's own heat!
 HEAT
• Residual Heat
• Natural Radioactivity
 THERMAL GRADIENT
• The average rate at which the temperature rises
with depth.
• The average value of the gradient worldwide is 3°C per 100
meters of depth, but it varies between 1°C and 10°C per
100 meters depending on the physical conditions and
geology of the region.
 Three Main Elements of Geothermal Energy
• Heat source is the source of heat which can be in the form of
magmatic intrusion.
• Reservoir refers to the layers of permeable rock capped by
impermeable rock but is connected to a surficial recharge area.
• Geothermal fluid usually occurs in the form of water or
meteoric water which can be liquid or steam depending on the
temperature and pressure conditions.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL
ENERGY
• At 20°C to 90°C, geothermal heat and water are used for
geothermal heating. This is called low-temperature
geothermal energy.
• At 90°C to 160°C, the water is used on the surface in liquid
form. It transfers its heat to another fluid, which vaporizes at low
temperature and drives a turbine to generate power. This is
called medium- temperature geothermal energy
• At temperatures above 160°C, the water turns into steam when it
reaches the Earth’s surface. Itdrives turbines to generate power.
This is called high-temperature geothermal energy.
 WE CAN GET ENERGY BY TAPPING THE
EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT

• Geothermal energy is heat stored in soil,

underground rocks, and fluids in the earth’s
mantle.
 WE CAN GET ENERGY BY TAPPING THE
EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT
• Deep geothermal energy stored in hot, dry rock found
5 or more kilometers (3 or more miles) underground
almost everywhere.
• Digging so deep into the earth’s crust is costly.
Complete the statement in each item. Choose the
correct word in the box below.
1. Heat energy enables the water to boil to
generate _________.
2. Steam drives the __________enabling it to
__________.
3. The spinning turbine turns a ___________
creating ___________.
4. The electricity passes through the national grid
for utilization in our __________.
Homes Steam Turbine Spin Electricity Generator
Read and analyze the following statements given. Write
true if the statement is correct and false if incorrect.
1. Geothermal energy is hard to transport.
2. Geothermal power plants do not produce huge
amounts of pollutants.
3. Geothermal energy is a nonrenewable source of
energy.
4. Renewable energy sources are those that cannot be
replenished naturally at anthropogenic time scales.
5. Geothermal power plants do not require the use of
fuels to generate power.
 Biomass
Biomass is made from organic materials
like wood, plants, or waste. We can burn
these materials to release energy or turn
them into a gas called biogas. It's like
using the power of nature's leftovers!
WE CAN PRODUCE ENERGY BY BURNING
SOLID BIOMASS
• Biomass consists of plant materials (such as wood and
agricultural waste) and animal wastes that can be burned
directly as a solid fuel or converted into gaseous or liquid
biofuels.
• Solid biomass is burned mostly for heating and
cooking, but also for industrial processes and for
generating electricity.
 WE CAN PRODUCE ENERGY BY BURNING
SOLID BIOMASS
• Wood, wood wastes, charcoal (made from wood), animal
manure.
• About 2.7 billion people in 77 less-developed countries face
a fuelwood crisis and are often forced to meet their fuel
needs by harvesting wood faster than it can be replenished.
• Plant fast-growing trees, shrubs, and perennial grasses in
biomass plantations, but this can deplete soil nutrients and
deplete or degrade biodiversity.
 WE CAN CONVERT PLANTS AND PLANT
WASTES TO LIQUID BIOFUELS
• Liquid biofuels such as biodiesel (produced from
vegetable oils) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol
produced from plants and plant wastes) are being
used in place of petroleum-based diesel fuel and
gasoline.
WE CAN CONVERT PLANTS AND PLANT
WASTES TO LIQUID BIOFUELS
• Ifthese crops are not used faster than they are
replenished by new plant growth, there is no net
increase in CO 2 emissions, unless existing grasslands or
forests are cleared to plant biofuel crops.
• Biofuels are easy to store and transport through existing
fuel networks and can be used in motor vehicles at little
or no additional cost.
Renewable vs. NON-renewable
energy sources
Balancing Energy Needs and Environmental
Impact
Remember!
It's important to use energy wisely
and think about the impact on the
environment. That's why we're
finding new ways to produce clean
and renewable energy for a
healthier planet.
Coal
Oil
Natural Gas
Nuclear
Solar
Wind
Hydroelectric
Biomass
Geothermal
Agricultural
Transportation
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Fossil Fuels
What are fossil fuels and what are the different
kinds?
Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes
such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead
organisms.
The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil
fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes
exceeds 650 million years.
Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon
and include coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Other more commonly used derivatives of
fossil fuels include kerosene and propane.
What is coal and how is it formed?
 Like oil and natural gas, coal is a fossil fuel. It
started forming over 350 million years ago,
through the transformation of organic plant
matter.
Coal is a combustible black orbrownish- black
sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock
strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal
seams.
The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can
be regarded as metamorphic rock because of
later exposure to elevated temperature and
pressure.
Coal is composed primarily ofcarbon along with
variable quantities of other elements, chiefly
hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Coalification is the formation of coal from plant
material by the processes of diagenesis and
metamorphism.
Also known as bituminization or
carbonification.
The most favorable conditions for the
formation of coal occurred 360 million to 290
million years ago, during the Carboniferous
Period.
However, there is also some higher rank coal from the
Tertiary Era, coal that matured early, heated by plate
tectonics.
Paleocene coal (65 to 55 million years ago), found
in Columbia and Venezuela
Miocene coal (20 million years ago), found in
Indonesia. In Indonesia, where the geothermal
gradient is very high, anthracite lies close to the
surface.
The deposits in the Moscow Basin have never gone
beyond the lignite stage as it is too cold.
Recent accumulations (from 10,000 years ago to
today) are very rich in fibrous debris known as peat,
in which the shapes of branches and roots can still be
discerned. This material was not buried deep enough
to contain elemental carbon.
There are several different types of coal.
They are ranked according to their carbon
and volatile matter content.

