MBEYA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Course Title: PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN

Course Code: CE 8406
Course Status: Elective
Number of Credits: 6
Class: UQF 8 Fourth Year
Academic Year: 2024-2025
Course Facilitator: PEng. Magaka (0769497863)

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 1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PRE-STRESSING

1.1 Introduction to Pre-stressing

Pre-stressing is the application of an initial load on the structure so as to enable the structure to
counteract the stresses arising during its service period.

The idea of pre-stressed concrete has been around since the latter decades of the 19 th century, but
its use was limited by the quality of the materials at the time. It took until the 1920’s and 30’s for
its materials development to progress to a level where pre-stressed concrete could be used with
confidence. Freyssinet in France, Magnel in Belgium and Hoyer in Germany were the principle
developers.

The idea of pre-stressing has been applied to many other forms as wooden barrels and bicycle
wheel. In these cases, the heated metal is made to just fit an object. When the metal cools it
contracts inducing pre-stress into the object.

Examples of pre-stressing ideas are: -

 Force-fitting of metal bands on wooden barrels:

The metal bands around the barrel induce a state of initial hoop compression to
counteract the hoop tension caused by filling of liquid in the barrels.

Figure 1.1 Wooden barrels wounded with steel bands

 Pre-tensioning of spokes in a bicycle wheel.

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The pre-tension is applied in the spoke to such an extent that there will always be a residual
tension in the spoke.

Figure 1.2: Spokes of a bicycle wheel in pretension

The concept of pre-stressed concrete is also not new. In 1886, a patent was granted for tightening
steel tie rods in concrete blocks. This is analogous to modern day segmental constructions. Early
attempts were not very successful due to low strength of steel at that time. Since we cannot pre-
stress at high stress level, the pre-stress losses due to creep and shrinkage of concrete quickly
reduce the effectiveness of pre-stressing.

1.2 Basic Principles of Pre-stressing

Basic example:

The classic everyday example of pre-stressing is this: A row of books can be lifted by squeezing
the ends together.

Figure 1.3: A row of books squeezed by external forces.

The structural explanation is that the row of books has zero tensile capacity. Therefore, the
‘beam’ of books cannot even carry its self-weight. To overcome this, we provide an external
initial stress (the pre-stress) which compresses the books together. Now they can only separate if

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the tensile stress induced by the self-weight of the books is greater than the compressive pre-
stress induced.

Concrete:

Concrete is very strong in compression but weak in tension.

In an ordinary concrete beam the tensile stress at the bottom are taken by standard steel
reinforcements.

But we still get cracking which is due to both bending and shear.

In pre-stressed concrete, because the pre-stressing keeps the concrete in compression, no

cracking occurs. This is often preferable where durability is a concern.

1.3 Essential features of pre-stressed concrete

 High strength steel
 Loss of pre-stressing force due for concrete shrinkage and creep
 Quality (strength) of concrete
 Strong anchorages

1.4 Application of pre-stressed concrete

 Bridges

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  Slabs and beams in buildings
 Water Tanks
 Concrete Piles
 Thin Shell Structures
 Nuclear Power Plant
 Communication poles
 Railway sleepers

1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of pre-stressed concrete

Advantages: The main advantages of pre-stressed concrete (PSC) are:

i. Smaller section size

Since PSC uses the whole concrete section, the second moment of area is bigger and the section
is stiffer.

ii. Small deflections

The larger second moment of area greatly reduces deflections for a given section size

iii. Increased span

The smaller section size reduces self-weight. Hence a given section can span further with pre-
stressed concrete that it can with ordinary reinforced concrete.

iv. Durability

Since the entire section remains in compression, no cracking of concrete can occur and hence
there is little penetration of the cover. This greatly improves the long term durability of structures

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especially bridges and also means that the concrete tanks can be made as watertight as steel
tanks, with far greater durability.

v. Reduction of steel corrosion.

vi. Reduced foundation costs.

