AIRCRAFT

PERFORMANCE
Aircraft speeds

• VS: The stalling speed in the take-off configuration

• VMU: Minimum unstick speed. Minimum airspeed at
which airplane can safely lift off ground and
continue take-off
• VMCG: Minimum control speed on the ground. At this
speed the aircraft must be able to continue a
straight path down the runway with a failed
engine, without relying on nose gear reactions
• VMC: Minimum Control Speed. Minimum airspeed at
which when critical engine is made inoperative, it
is still possible to recover control of the airplane
and maintain straight flight
Stalling speeds
Lift Lift Lift
Fixed FL
V V’ V’’
Weight Weight Weight
Lift

V’’’
VS1g: n = 1 Weight

Lift

VS: Vs
n varies according Weight

to the aircraft type

Certified stall speeds are useful

to determine operational speeds,
setting up margins:
Example: Vapp min = 1.3 VS
TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
Operational takeoff speeds
 Summary
 V1: Decision speed
 VR: Rotation speed
 VLOF: Lift-Off speed
 V2: Takeoff climb speed

V2

V1 VR VLOF 35 ft
Takeoff flight path

 Takeoff flight path: 4 segments

climb
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path

End
Takeoff Flight Path:
Starts at 35 ft above the runway or clearway

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path
 First segment: landing gear retraction
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path

climb
End of first segment:
Landing gear up
Takeoff configuration End
Takeoff thrust
V2 speed

2.4%

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path
 Second segment: climb to the acceleration
height
End
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path
End of second segment: climb

Acceleration height reached

Takeoff configuration
Takeoff thrust
V2 speed

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path
 Third segment: acceleration and flap retraction
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path End

End of third segment: climb

Clean configuration
Green dot speed
Max continuous thrust

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path
 Final takeoff segment: climb to 1,500 ft at MCT
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path

End of final segment:

climb
1 500 ft reached
Clean configuration
Green dot speed
Max continuous thrust

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path

 Gross takeoff flight path

Gross flight path: Flight path actually flown by the aircraft
climb
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path

35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Takeoff flight path

 Net takeoff flight path

Net flight path: Gross flight path - 0.8% climb gradient
climb
takeoff dist. takeoff flight path

gross f.p.
net f.p.

-0.8% 35 ft
35 ft
35 ft
35 ft

Segments: 1 2 3 final
Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V1 on the TODOEI:
 V1 can vary in a given range: 0.84 × VR ≤ V1 ≤ VR
V2
One Engine Inop Acceleration

VEFV1 VR VLOF
Low 35 ft
V1
TODOEI
V2
One Engine Inop Acceleration

VEFV1VRVLOF
High 35 ft
V1
TODOEI

A high V1 decreases the TOD

Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V1 on the ASDOEI:
 V1 can vary in a given range: 0.84 × VR ≤ V1 ≤ VR
OEI Idle
2s
V=0
VEF V1
Low
V1
ASDOEI
OEI Idle
2s
V=0
VEF V1
High
V1
ASDOEI

A high V1 increases the ASD

Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V2 on the TODOEI:
 V2 can vary in a given range: 1.13×VS1g ≤ V2 ≤ 1.40×VS1g
V2
One Engine Inop Acceleration

VEF V1 VR VLOF
High V2 35 ft

High VR TODOEI
V2
One Engine Inop Acceleration

Low V2 VEF V1 VRVLOF

35 ft

Low VR TODOEI

A low V2 speed decreases the TOD

Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V2 on the Climb Gradient:
 V2 can vary in a given range: 1.13×VS1g ≤ V2 ≤ 1.40×VS1g

High V2
V2
High VR

VEF V1 VR VLOF
TOW 35 ft
Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V2 on the Climb Gradient:
 V2 can vary in a given range: 1.13×VS1g ≤ V2 ≤ 1.40×VS1g

Low V2
V2
Low VR

VEF V1 VR VLOF
TOW 35 ft
Effect of speeds on performance
 Effect of V2 on the Climb Gradient:
 V2 can vary in a given range: 1.13×VS1g ≤ V2 ≤ 1.40×VS1g

A low V2 speed decreases the climb gradient

Effect of speeds on performance
 Summary
 High V1
• Decreases TOD (good effect)
• Increases ASD (bad effect)
 High V2
• Increases climb gradient (good effect)
• Increases TOD (bad effect)

Speed
Solution ?
Optimization
Reduced Thrust Takeoff

 When your Actual Takeoff Weight is lower than

the maximum Takeoff Weight, it is possible to
perform a takeoff with less than the maximum
takeoff thrust.