Sub- Bituminous
Peat Lignite bituminous
Coal Coal
Anthracite
 Anthracite is 86 to 98% pure carbon and 8 to
3% volatile matter. It is an excellent fuel that is
still used to heat homes.
Bituminous coal contains 70 to 86% carbon and
46 to 31% volatile matter. It is used to make
coke, used in metallurgy.
Sub-bituminous coal is 70 to 76% carbon and 53
to 42% volatile matter. It is burned in industrial
boilers.
 Lignite is 65 to 70% carbon and 63 to 53%
volatile matter. It is a low-grade fuel with a
high moisture content that is used in industrial
boilers.
 Peat consists of partially decomposed
vegetation. Technically speaking, it isn’t
coal. It has a carbon content of less than 60%
and is composed entirely of volatile matter.
A poor fuel that was once used throughout
Europe in the form of dried briquettes for
heating, today it is used only in a few regions,
such as Ireland.
What is petroleum (oil and gas) and how is it
formed?
Petra-rock
Oleum-oil
Deep in the Earth, oil and natural gas are formed
from organic matter from dead plants and
animals. These hydrocarbons take millions of
years to form under very specific pressure and
temperature conditions.
When a living organism dies, it is generally recycled in
one of two ways:
1. It is eaten by predators, scavengers or bacteria.
2. Through exposure to ambient air or oxygen-rich water, it
oxidizes. That means that the hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
sulfur and phosphorus contained in the matter combine with
oxygen atoms present in the air. The organic matter breaks
down into water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrates,
sulfates and phosphates that nourish new plants.
 A tiny proportion of this organic matter
— about 0.1% — escapes this fate.
Transported by water, it sometimes sinks to the
bottom of the sea or large continental lakes. It
is partly preserved in these poorly oxygenated
environments, well away from tidal currents.
It mixes with inorganic matter, such as clay
particles and very fine sand, and with dead
marine plankton (microscopic organisms). This
mixture is transformed into dark, foul-smelling
mud by anaerobic bacteria.
 Over time, this mud accumulates and
hardens. Mud that contains at least 1 to 2%
organic matter may be transformed into
source rock, which eventually produces oil and
gas deposits.
 The weight of accumulating sediment very
slowly pushes the source rock further under the
Earth's crust, by a few meters to a few hundred
meters every million years or so. This gradual
sinking is called subsidence and leads to the
formation of sedimentary basins.
At one kilometer underground, the temperature is
50°C and pressure is 250 bar. Under these physical
conditions, the nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus
atoms are gradually converted into kerogen, an
intermediate material made up of water, carbon
dioxide, carbon and hydrogen, which is then
transformed into oil or gas.
 At a depth of 2,000 meters, when the
temperature reaches 100°C, kerogen starts
to release hydrocarbons
 Between 2,000 and 3,800 meters, it turns into
oil. This depth interval is known as the oil
window.
When the source rock sinks further, to
between 3,800 and 5,000 meters,
production of liquid hydrocarbons peaks.
The liquids produced become increasingly
lighter and gradually turn into methane gas, the
lightest hydrocarbon. This depth interval is
known as the gas window.
There are no hydrocarbons below a depth
of 8 to 10 kilometers, because they are
destroyed by the high temperature.
 The proportion of liquids and gas generated in this
way depends on the type of source rock.
If the organic debris is composed mostly of animal
origin, it will produce more oil than gas. If it is
composed mainly of plant debris, the source rock
will produce mostly gas.
 With an estimated average sedimentation of
50 meters every million years, it takes 60
million years for dead animals to become liquid
hydrocarbons. It is hardly surprising, therefore,
that oil is classified as a non-renewable energy
source.
 A hydrocarbon deposit can only form in
reservoir rock. Hydrocarbon molecules may
accumulate in large quantities in this porous,
permeable rock.
Not all rock is both permeable and porous. Oil
exploration engineers look for reservoir rocks —
also known as reservoirs
— that combine good porosity (large
quantities of hydrocarbons) and good
permeability (which makes it easy to extract
these hydrocarbons because they flow
unimpeded inside the rock).
However, a hydrocarbon deposit will only form if
the reservoir rock is capped by a layer of
impermeable rock that prevents the oil or gas
from rising vertically to the surface and forms a
closed space that prevents the oil or gas from
rising laterally. This cap rock forms a barrier and
traps the hydrocarbons.
While clay and crystallized salt (evaporite)
layers form the best cap rock, any rock that is
sufficiently impermeable — such as highly
compact carbonates — can serve as a cap rock
Oil or gas that reaches the surface at the end of
its migration is exposed to bacteria and ambient
air. This triggers complex chemical reactions that
convert them into water and carbon dioxide.
Commercial oil and gas deposits occupy closed
spaces created by deformations in geological
layers. These spaces, known as traps, must be
large enough to make developing the deposit
economically viable.
Reservoir rock, which is both porous and
permeable, can hold a given quantity of
hydrocarbons. Cap rock, which seals these
reservoirs, stops the hydrocarbons from
migrating upwards to the surface.
 But before a deposit can be formed, these
hydrocarbons must also be sealed in a closed
space called a trap.
There are two main types of trap:
1. Structural traps, which are formed by changes in
geological layers caused by the movement of
tectonic plates.
2. Stratigraphic traps are made up of sedimentary
layers that have not undergone tectonic
deformation.
 If the reserves are developed, the gas dissolved in
the crude oil will be turned into liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), used primarily as fuel.
Condensate will be refined to produce naphtha,
used as a feedstock in the petrochemical industry,
or kerosene, a fuel used in aviation.
Electrical energy generation using steam turbines
involves three energy conversions, extracting
thermal energy from the fuel and using it to raise
steam, converting the thermal energy of the steam
into kinetic energy in the turbine and using a rotary
generator to convert the turbine's mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
 Earth Materials and Resources