Disadvantages:

i. Pre-stressing needs skilled technology. Hence, it is not as common as reinforced

concrete.
ii. The use of high strength materials is costly.
iii. There is additional cost in auxiliary equipment.
iv. There is need for quality control and inspection

1.6 Materials for pre-stressing

i. Concrete:

Concrete itself is a composite material. The basic ingredients of the concrete mix are water,
Portland cement and aggregates (rock and sand).

The main factors for concrete used in PSC are: -

 Ordinary Portland cement- based concrete is used but strength usually greater than
50N/mm2.
 A high early strength is required to enable quicker application of pre-stress.
 A larger elastic modulus is needed to reduce the shortening of the member.
 A mix that reduces creep of the concrete to minimize losses of pre-stress.

Defects in concrete:

a. Shrinkage: Associated with the loss of moisture from gel particles of the paste.
b. Creep: Time dependent increase in deformation due to sustained loading can occur in
all types of loading-compression, tension and torsion. The earlier the age at which
loading is applied larger the creep. Creep is higher in wet conditions than in dry
conditions.

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 ii. Steel:

The steel used for pre-stressing has a normal yield strength of between 1550 to 1800 N/mm2. The
different forms the steel may take are:

 Wires: Individually drawn wires of 7mm diameter.

 Strands: A collection of wires (usually 7) wound together and thus having a diameter that
is different to its area.
 Tendon: A collection of strands encased in a duct, only used in post-tensioning.
 Bar: a specially formed bar of higher strength steel of greater than 20 mm diameter.

1.7 Methods of pre-stressing

There are two methods of pre-stressing which are:-

i. Pre-tensioning: Apply pre-stress to steel strands before casting concrete.

ii. Post-tensioning: Apply pre-stress to steel tendons after casting concrete.

Pre-tensioning:

This is the most common form for precast sections. In stage 1, the wires or strands are stressed;
in stage 2, the concrete is cast around the stressed wires/ strands; and in stage 3, the pre-stress is
transferred from the external anchorages to the concrete once it has sufficient strength. This
method produces a good bond between the tendon and concrete, which both protects the tendon
from corrosion and allows for direct transfer of tension.

The reinforcing steel in the bottom part of the beam, which will be subjected to tensile forces
when in service, is placed in tension prior to the concrete being poured around it. Once the
concrete has hardened, the tension on the reinforcing steel is released, placing a built in
compressive force on the concrete.

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In pre-tensioned members, the strand is directly bounded to the concrete cast around it.
Therefore, at the ends of the member, there is a transmission length where the strand force is
transferred to the concrete through the bond.

Post-tensioning:

In this method, the concrete has already set but has ducts cast into it. The strands/ tendons are fed
through the ducts (stage 1), then tensioned (stage 2) and then anchored to the concrete (stage 3).

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The anchorages to post- tensioned members must distribute large load to the concrete and must
resist bursting forces as a result. A lot of ordinary reinforcement is often necessary.

1.8 Structural behaviour

There are three cases:

i. Axially loaded member: Axial force vis-à-vis axial pre-stress forces illustrated in
post–tensioned (bearing plate) and in pre-tensioning (bond). The pre-stressing force is
applied at the centroid axis of the member.

P = Pre-stressing force (N or KN)

P
σ = Stress = (N/mm2), Ac = Cros-section area of concrete = bh (mm2)
Ac

ii. The duct not coincident with the centroid axis by eccentricity ‘e’.

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Zb and Zt are section moduli at the bottom and top respectively = bh2/6 (mm3)
P.e
ft is the stress at the top fibers of the beam = (N/mm2) (negative)
Zt
P.e
fb is the stresses at the bottom fibers of the beam = (N/mm2) (positive)
Zb

iii. Adding uniformly distributed load to case (ii) above we get:

Ms = Bending moment at service, +ve at top and -ve at bottom

Now, the internal equilibrium of stresses of a pre-stressed concrete member is given by

P P . e Ms
f= ± ±
Ac Z Z

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Example:

A simply supported beam with section shown below spans 15 m and carries uniform distributed
loading (including self weight) of 50 kN/m. If the beam is pre-stressed with a force of 2000 kN
acting at an eccentricity of 400 mm below the centroid, determine the stress distribution at
midspan and at the supports. Assume Zb = Zt = 70.73x106 mm3 and Ac = 2.9x105 mm2.