 Two methods are available:

 Flexible takeoff
 Derated takeoff
Flexible takeoff

 Benefits of Flexible takeoff:

 Engine life savings ( engine stress)
 Improvement of engine reliability ( probability of
engine failure)
 Reduction of maintenance costs
Flexible takeoff
Flex temperature Flex takeoff:
To enable takeoff without engines at full rate reduces:
• The probability of a failure (safety aspect)
• The engine deterioration rate and associated
Weight Thrust maintenance costs (economic aspect)

MAX TOW
Available Flat rated Thrust
Thrust
EGT Limit
Real TOW
Needed
Thrust

OAT TREF Flex Temp OAT

Flexible takeoff
Flex temperature

Weight Thrust

MAX TOW
Available Flat rated Thrust
Thrust
EGT Limit
Real TOW
Needed 25 % or 40 %
MAX reduction
Thrust

OAT TREF Flex Temp OAT

Flexible takeoff
Flex temperature Conditions of application:
Flex. takeoff is to be made only if: 1) TREF < TFlex
2) OAT < TFlex
3) TFlex ≤ TFlex MAX
Weight Thrust

MAX TOW
Available Flat rated Thrust
Thrust
EGT Limit
Real TOW
Needed
Thrust

TFlex MAX

OAT TREF Flex Temp OAT

Flexible takeoff
Flex temperature

Thrust Flexible takeoff procedure:

At any moment, pilot can recover TOGA
Flat rated Thrust
TOGA
Thrust
EGT Limit
Flexible
Thrust

OAT TREF Flex Temp OAT

Derated takeoff

 Each Derate level is certified and is associated

to a new set of performance data

Certified Certified Certified Certified Certified

engine
engine engine
engine
engine
Derated takeoff

Derated takeoff benefits:

- Reduction of engine stress
Weight Thrust - Reduction of minimum control
speeds (VMCG/VMCA)

MAX. thrust
available

Derated takeoff benefits:

- Performance improvement on Short Runways
- Allowed on Contaminated Runways
Derated takeoff

7 amounts of derate are certified:

4%, 8%, 12%, 16%, 20%, 24%
Thrust
and 40%

TOGA Rating
Derated takeoff procedure:
Derated Rating
Pilot cannot recover TOGA

Derated !
Thrust

OAT OAT
Other considerations

 Limits for mean runway slope

 Crosswind limits, tailwind limits

 Maximum certified takeoff and landing altitude

 Maximum operating speed

Performance chart
Performance chart
Take off and Landing card
In flight performance
Cruising phase

Cruising phase

FL370

FL330
Specific Range

 SR variations with Mach number

 SR: distance covered
per fuel mass unit burnt SR (NM/t) Given :
- Altitude
 SR reaches a maximum - Weight
90 MMR
at the MACH of MAXI-
RANGE (MMR)
80

At the Mach of Maxi-Range, the 70

fuel consumption is minimum
Maxi Range
as regards to the distance crossed 60
at the given altitude and weight.

.70 .75 .80 Mach

Specific Range

 Long Range Cruise Mach

SR
 Definition:
SRLRC = 99 % SRMAX

MMR
 Flying at LRC Mach Max SR
enables a low fuel -1% LRC
consumption (but
NOT minimum), while
the speed is higher
than MMR

.70 .75 .80 Mach

Cost Index

 Definition: Cost Index

Cost of Time
C.I. =
Cost of Fuel

 Unit: kg/min or lb/h

 Possible Range:
• From 0 to 999
• In operations: from 0 to 200
 The ECON Mach depends on Cost Index
Buffet onset

 Buffet = stall start, with

vibrations located around
wingtips

 Buffet:
3 important parameters
 WEIGHT
 ALTITUDE
 MACH NUMBER
Approach and Landing
Performance
Regulation

Max Go-Around Weight

VAPP ≥ 1.23 VS1g
VAPP ≤ 1.4 VS1g

Min gradient
2.1 %
1 engine out
Go-around thrust
Gear up 50 ft
Approach Conf

LD
Landing Distance Available

LDA = Landing Distance Available

LDA ≤ TORA (shifted threshold)

LDA
Required Landing Distance

50 ft GS = 0 kt

ALD

Dry Runway: RLDDRY ≤ LDA

ALDDRY
RLDDRY = = 1.667 x ALDDRY ALDDRY ≤ 60% LDA
0 .6
Required Landing Distance

50 ft GS = 0 kt

ALD

Wet Runway:
RLDWET = 1.15 x RLDDRY RLDWET ≤ LDA
RLDWET = 1.15 x 1.667 x ALDDRY
RLDWET = 1.917 x ALDDRY
Required Landing Distance

50 ft GS = 0 kt

ALD

Contaminated Runway:
RLDCONTA = MAX (1.15 x ALDCONTA ; RLDWET)

RLDCONTA ≤ LDA
End of AIRCRAFT
PERFORMANCE