WATER RESOURCES
Water should be understood, appreciated,
valued, and cared for
 Water Sources
• Water exists in the hydrosphere, geosphere,
atmosphere, and biosphere, and are
connected together by processes in the
hydrologic cycle
 Hydrosphere
• The Part of the Earth’s subsystem containing
the oceans, lakes, streams, underground
water, and snow/ice.
 The Hydrologic Cycle
• Movement of water around Earth’s surface
and its subsystems
• Cycle consists of interconnected pathways
and reservoirs.
 FUTURE CAREER
• Hydrogeology is the field of geology that deals
with the distribution, availability, and flow of
groundwater in aquifers.
 The UN World Water Development
• Ocean 97.5 %
• Freshwater 2.5%
– Glaciers 68.7%
– Groundwater 30.1%
– Permafrost 0.8%
• Surface and atmospheric water 0.4 %
 Residence Time
• The average length of time spent by water
molecule in a reservoir
 RESIDENCE TIME FOR SPECIFIC RESERVIOR

Reservoir Residence Time

Ocean and ice sheets Thousands of years

groundwater Tens to hundreds of years

Streams and rivers Few weeks

atmosphere Few days

organisms Few hours

 WATER RESERVOIRS
SALTWATER RESERVOIRS
 Saltwater Reservoir
• Covers 71% of Earth
• Geographically divided into five distinct
regions and into numerous seas, gulfs, bays,
and straits.
 Recognized Oceans
• Atlantic Ocean
• Pacific Ocean
• Indian Ocean
• Arctic Ocean
 International Hydrographic Organization
(2000)
• Southern Ocean
 Salinity
• saltiness of water
• Sodium and chlorine ions
 Major Zones
• Surface layer
– warm, low-density, surface to a depth of 100 m
– 2 % of the water in the ocean
– Home of most marine plants and animals
• Thermocline
– Temp. of water decreases rapidly with depth
– At high latitudes, from surface and extends up to
1500 m
• Deepzone
– Temp is uniformly low
– 80% of water in the ocean
 Surface Ocean Currents
• Air blowing drags water forward
– Clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
– Counter clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere
• Thermohaline Circulation- driven by density
differences, controlled by temp and salinity
 Ocean
• Regulating the climate through its interaction
with the atmosphere
• Most valuable resources on the planet
FRESHWATER RESERVOIRS
 Glaciers and Ice Sheets
• A glacier is a permanent body of ice, which
consists largely of recrystallized snow.
• An ice sheet is a mass of glacial land ice
extending more than 50000 𝑘 𝑚 2
– Greenland and Antarctica, North America and
Scandinavia
• 24 𝑚 𝑖 𝑙 𝑙 𝑖 𝑜 𝑛 𝑘 𝑚 3 - freshwater in
glaciers and ice sheets
• 90% is concentrated in Antarctica then the
rest in Greenland
 Ice Sheets
• Greenland
• Antarctica
 Permafrost
• A soil, rock, or sediment that is frozen for
more than two consecutive years.
• Few meters to 150 meters
• Total water: 300 000 𝑘 𝑚 3 , 0.8% of the
total freshwater source
Surface Water
Reservoirs
Streams, lakes, and wetlands
 Surface Water Reservoirs
• Where water from rainfall, melting snow and
ice, and groundwater flows
• 0.3 % of earth’s total water resource
 Stream
• Moving body of surface water that flows
downslope toward sea level because of gravity
• It has clearly-defined passageways called
channels
• Tributaries- smaller streams