Solution:

a) Stresses at mid span

Maximum applied moment at mid span = WL2/8 = 50 × 152 /8 = 1406.25 kNm

P P . e Ms
Stress at mid span is given by, f= ± ±
Ac Z Z

P P . e Ms 2,000× 103 2,000× 103 ×400 1,406.3× 106

Top stresses: ft = - + = - +
Ac Z Z 2.9× 105 70.73 x 10 6 70.73 x 10 6

ft = 6.9 – 11.31 + 19.88 = 15.47 N/mm2

P P . e Ms 2,000× 103 2,000× 103 ×400 1,406.3× 106

Bottom stresses: fb = + - = + -
Ac Z Z 2.9× 105 70.73 x 10 6 70.73 x 10 6

fb = 6.9 +11.31 - 19.88 = -1.67 N/mm2

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 b) Stresses at supports
ft = 6.9 – 11.31 = - 4.41 N/mm2
fb = 6.9 + 11.31 = 18.21 N/mm2

1.9 Deflected Tendon

Consider the pre-stressed concrete member shown below:

Forces on free bodies are as follow

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Moments about left end support

; ;

Consider the beam above sectioned at a third point from the left end support. The free body of
the concrete is as shown below:

Note the following:

 The force P in the concrete is not horizontal

 It has a vertical component, Psinθ, which counteracts the shear force Vx
 The shear stresses at the section are therefore reduced thus, Vx = (qx)/2 - Psinθ.

1.10 Integral Behaviour

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Consider a vertical concrete member prestrssed by a force P through the centroid of its section
and compare it with a similar vertical member loaded with an external load P applied through its
centroid in the figure (a) and (b) below.

As the force P is increased:

 For (a) failure by crushing of concrete will eventually occur.

 For (a) there is no possibility of member buckling while for (b) failure by buckling may
occur before crushing of concrete, depending on dimensions of the member.
 For (a) line of pressure remains coincident with tendon position while for (b) bending
moments are induced if member is deflected.
 For (a) stress distribution across member remain uniform while for (b) stress distribution
is no longer unifom.

1.11 Forces Exerted by Tendons

By deflecting a tendon from the straight position a downward force is required to maintain the
tendon in the deflected position and this force is transmitted into the concrete as upward force.

In the case of a continuously curved tendon, there must be a distributed force applied to the
concrete to maintain the tendon in position.

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Consider a small but finite section of tendon. The following can be observed:

 Neglecting friction between the tendon and concrete, the force in tendon at either end of
the element Δs is T.

 If ω is the uniformly distributed load on the tendon required to keep it in position;

Then, ω∆s = 2T sin ( Δθ/2)
for the small element, ω ∆s = TΔθ ; ω = T Δθ/∆s
In the limit the force at a point on tendon is given by,
ω = T dθ/ds. but, dθ/ds = 1/rps, where rps is radius of curvature. Thus,
ω = T/ rps
The uniformly distributed load ω on the tendon may be assumed to be vertical because in
practice tendon profiles are reasonably flat, viz. the curvature is small.

Example:

A simply supported beam of length l has a parabolic tendon profile with maximum eccentricity e
as shown below. Determine the upwards force on the beam exerted by the tendon and draw the
shear force and bending moment diagrams due to the prestess force, P. The equation of parabolic
tendon profile is y = 4ex(l – x)/l2.

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Solution:

Boundary conditions; x = 0, y = 0; x = l/2, y = e; and x = l, y = 0 OK.

For a reasonably flat curve 1/rps ~ d2y/dx2, viz. a parabolic curve is approximately the same as a
circular curve.

, the curvature

But, ω = T(=P)/ rps, Since

Thus, ω being the upward force on the concrete. Assuming ω to act vertically

Mmax = - P.e

Below are the prestress bending moment and shear force diagrams

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 1.12 Loss of Prestress Force
So far it has been assumed that the force in the tendon is constant. However, during tensioning of
post-tensioned members, there is friction between tendons and the sides of the duct caused by
changes in curvature and contact with the sides of the duct.

