Problems:

• Problem 1
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth
of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling
rate for this signal?
• Answer:
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between
0 and f, where f is the maximum frequency in
the signal. Therefore, we can sample this
signal at 2 times the highest frequency (200
kHz). The sampling rate is therefore 400,000
samples per second.
• Problem 2
We want to digitize the human voice. What is
the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?
• Problem 2
We want to digitize the human voice. What is
the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?
• Problem-3
• Answer:
Bit rate = BW* Log2(1+SNR) bps ( Shannons channel capacity theorem)
 Chapter 3: Data Link Layer Numericals

Q 1.
The following character encoding is used in a data link protocol:
A: 01000111; B: 11100011; FLAG:01111110; ESC: 11100000
Show the bit sequence transmitted (in binary) for the four-
character frame: A B ESC FLAG when each of the following
framing methods are used:
a. Character count.
b. Flag bytes with byte stuffing.
c. Starting and ending flag bytes, with bit stuffing.
A.1.
a. 00000100 01000111 11100011 11100000 01111110
b. 01111110 01000111 11100011 11100000 11100000 11100000 01111110 01111110
c. 01111110 01000111 110100011 111000000 011111010 01111110
Q 2.
The following data fragment occurs in the middle of a data stream for which
the byte-stuffing algorithm described in the text is used:
A B ESC C ESC FLAG FLAG D. What is the output after stuffing?
A.2.
After stuffing the output is
A B ESC ESC C ESC ESC ESC FLAG ESC FLAG D
Q.3.
What is the maximum overhead in byte-stuffing algorithm?
A.3.
The maximum overhead in byte stuffing algorithm is 100%(i.e. when the
payload contains only ESC and Flag bytres).
Q 4.
A bit string, 0111101111101111110, needs to be transmitted at the data
link layer. What is the string actually transmitted after bit stuffing?
A.4.
The actual transmitted bit string after bit stuffing is
011110111110011111010
Q.5.
Let us assume that m = 3 and n = 4. Find the list of valid datawords and
codewords assuming the check bit is used to indicate even parity in the
code word.
A.5.
Valid datawords : 000, 001,010, 011,100,101,110,111
Valid codewords : 0000, 0011, 0101, 0110, 1001, 1010, 1100, 1111
Q.6.
What is the Hamming distance for each of the following codewords:
a. (10000, 00000)
b. (10101, 10000)
c. (11111,11111)
d. (000, 000)
A.6.
a. 1
b. 2
c. 0
d. 0
Q.7.
Given the codeword of size 4 bit. If the size of dataword is 3 bit. What is the
value of hamming distance for the codeword?
A. 7.
Hamming distance = 2
Q 8.
To provide more reliability than a single parity bit can give, an error-
detecting coding scheme uses one parity bit for checking all the odd-
numbered bits and a second parity bit for all the even-numbered bits.
What is the Hamming distance of this code?
A.8.
Making one change to any valid character cannot generate another valid
character due to the nature of parity bits. Making two changes to even bits
or two changes to odd bits will give another valid character, so the distance
is 2.
Q. 9.
Find the minimum Hamming distance to be implemented in codeword for
the following cases:
a. Detection of two errors.
b. Correction of two errors.
c. Detection of 3 errors or correction of 2 errors.
d. Detection of 6 errors or correction of 2 errors.
A.9.
a. For error detection → Hamming distance = d + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3
b. For error correction → Hamming distance = 2d + 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5
c. For error detection → Hamming distance = d + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4
For error correction → Hamming distance = 2d + 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5
Therefore minimum Hamming distance should be 5.
d. For error detection → Hamming distance = d + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7
For error correction → Hamming distance = 2d + 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5
 Therefore minimum Hamming distance should be 7.
Q.10.
Given in the table a set of valid dataword and codeword.

Dataword Codeword
00 00000
01 01011
10 10101
11 11110

What is the dataword transmitted for the following codewords received

assuming there is 1 bit error?
a. 01010
b. 11010
A.10.
a. 01
b. 11
Q 11.
Sixteen-bit messages are transmitted using a Hamming code. How many
check bits are needed to ensure that the receiver can detect and correct
single bit errors? Show the bit pattern transmitted for the message
1101001100110101. Assume that even parity is used in the Hamming
code.
A.11.
5 check bits are needed at positions 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16.
The bit pattern transmitted for the message 1101001100110101 is
011010110011001110101
Q.12.
An 8 bit message using even-parity Hamming code is received as
101001001111. Find the 8 bit message after getting decoded assuming no
error during transmission?
A.12.
The 8 bit message after decoding is 10101111.