 Components of a Stream Network
• Drainage basin or watershed- the land area in
which the water flow into a particular stream
• Drainage divide- the line that separates
individual drainage basin
• Interfluve- narrow, elongated landform
separating individual streams within a basin
 Surface runoff
• Overland flow- process when water moves
downhill during heavy rain
• Stream flow- when water enters the channels
 River
• It is a stream with considerable volume and
well-defined channel
• 1.6% of the total surface and atmospheric
water
• Total volume of water stored in streams is
estimated to be about 2120 𝑘𝑚3
Amazon River Basin
Nile River Basin
 Cagayan River Basin
• 27280 𝑘𝑚2
 Lakes
• Large inland bodies of fresh or saline water
• Ponds- are small shallow lakes
• 67% of the total and atmospheric water
 Wetlands
• land areas where water covers the surface for
significant periods
• 8.5% of total surface and atmospheric water
 Types of wetlands
1. Marsh- shallow wetland around lakes,
streams and oceans
a. Wetland in Candaba, Pampanga
 Ligawasan Marsh
• Maguindanao, North Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat
• 2200 𝑘𝑚2
 Types of wetlands
2.Swamp- wetland with lush trees and
vegetation in low-lying areas beside slow-
moving rivers
3.Estuary- partly enclosed coastal body of water
where freshwater from stream meets saltwater
Ex.Pampanga River in manila Bay
 Wetlands
• Trap pollutants
• Trap water and replenish ground water
• Harbour great biological diversity
• Trap water that slows down stream flow and
minimizes flood and erosion
 Groundwater
• freshwater found in the rock and soil layers
beneath the surface
• 30.1% of the total freshwater on the planet
 Porosity
• Determines amount of groundwater an
aquifer can hold
• Sand, gravel have high porosity
• Basalt, diorite have low porosity
 Permeability
• Clay and mud are porous but have low
permeability
• sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, loose
sand, and highly fracture rocks have moderate
to high permeability
 Groundwater Profile
• Zone of Aeration or Unsaturated Zone- layer
beneath the surface in which spaces bettween
particles are filled mainly with air
• Zone of Saturation- layer beneath the zone of
aeration in which spaces between particles
filled with water
• Water table-
boundary between
the zone of aeration
and zone of
saturation
• Capillary Fringe-
layer directly above
water table
Aquifers
• Unconfined aquifer- when water is free to rise
to its natural level
• Confined aquifer- water is trapped and held
down by pressure between impermeable rock
rocks called aquiclude
 Groundwater-Stream Relationship
• Losing or Influent Stream
• Gaining or Effluent Stream
Assignment
Answer the following questions. Limit your answer to two to three
sentences.
1. Why is hydrologic cycle important?
2. Is boiling and evaporation the same? Why or why not?
3. What did you realize about the amount of freshwater and the
amount of potable water on Earth?
4. What is the difference between infiltration and runoff?
5. How would you describe the forms of precipitation (snow, hail,
sleet, and rain)?
Earth’s Subsystem s
Locate where the subsystems are on a Philippine map.
 Sustainability