Effect of friction on behavior of the prestress member is illustrated in the diagram below.

Other causes of loss of prestress are:

 Initial elastic shortening of concrete which results in shortening of the steel tendon
 Long – term changes in length due to creep and shrinkage.

1.13 Degree of Prestressing

Two scenarios are possible pertaining to prestressing of concrete, namely, full prestressing and
partial prestressing.

 Full prestressing is achieved when the whole section is in a permanent state of

compression.
 Partial prestressing is achieved when there exist a small amount of tensioned steel to
control service load cracking and larger amount of untensioned reinforcement or vice
verse.
There are three classes of prestressed concrete as per BS 8110, as follows:

i. Class 1 members are those in which the minimum stress under service load is zero, viz.
full prestressing.

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 ii. Class 2 members are those in which some tension is allowed provided the tensile strength
of concrete is not exceeded, viz. no cracking is allowed.
iii. Class 3 members are those in which cracking occurs but the extent is limited by both
tensioned and untensioned steel, viz. may be regarded as normal reinforced concrete with
enough prestress introduced to limit service load cracking to 0.1 mm in aggressive
environment and 0.2 mm for all other cases.

Degree of prestressing is defined by:

η = Mo/Ms

η = 1 for full prestressing and η = 0 for normal reinforced concrete.

Where: Mo is the bending moment at a section required to cause zero stress in concrete, and Ms is
the maximum bending moment due to service load.

1.14 Safety Measures

i. Since high stresses exist in prestressed concrete members at both maximum and
minimum load conditions, there must be careful quality control of materials used.
ii. Since a small change in tendon eccentricity can have a large effect on the stresses, care
must be taken during construction to ensure that the correct tendon profile is maintained.
iii. Because very large jacking forces are involved, adequate provision must be made to
protect site personnel against sudden failure of a steel tendon during tensioning.
iv. Considering the large amount of energy stored in prestressed concrete, demolitions of
such structure is very problematic.

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 2. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

2.1 Concrete for Prestressing

The strength of concrete is governed by the following factors:

i. Water/Cement ratio
ii. Compaction to minimize air and compressibility, and enhance bond between concrete
and pre-tensioned steel
iii. Curing to allow for as much hydration of cement as possible.

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 The appropriate range of concrete strength for prestressed concrete is 30 – 60 N/mm2 for
slabs and beams. In prestressed concrete both the tensile strength, ftu (the modulus of rupture
based on beam tests), and compressive strength, fcu, of concrete must be known.

ftu = 0.59fcu1/2

The strength of OPC concrete varies with water-cement ratio as indicated in the graph below.

2.2 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

The knowledge of the modulus of elasticity is important for:

i. Estimating deflection of prestressed concrete members.

ii. Estimating the losses of prestress due to elastic shortening.

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 2.3 Creep of Concrete

Creep is defined as time dependent deformation under constant load. Creep affects the longterm
deflections of prestressed concrete members and the loss of prestress force in prestresed concrete
members. The basic mechanism of creep is gradual loss of moistures causing contraction (in the
structure) of cement paste in the concrete.

The long-term (30-year) specific creep strain may be determined from the following relationship

Specific creep = Φ/Ect

where Φ is a creep coefficient obtainable from the figure below, and E ct is the modulus of
elasticity of concrete in the long-term.

BS 8110 provides the Creep coefficients as shown in the figure below.

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 2.4 Shrinkage

Shrinkage is caused by evaporation of surplus water which has not been used to hydrate cement.
Shrinkage, thus, depends on environmental conditions. By the end of one year, 80% of long-
term shrinkage has taken place. The figures below illustrate various aspects of shrinkage.
Average shrinkage of concretes stored at 50-70% RH (Neville, 1977).

