HUMAN CULTURAL VARIATIONS

Environment and history are two primary factors that shape the behaviour of human groups. This
behaviour, which serves as an adaptive tool for the varied stimuli projected by the environment, is
influenced by beliefs, practices and material possessions. Through constant practice, these sets of
behaviors form human traditions, which are passed on from one generation to the other.

The concepts of nationality and ethnicity are not interchangeable.

Both, however, are capable of informing an individual’s behaviour and
habits due to a set of cultural norms that each category provides.
Nationality is the identity that is tied to being part of a nation or
country. – a ―group of people who share the same history, traditions
and languages.‖ And who inhabits a particular territory delineated by
a political border and administered by a government. Nationality can
Nationality and Ethnicity
be acquired by being born in a country or through legal processes
such as naturalization on citizenship.

Within a nation are smaller cultural groups that are specific social
environments, traditions and histories that may not be necessarily
subscribe to by mainstream society. These are called ethnic groups.

According to the World Health Organization (2013), gender ―refers to

the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities and attributes that a
given society considers appropriate for men and women.‖ Unlike sex
which refers to the biological characteristic of humans such as male or
Gender
female, gender categories are more varied, accommodating identities
such as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersex
(collectively referred to as LGBTQI), among others.

The concept of socioeconomic class varies between societies as the

ideas associated with being poor or rich differ based on the collective
experiences of individuals.

Socioeconomic Class Socioeconomic status refers to the category of persons who have more
or less the same socioeconomic privileges in a society. These privileges
are due to inherited wealth and/or the occupational status of the
breadwinner in the household (Panopio, etc.:327).

The belief in the supernatural has been one of the universal

preoccupations of humans as early as 60 000 years ago. The earliest
forms of religion revolved around making sense of natural occurrences
such as extreme weather conditions, natural and man – made
Religion calamities, sickness and even death.

Today, religion has evolved to promote far complex forms of

understanding human nature, the afterlife and natural events.

Exceptionality/Non – Some individuals do not conform to behavioural or cognitive norms, not

 Exceptionality because they intend to deviate, but because they are exceptional.
The concept of exceptionality leans on the non – average capacity of
an individual. This could be understood in a spectrum of capabilities,
wherein you have the geniuses in one extreme and you have the
disabled and challenge in the other extreme.

SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND CULTURAL BEHAVIOUR AND

PHENOMENA
Every society has its own norms to follow. These norms serve as guides or models of behaviour which
tell us what is proper or improper, appropriate or inappropriate, right or wrong. They set limits within
which individuals may seek alternative ways to achieve their goals.

Norms are often in the form of rules, standards or prescriptions that are strictly followed by people
who adhere on certain conventions and perform specific roles.

A. Norms of Decency and Conventionality

Norm of Decency and Conventionality are the most adhered norms in society.

It is commonly exhibited on the type of clothing a person wears in a

specific occasion. This norm includes the manners and behaviours that
show a person’s refinement and civility (for instance, how to treat guest
Norm of Decency
cordially). In some society, norm of decency also includes the use of
appropriate words and gestures that convey politeness and courtesy.

These are beliefs and practices that are acceptable to certain cultures
Norm of Conventionality but can be inimical to other cultures.

B. Conformity, Deviance and Taboos

Every society has a form of social control, a set of means that ensure people behave in expected
and approved ways. (Robertson, 1987:64). All norms whether codified or not, are supported by
sanctions: rewards for conformity and punishment for non – conformity.

Growing up in a society entails the internalization of norms – the

unconscious process of including conformity to the norms of one’s
culture and as part of one’s personality, so that an individual often
follows social expectations automatically and without question.
Conformity
Conformity, therefore, is defined as the state of having internalized norms
as part of social expectation. As individuals and groups conform to an
established norm, the norm then becomes a convention.

Deviance It is a violation of norms and expectations. Deviant behaviour involves

 violating norms accepted by either a significant number in a community
or society or those with the power to enforce.
These are bans and inhibitions resulting from social custom or religious
practice. Though these practices may be case – to – case basis since
Taboos
what one society views as deviant may be seen by other societies as
normative, traditional or desirable.

SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE

Changes in culture bring change in society and human beings; likewise, changes in society and
human beings bring change in culture and politics.
(Panopio: 263).

1. Social Change is when there are big or small differences in how people live together in a
community or a country over time.

a. Invention – often defined as a new combination or a new use of existing knowledge. It produces
mechanical objects, ideas, and social patterns that reshape society to varying degrees.

b. Discovery – takes place when people reorganized existing elements of the world they had not
noticed before or learned to see in a new way.

b. Diffusion – refers to the spread of culture traits from one group to another.