Observation

Innovation

Laws and Policies

Earth Materials and Resources
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe how soil is being formed;

2. identify factors affecting soil formation; and
3. differentiate the types of soil horizon.
4. identify different soil texture using STT.

Prepare yourself and let’s get fun.

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. develop an appreciation for the natural environment,

including the significance of soil in supporting life; and

2. foster a sense of responsibility to protect and conserve soil

as a valuable and finite resource.

Prepare yourself and let’s get fun.

soil
soil
SOIL
FERTILE
SOIL
SOIL
 EDAPHOLOGY PEDOLOGY

It is the study of soil It is the study of soil as

as a habitat for geologic entity, meaning,
its morphology,
living organisms. classification, chemistry,
and other characteristics.
Soil Formation

Soil formation steps

 PARENT TIME CLIMATE
MATERIAL

or the type of affects soil quality affects rates of

rock eroded weathering
 ORGANISMS TOPOGRAPHY WEATHERING

and their or the land and its different

activities affect surface agents
formation
THE SOI L HAS MULTI PLE LAYERS, EACH
L A YER WI T H I T S O WN D I ST I NCT
C HA R ACTE RISTICS.
 Soil
Horizons
 Soil Horizons

Magma Igneous rocks

 Soil Horizons

O - Organic (Humus)
Often Absent
A – Leaching
K, Mg, Na, Clay
Removed
B – Accumulation
Absent in Young
Soils
Distinct in Old Soils
Al, Fe, Clay (Moist)
Si, Ca (Arid)
C - Parent Material
Igneous rocks
Soil Horizon
Soil Texture
Soil Texture
Try this!