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 2.5 Steel for Prestressing

There are several different types of steel used for prestressing and stipulated in various British
Standards, as indicated below:

i. Wires to BS 5896: 1980

ii. Strands to BS 5896 of 1980
iii. Bars to BS 4486 of 1980 (Hot alloy steel 20-40mm)

Wires vary in diameter from 3 to 7 mm with carbon content of 0.70 – 0.85%. The wires are
drawn from hot-rolled rods, which have been subsequently heated to 1000ºC and cooled to make
them suitable for drawing. Several drawing operations that are subsequently carried out to reduce
the diameter and increase the strength of the wire.

Wires for pretensioned concrete members sometimes have indentations or crimps to enhance
bond between concrete and steel.

The high strength is derived from a cold working process. Thus during storage and construction
the wires should not be exposed to heat arising from, say, welding. Prestressed concrete
members in buildings must be properly insulated from heat (fire).

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NOTE: Among these 7-wire strand is most popular.

Prestressing strands have two grades:

i. Grade 250 ( fpu = 1725 Mpa)

ii. Grade 270 (fpu = 1860 Mpa)

Properities of prestressing strand and bar are shown in the table below:

2.6 Relaxation of steel

Relaxation of steel stress is similar to creep in concrete in that it is a time dependent deformation
under constant load. The amount of relaxation depends on time, temperature and the level of
stress. The standard measure of relaxation is its value after 1000 hrs at 20ºC. Two classes of
relaxation are stipulated in BS 5896, thus:

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 i. Class 1 – stress-relieved or normal relaxation wires
ii. Class 2 – stabilized or low-relaxation wires.

Relaxation of steel at 20ºC with initial stress 0.7fpu is indicated in the figure below.

When maintained at a constant strain, prestressing strand gradually loses its stress with time (like
guitar going out of tune). It is due to a realignment of the steel fibres and is the same
phenomenon as creep. Depending on the quality of the steel, relaxation loses can vary in the
range of 3% to 8%.

2.7 Stress-strain Curves

Typical stress-strain curves for prestressing steel are shown in the figure below.

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The Modulus of elasticity of steel are shown in the table below.

2.8 Corrosion

As with steel reinforcing bars, prestressing steel must be protected from attack by moisture
permeating the surrounding concrete.

In pretensioned members, this is prevented by:

i. Protecting prestressing steel by adequate cover

ii. Using low water/cement ratio concrete.

In post-tensioned members, corrosion protection is achieved through:

i. Grouting the ducts after tensioning, thereby also improving bond

ii. Greasing and coating with plastic exposed tendons.

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 3. LIMIT STATE DESIGN
3.1 Definition

Limit state design entails identification of various factors that affect the suitability of a
structure to fulfill the purpose for which it is being designed and choosing the most critical
conditions as the basis of the design, while checking the others afterwards.

3.2 Limit states

i. Ultimate limit states.

 Strength (fracture of individual members, instability of whole and buckling)
 Fire resistance (steel strength is greatly reduced by heat)
 Fatigue (due to cyclic load)
ii. Serviceability limit state.
 Deflection (damage to finishes, partitions and cladding)
 Cracking (unsightliness, ingress of water into concrete)
 Durability (mix proportions, cover and grouting of ducts)
 Vibration.
3.3 Characteristic loads and strengths

a. Characteristic load
wk = wm + 1.64σ ⇒ 1:20 (5%) chance of (any test result) being exceeded. The load distributions
is shown in the figure below.

b. Characteristic strength

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fk = fm – 1.64σ ⇒ 1:20 (5%) chance of (any test result) falling below f k. The concrete strength
distribution is shown in the figure below.

3.4 Partial factors of safety

Design load = wk .γf ; where γf – partial factor of safety for load. Partial factors of safety
for loads are shown in the first table below.

Design strength = fk/γm; where γm – partial factor of safety for strength. Partial factors of
safety for strength are shown in the second table below.