2. Political Change means any shift in how a government or political system operates. This can
involve changes in leadership, policies, or the structure of the government itself.

3. Cultural Change is when the things that make up a culture—like beliefs, traditions, and practices—
start to be different over time.

DEFINITION OF ANTHROPOLOGY, POLITICAL SCIENCE AND

SOCIOLOGY
Anthropology
Humans studying humans. This is the field on anthropology. Unlike other disciplines of social sciences,
anthropology promotes a holistic study of humans. Derived from two Greek words anthropos (human)
and logos (study), anthropology seeks to answer this primary question: What does it mean to be
human? This allows for an extensive and inclusive approach such that anthropology studies human
as both biological and social creatures. Biologically, it inquires on the genetic composition of
humans, their relationship with other primates and their evolution. Socially, it inquires on human
behaviours, attitudes and belief system which range from birth practices to burial rites.

Another key element that makes anthropology holistic is its research time frame, which ranges from
the evolution of humans as a species to our current development. It also studies humans from various
ethnic groupings and geographic locations.

As such, anthropology can be defined as ―the study of people – their origins, their development, and
contemporary variations, wherever and whenever they have been found on the face of the earth‖
(Ember, Ember, and Peregrine, 2010).

These points of inquiry are addressed by the five sub disciplines of anthropology: archaeological,
cultural, linguistic, physical and applied.

 Archaeology examines the remains of ancient and historical human populations to

promote an understanding of how humans have adapted to their environment and
developed.
 Cultural Anthropology promotes study of a society’s culture through their belief systems,
practices and possessions.
 Linguistic Anthropology examines the language of a group people and its relation to their
culture.
 Physical Anthropology looks into the biological development of humans and their
contemporary variation.
 Applied Anthropology attempts to solve contemporary problems through the application of
theories and approaches of the discipline.
Sociology

Another branch of the social sciences is the discipline of sociology. Categorically, sociology is the
―scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social interaction and culture‖
(Calboune, 2002). The operative term scientific refers to the methodological and theoretical rigor
that sociology applies in its study of society and human behaviour. The term sociology was coined by
Auguste Compte in 1830 to refer to a scientific inquiry that covers human social activities. The
inclination toward then use of common sense in understanding human populations and their
activities was challenged by the more accurate and tested conclusions provided by the sociological
perspective.

Within the field of sociology are specific inquiries on human behaviour in groups.

 Social Organization studies the social structures as institutions, social groups, social
stratification, social mobility and ethnic groups fall within the scope of social organization.
 Social Psychology studies the impact of group life to a person’s nature and personality.
 Social Change and disorganization is the branch of sociology that inquires on the shift in social
and cultural interactions and the interruption of its process through delinquency, deviance,
and conflicts.
 Human Ecology pursues studies that relate human behaviour to existing social institutions.
 Population or demography inquires on the interrelationship between population
characteristics and dynamics with that of a political, economic and social system.
 Applied Sociology uses sociological research and methods to solve contemporary problems.
It often uses interdisciplinary approach to better address social problems.
Political Science

What is the difference between a political scientist and a common individual in discussing the
efficiency of government projects? The layman interprets the actions of the government based on his
or her experience of it while the political scientist uses the rigor of scientific inquiry to evaluate the
performance of government.

Political Science comes from two Greek words: polis and scire. Polis refers to the city – state in
ancient Greece. The political activities within a polis are later termed as politikus (Latin) Scire means
―to know.‖ Combining the two meanings, political science aims to know the activities within the
state. Such activities include the following: human interaction and conflict, human and state relations
and power distribution.

The American Political Science Association defined its discipline as ―the study of governments, public
policies and political processes, systems and political behaviour‖ (2013).

These topics are covered by the sub disciplines of political science.

 Political Theory is about the study of political views and thoughts or doctrines (ideology)
relating to state. It includes the ethical and moral standards for government.

 Public Law– is the study of government powers, duties, its organization, and the limits authority
in relation to individual rights. It includes the study of relationship between sovereign states.
  Public Administration deals with the study of methods and techniques in the management of
state affairs by three branches of government, the executive, legislative and judiciary.

P.S.
A Reminder from St. John XXIII:

“Consult not your fears but your hopes and your dreams. Think not about your
frustrations, but about your unfulfilled potential. Concern yourself not with what
you tried and failed in, but with what it is still possible for you to do.‖