Soil Textural
Triangle Practice
Exercises

% Sand % Silt % Clay Texture Name

75 10 15 sandy loam
10 83 7 _______________
 Try This

1 35 % Sand, 15% Silt, and 50% Clay

2 70 % Sand, 15% Silt, and 15%
3 40 % Sand, 50% Silt, and 10% Clay
Application
Extension
RENEWSA
EC B
TIOLNE13E
- 5NERGY

RESOURCES
 WE CAN USE RENEWABLE ENERGY FOR
MANY PURPOSES
• Renewable solar energy comes directly from the sun
or indirectly from wind, moving water, and biomass.
• Renewable energy can come from geothermal
energy from the earth’s interior.
• Renewable energy could provide 20%of the world’s
electricity by 2025 and 50%by 2050.
SOLAR ENERGY
 WE CAN USE SUNLIGHT DIRECTLY TO
PRODUCE ELECTRICITY
• Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical energy
by photovoltaic cells, commonly called solar cells.
• Solar cells have no moving parts, are safe and quiet, and
produce no pollution or greenhouse gases during operation.
• The material used in solar cells can be made into paper-thin
rigid or flexible sheets that can be incorporated into roofing
materials and attached to a variety of surfaces such as
walls, windows, and clothing.
 WE CAN USE SUNLIGHT DIRECTLY TO
PRODUCE ELECTRICITY
• Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical energy
by photovoltaic cells, commonly called solar cells.
• Solar cells have no moving parts, are safe and quiet, and
produce no pollution or greenhouse gases during operation.
• The material used in solar cells can be made into paper-thin
rigid or flexible sheets that can be incorporated into roofing
materials and attached to a variety of surfaces such as
walls, windows, and clothing.
USING SOLAR CELLS HAS ADVANTAGES
AND DISADVANTAGES
HYDROELECTRIC
“WHITE COAL"
 THREE MAIN COMPONENTS

• A dam that creates a large waterfall and stores

enough water to supply the plant at all times.
• A penstock that channels water from its natural
environment (river or lake) to supply the dam
reservoir.
• A powerhouse that houses the turbines driven by the
waterfall and the generator driven by the turbines.
 WE CAN PRODUCE ELECTRICITY FROM
FALLING AND FLOWING WATER
• Hydropower uses the kinetic energy of flowing and falling
water to produce electricity.
• Most common approach to harnessing hydropower is to
build a high dam across a large river to create a reservoir.
• Hydropower is the world’s leading renewable energy
source for the production of electricity. In order, the
world’s top six producers of hydropower are China,
Canada, Brazil, the U.S., Russia, and Norway.
 WE CAN PRODUCE ELECTRICITY FROM
FALLING AND FLOWING WATER
• Microhydropower generators are small floating turbines
that use the power of flowing water to turn rotor blades,
which spin a turbine to produce electric current. They
provide electricity at a low cost with a very low
environmental impact.
• Ocean tides and waves contain energy. Dams have
been built across the mouths of some bays and
estuaries to capture the energy in ocean water
movement.
 LARGE-SCALE HYDROPOWER HAS
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
 HEAT SOURCE

• Residual Heat
• Natural Radioactivity
 THERMAL GRADIENT

• The average rate at which the temperature rises

with depth.
• The average value of the gradient worldwide is 3°C
per 100 meters of depth, but it varies between 1°C
and 10°C per 100 meters depending on the physical
conditions and geology of the region.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL
ENERGY
• At 20°C to 90°C, geothermal heat and water are used for
geothermal heating. This is called low-temperature
geothermal energy.
• At 90°C to 160°C, the water is used on the surface in liquid
form. It transfers its heat to another fluid, which vaporizes at low
temperature and drives a turbine to generate power. This is
called medium- temperature geothermal energy
• At temperatures above 160°C, the water turns into steam when it
reaches the Earth’s surface. Itdrives turbines to generate power.
This is called high-temperature geothermal energy.
 WE CAN GET ENERGY BY TAPPING THE
EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT