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 3.5 Loading cases
i. Minimum load condition (self weight), bending moment Mi
Only short-term losses of prestress occur. Concrete is weak in case of pre-tensioning, viz. it has
not developed its maximum strength.

iii. Minimum load condition in case of composite comprising precast beam acting together
with an in-situ slab, bending moment Md (due to dead weight of beam and slab).
Most losses of prestress will have occurred and the prestress force has attained its minimum.

iv. Maximum bending moment, Ms, occur at service load and with minimum prestress force

3.6 Allowable stresses

For serviceability limit state of cracking of prestressed concrete members consider the following
classification of structural members:

Class 1: no flexural tensile stresses

Class 2: flexural tensile stresses, but no visible cracking

Class 3: flexural tensile stresses, but surface crack widths not exceeding a maximum
value of (0.1 mm for members in aggressive environment and 0.2 mm for all other members).

The allowable Stresses for Class 1 and Class 2 Members are shown in the table below.

NB: At transfer overstress is allowed because it is temporary;

fci and fcu are characteristic strength of concrete at transfer and service load respectively.

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 3.7 Fire resistance

The fire resistance of a structure or a portion of a structure is defined as that period for
which the structure must remain intact during a fire in order for occupants to escape, before
the structure collapses. For good fire resistance of all concrete members, attention must be
paid to detailing - reinforcement is required near member faces to prevent spalling.

Class 3 members can withstand very high temperatures better than Classes 1 and 2 members,
because their greater proportion of lower-strength normal reinforcing steel is less affected by
high temperatures. Concrete cover for fire resistance is indicated in the table below.

3.8 Fatigue

This should be considered for prestressed members subject to repeated loading, in the
following cases:

 Concrete in compression (okay if fc< 0.5fcu)

 Bond between steel and concrete
 Prestressing steel

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 3.9 Durability
The exposure conditions are shown in the table below

The concrete cover for durability is shown in the table below

3.10 Vibrations

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Prestressed concrete members are relatively thinner than RC members with natural frequencies
closer to the natural frequency of applied loading – hence the possible problem of resonance.

Examples of structures where vibrations should be considered.

 Foundation for reciprocating machinery

 Bridge beams especially in foot-bridges
 Long-span floors
 Structures subjected to wind exited oscillations (e.g. chimneys, towers, etc.)

4.0 LOSS OF PRE-STRESSING FORCE

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Pre-stress loss is nothing but the reduction of initial applied pre-stress to an effective value.
In other words, loss in pre-stress is the difference between initial pre-stress and the effective pre-

stress that remains in a member. Total losses typically 20 to 30%.

The loss of prestress occurs by short term or long term, refer to the table below:

Short term Long term

Elastic shortening Concrete shirinkage
Draw - in Concrete creep
Friction Steel relaxation

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Relaxation losses typically 4%-10% of the tendon load after transfer
– stressed to ~70% characteristic strength
The value depends upon
– characteristics of the prestressing steel
– whether pre- or post-tensioned.
EC2 section 3.3.2(7) gives guidance on applying manufacturer’s 1000hour relaxation data.

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 TUTORIAL

QUESTION 01:

A pre-tensioned concrete beam, 100mm wide and 300mm deep is presstressed by wires carring
an initial force of 150 KN at an eccentricity of 50mm. The modulus of elasticity of steel and
concrete are 210 and 35 KN/mm2 respectively. Estimate the percentage loss of stress in steel due
to elastic deformation of concrete if the area of steel wires is 188mm2.

Solution:

SHRINKAGE

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QUESTION 2.

A concrete beam is pre- stressed by a cable carrying an initial pre stressing force of 300 KN. The
cross sectional area of the wires in the cable is 300mm2. Calculate the percentage loss of stress in
the cable only due to shrinkage of concrete using IS:1343 recommendations assuming the beam
to be (a) pre- tensioned and (b) post- tensioned. Assume Es = 210 KN/mm2 and age of concrete at
transfer = 8 days.

Solution:

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CREEP

EXAMPLE 3:

A concrete beam of rectangular section, 100mm wide and 300mm deep is prestressed by five
wires 7mm diameter located at an eccentricity of 50mm. the initial stress in the wires being
1200N/mm2. Estimate the loss of stress in steel due to creep of concrete using the ultimate creep
strain method and the creep coefficient method (IS:1343). Use the following data.

Es = 210KN/mm2, Ec = 35KN/mm2,

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 ,

Solution:

Stress in concrete at the level of steel is given by;

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