Q.13.
A 12-bit Hamming code whose hexadecimal value is 0xE4F arrives at a
receiver. What was the original value in hexadecimal? Assume that not
more than 1 bit is in error.
A.13.
If we number the bits from left to right starting at bit 1, in this example bit 2
(a parity bit) is incorrect. The 12-bit value transmitted (after Hamming
encoding) was 0xA4F. The original 8-bit data value was 0xAF.
Q.14.
Suppose that data are transmitted in blocks of sizes 1000 bits. What is the
maximum error rate under which error detection and retransmission
mechanism (1 parity bit per block) is better than using Hamming code?
Assume that bit errors are independent of one another and no bit error
occurs during retransmission.
A.14.
r
From Eq. (m+r+1)≤2 , we know that 10 check bits are needed for each
block in case of using Hamming code. Total bits transmitted per block are
1010 bits. In case of error detection mechanism, one parity bit is
transmitted per block (i.e.1001). Suppose error rate is x per bit. Thus, a
block may encounter a bit error 1000x times. Every time an error is
encountered, 1001 bits have to be retransmitted. So, total bits transmitted
per block are 1001+1000x × 1001 bits. For error detection and
retransmission to be better, 1001 + 1000x × 1001 <1010. So, the error rate
must be less than 9 ×10-6.
Q.15.
What is the remainder obtained by dividing x7+x5+1 by the generator
polynomial x3+1?
A.15.
The remainder is x2+x +1.
Q.16.
Given the dataword 101001111 and the divisor 10111. Show the
generation of the CRC codeword at the sender site (using binary division).
A.16.
The codeword at the sender site is 1010011110001
Q.17.
A bit stream 10101010 is transmitted using the standard CRC method. The
generator polynomial is x3+x2+1. Show the actual bit string transmitted.
Suppose the second bit from the left is inverted during transmission. Show
that this error is detected at the receiver’s end.
A.17.
The frame is 10101010. The generator is 1101. We must append 3 zeros to
the message (i.e. 10101010000).The remainder after dividing
10101010000 by 1101 is 110. So actual bit string transmitted is
10101010110.Since the second bit from left is inverted during transmission,
the bits received are 11101010110. Dividing this by 1101 doesn’t give
remainder 0. So the received bits contain error.
Q.18.
A bit stream 10011101 is transmitted using the standard CRC method. The
generator polynomial is x3+1. Show the actual bit string transmitted.
Suppose that the third bit from the left is inverted during transmission.
A.18.
The frame is 10011101. The generator is 1001. The message after
appending three zeros is 10011101000. The remainder on dividing
10011101000 by 1001 is 100. So, the actual bit string transmitted is
10011101100. The received bit stream with an error in the third bit from the
left is 10111101100. Dividing this by 1001 produces a remainder 100, not
0. So the received bits contain error and needs retransmission.
Q.19.
A channel has a bit rate of 4 kbps and a propagation delay of 20 msec. For
what range of frame sizes does stop-and-wait give an efficiency of at least
50%?
A.19.
Efficiency will be 50% when the time required to transmit the frame equals
the round-trip propagation delay. At a transmission rate of 4 bits/msec, 160
bits takes 40 msec. For frame sizes above 160 bits, stop-and-wait is
reasonably efficient.
Q.20.
A 3000-km-long T1 trunk is used to transmit 64-byte frames using protocol
5. If the propagation speed is 6 μsec/km, how many bits should the
sequence numbers be?
A.20.
To operate efficiently, the sequence space (actually, the send window size)
must be large enough to allow the transmitter to keep transmitting until the
first acknowledgement has been received. The propagation time is 18 ms.
At T1 speed, which is 1.536 Mbps (excluding the 1 header bit), a 64-byte
frame takes 0.300 msec. Therefore, the first frame fully arrives 18.3 msec
after its transmission was started. The acknowledgement takes another 18
msec to get back, plus a small (negligible) time for the acknowledgement to
arrive fully. In all, this time is 36.3 msec. The transmitter must have enough
window space to keep going for 36.3 msec. A frame takes 0.3 ms, so it
takes 121 frames to fill the pipe. Seven-bit sequence numbers are needed.
MAC _Sublayer_ Numericals