• Geothermal energy is heat stored in soil,

underground rocks, and fluids in the earth’s
mantle.
 WE CAN GET ENERGY BY TAPPING THE
EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT
• Deep geothermal energy stored in hot, dry rock
found 5 or more kilometers (3 or more miles)
underground almost everywhere.
• Digging so deep into the earth’s crust is costly.
 USING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY HAS
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
SUGGESTIONS FOR TRANSITIONING TO A
MORE SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
ECONOMICS, POLITICS, AND EDUCATION
CAN HELP US SHIFT TO MORE
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
• Governments can use three strategies to help
stimulate or reduce the short-term and long-term
use of a particular energy resource.
• Keep the prices of selected energy resources artificially low
to encourage their use.
• Keep the prices of selected energy resources artificially high
to discourage their use.
• Governments can emphasize consumer education.
 THREE BIG IDEAS
• We should evaluate energy resources on the basis of their
potential supplies, how much net energy they provide, and
the environmental impacts of using them.
• Using a mix of renewable energy sources—especially solar,
wind, flowing water, sustainable biofuels, and geothermal
energy—can drastically reduce pollution, greenhouse gas
emissions, and biodiversity losses.
• Making the transition to a more sustainable energy future will
require sharply reducing energy waste, using a mix of
environmentally friendly renewable energy resources, and
including the harmful environmental costs of energy
resources in their market prices.
Exogenic Processes
What is weathering?
Weathering
- is the process of breaking down rocks present at Earth’s
surface.
Mechanical Weathering
-is a process wherein rocks are
broken down into smaller
pieces without changing their
chemical composition

Rocks by the sea change shape due to the

force of water during high tide.
Types of Mechanical Weathering
• Frost wedging is a process
that involves repeated cycles
of freezing and thawing of
ice.

Weathering of rocks through frost wedging

Types of Mechanical Weathering

• Thermal Expansion
When rock is exposed to high temperature.
Types of Mechanical Weathering
• Salt crystal growth is a
process that happens when
seawater penetrates
crevices in rocks which are
found mostly in rocky
shorelines and arid regions.

Rock weathering in beaches

Types of Mechanical Weathering
• Biological activity is the
action of organisms including
plants and animals reduces
the size of rocks

Weathering by roots of plants

Root Wedging
Types of Mechanical Weathering
• Unloading happens through
erosion or uplift, thick
layers of sediments
overlying deeply buried in
rocks are removed.

Unloading of rocks
Chemical Weathering
• Chemical weathering is
a process wherein rock
materials are changed
into other substances
that have different
physical and chemical
compositions.

Chemical weathering
Types of Chemical Weathering
• Dissolution is a process wherein a solid (i.e., halite) dissolves
in a liquid (i.e., water).

• Hydrolysis is a process where water reacts with a mineral to

form a new mineral.

• Oxidation is a where chemical combination of oxygen with a

mineral to form an entirely different mineral in which at least
one of the elements has a higher ionic charge.
Oxidation
Types of Chemical Weathering

Hydration
• Occurs when water is absorbed into the crystal structure
of the mineral causing it to expand
Factors Affecting Weathering of Rocks
• Climate
• Elevation
• Surface Area
• Resistance of a mineral to weathering
Factors Affecting Weathering of Rocks
• Large surface area. When a block is broken into smaller pieces,
it has a larger total surface area which makes it more
susceptible to weathering.

A block that is broken into smaller pieces

has a higher total surface area.
Factors Affecting Weathering of Rocks
• Goldich stability series
illustrates the relative stability
or weathering rate of
numerous minerals. This
series is roughly the inverse
order of original crystallization
for minerals found in the
Bowen’s reaction series.
Goldich stability series
Erosion
Erosion
• Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks.

• Agents like running water or rivers, wind, gravity,

groundwater, wave currents, and glaciers contribute to
erosion.
Types of Erosion
• Water erosion is a type of
erosion where water carries
the sediments to different
bodies of water such as rivers.

Grand Canyon in Arizona, a

product of water erosion
Types of Erosion
• Wind erosion happens
when light materials, such
as small rocks and pebbles,
are carried by the wind to
different places.

Rock shaped by wind erosion

Types of Erosion
• Glacial erosion happens
when a glacier, or a river of
highly-compact ice, move
downhill due to its weight.

Landform formed by
glacial erosion
Causes of Erosion
• Soil erodibility is the vulnerability of soil to erosion
• The texture of the soil is the most significant contributing factor to
erodibility
Causes of Erosion
• Overgrazing by livestock or by
indigenous animals may
remove vegetation leaving the
soil more vulnerable to
erosion.

Overgrazing
Causes of Erosion
• Cutting of trees and removal of vegetation
• Use of pesticides, herbicides, and fuel oils also pollutes the
soil.
Preventing Soil Erosion
• Steep terrains are shaped to
produce flat areas
• Reducing farmland
conversion
• Planting vegetation
• Application of organic
fertilizer
• Building retaining walls
Rice Terraces
Mass Wasting
Mass Wasting
-is a downslope movement of rock, regolith/unconsolidated
material, and soil under the influence of gravity.
Factors that Cause Weakening of Slopes
• When a stream undercuts a valley wall or when waves
started to pound on the base of a cliff, oversteepened
slopes are created.

Angle of repose of different materials

Factors that Cause Weakening of Slopes

Angle of repose is the maximum angle at which an object can

rest on an inclined plane without sliding down.

Angle of repose of different materials

Factors that Cause Weakening of Slopes
• Slightly wet
unconsolidated
materials exhibit a
very high angle of
repose due to the
surface tension of
water as it holds the
grain together.
Effect of water on sand
Factors that Cause Weakening of Slopes
• If the amount of
water is too much,
the angle of repose
becomes very small
and creates fluid-
like motion for the
grains.

Effect of water on sand

Factors that Cause Weakening of Slopes

• Lack of plants may result in enhanced mass wasting

especially if large amounts of rainfall and steep slope are
present in the area.
Types of Mass Wasting

Types of Mass Wasting

Summary of Differences

• Earthflow: Slow, water-saturated movement of soil and

debris on moderate slopes.
• Solifluction: Slow movement of thawed soil over frozen
ground, common in cold climates.
• Slump: Movement of a cohesive mass of material along
a curved surface.
• Rockslide: Rapid movement of rock along steep slopes,
often involving large chunks of rock.
• Fall: Sudden, free-fall of material from a steep slope or
cliff, usually vertically.
Measures to Prevent Disasters
• Hazard maps are used to identify areas susceptible to
landslides.
• Engineering measures are also applied before any hillslope
development.
• Soft mitigating measures such as information and educational
campaigns and monitoring and early warning systems are also
conducted by the local government.
Sedimentation
Sediments and Sedimentation
• Sediments are loose, unconsolidated, solid particles from
weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks, precipitation
of minerals dissolved in water, and remains of plants and
animals.

• The process in which solid materials are deposited

horizontally after it is transported by different agents of
sediment transport such as water and wind is called
sedimentation.
Properties of Sediments
• Sphericity refers to the
degree by which a material
approaches the shape of a
sphere.

• Roundness is the degree of

abrasion as shown by the
sharpness of the sediment’s
edges and corners. Roundness and Sphericity
Properties of Sediments
• Sorting describes the degree of uniformity of grain sizes of
sediments. Sediments are sorted based on their density
caused by the energy of the transporting medium.

Sorting of sediments
Properties of Sediments
• When the velocity of the transporting medium becomes
low, heavier sediments are left behind and begin to be
deposited.

• Gravel and coarser particles are carried by high energy

current or streams with high competence. Sand and finer
sediments are mostly transported through wind and wave
action.
Effects of Sedimentation
• Natural sedimentation
helps add nutrients to the
soil and most of the time
develops the coastal habitats
such as coral reefs, lagoons,
and wetlands.
Sedimentation Process
Effects of Sedimentation
• Corals are mostly affected
when there is excessive
sedimentation. Since corals
do not move, sediments
simply lie on top of them and
later on killing them.

Corals affected by sedimentation

Effects of Sedimentation
• Siltation is a type of pollution
that occurs when silt or clay
dominates a body of water.

• It refers to the increased

amount of suspended
sediments and accumulation
of fine particles at the bottom
of a stream
Siltation