Chapter-1

Understanding Political Ideologies

We all are political beings. Our everyday life is littered with political ideas. So
this book delves deeper into understanding ideas and beliefs of major political
ideologies. When we try to understand the nature of a political concept we try to look
for its origins across time and space. Study of ‘political ideology’ deals with
reflection on questions about the nature, role and significance of a particular thought
(say Marxism) and sets parameters to classify whether a particular system of thought
be considered as ideology or not. While studying ‘ideologies’ involve analysis of
content of a political thought i.e its doctrines and theories. David McLellan says
Ideology is most elusive concept in the whole of the social sciences- due to link
between theory and practice and constant struggle among political ideologies.
Historically, used as a political weapon to criticise rival belief systems. Ideology is
action oriented set of political ideas which advances interests of particular social
group in which an individual generates a sense of collective belonging. It sometimes
claims monopoly over truth too! Antoine Destutt de Tracy coined ‘ideology’ to refer
to science of ideas- to uncover origins of ideas objectively- queen of sciences. While
Marx gives material description of ideology by saying that ‘the ideas of ruling class
are in every epoch the ruling ideas. He claims that social group which controls means
of production also controls mental production (ruling ideas). Marx gave pejorative
connotation to ideology which Engela later called as false consciousness. He
contrasted between ideology and science, claiming his theories as scientific truths.
He says ideology helps in systematic mystification of proletariat that prevents them
from recognising the fact of their own exploitation. However he claimed it as a
temporary phenomena- surviving so long as class system survives. Later Marxists
however deprived ‘idelogy’ of its negative connotation. All classes came to posses
ideologies which advanced their class interests. A. Gramsci further developed the
concept of ideology to refer to it as ‘hegemony’ which refer to capacity of bourgeois
ideas to displace rival views and become the common sense of the age—needed rival
proletarian hegemony to counter bourgeois dominance. Karl Mannheim while
espousing non-marxist views on ideology acknowledged that people’s ideas are
shaped by their social circumstances. He claimed ideology serve to defend a
particular social order. He gave particular and total conceptions of ideology. Former
relating to ideas of specific groups while the latter encompassing the entire
weltanschauung or world view of a social class, society or even a historical period.
Futher, this concept was developed by emergence of totalitarian tendencies during
interwar period and later during coldwar tensions. ‘Official’ ideologies emerged
which suppressed debate and criticism and promoted regimented obedience. Later
scholars claimed ideology as closed system of thought, which, by claiming a
monopoly of truth, refuse to tolerate opposing ideas and rival beliefs. Also termed it
as secular religion which possess totalising character and serve as instruments of
social control, ensuring compliance and subordination. Michael oakeshott claims
ideology distorts social reality because it tries to explain something which is
incomprehensible and beyond the capacity of human mind to theorise. He equates
ideology with dogmatism-fixed beliefs that are divorced from the complexities of
real world. Therefore conservatives rejects ideological style of politics. To conclude,
Martin seliger defined ideology as ‘ a set of ideas by which men posit, explain, and
justify the ends and means of organized social action, irrespective of whether such
actions aims to preserve, amend, uproot or rebuild a given social order.
Chapter-2

LIBERALISM

The cold war period (1945-90) witnessed the consolidation of liberalism in

two ways :

1.spread of Western liberal democracy. (in 1973 only 45 out of the 151 states
exhibited some of the key features of liberal-democratic governance, by
2003, 63 per cent of states I.e. more than 70 per cent of the world’s
population)

2.Silent revolution (1960s) affecting advanced industrialised countries.

The end of cold war had significant implications for liberalism:

1. Dramatic process of democratisation.

2. Economic globalisation.

Francis Fukuyama (end of history theorist) proclaimed that liberal democracy

had established itself as the final form of government.
Classical liberalism=nineteenth century liberalism.

The early decades of the 21st century = Retreat of liberalism.starting with Arab
spring→then .silent counter-revolution’ (a resurgence of conservative values,
particularly in areas related to national identity – such as immigration and
multiculturalism – and it has been expressed largely through the rise of right-wing
populism).-->then finally global financial crisis 2008.

Its a meta-ideology but some core themes:

1)individualism
Emphasizing on its importance has 2 contrasting implications : uniqueness
and equality.
Macpherson characterized early liberalism as ‘possessive individualism.

2)freedom
Supreme political value for liberals,
But liberals do not accept that individuals have an absolute entitlement to
freedom. Ex-Mill's 'harm principal' .
3)reason
Humans are rational. This is basis for their-
• Bias against paternalism
• View human history in terms of progress
• Emphasize on education
• Believe in resolving war peacefully,force as last resort

4)justice

Classical liberals idea of justice is Based on equality (liberalism is 'difference

blind') including equality of opportunity leading to meritocracy where people
judged by' the content of their character’ (As said by martin Luther king Jr).
Modern liberals not sure about meritocracy as it
• Endorse material inequality
• Its only interested in market ,GDP …and ignores peoples contribution
• 'Tyranny of merit'(as said by Michael Sandler)

5)toleration
Voltaire-‘I detest what you say but will defend to the death your right to say
it.’
Autonomy+set of rules for human behavior towards each other
John Locke defend religious freedom-"since the proper function of
government is to protect life, liberty and property, it has no right to meddle in
‘the care of men's souls' ".
Mill–tolerance is threatened by democracy

Types of liberalism
Classical liberalism
Many doctrines of this:
• Natural rts
Locke–life,liberty,property
Jefferson–‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness'

• Utilitarianism
Bentham–natural rights are '‘nonsense on stilts"
 • Economic liberalism
Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations–attack mercantilism, gave idea of'
'economic man' .
"It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker
that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interests"

Similar–David Ricardo,Richard Cobden,John Bright

→commercial liberalism of which key theme is virtue of free trade.It
leads to interdependence of state .Cobden described it as ‘the bonds of
eternal peace'

Neo liberalism=market fundamentalism

• Social Darwinism
Spencer used the theory of natural selection to develop the social principle of
‘the survival of the fittest’ .Those with ability and a willingness to work will
prosper, while the incompetent or the lazy will not. This idea was expressed in the
title of Samuel Smiles book self help: ‘heaven helps those who help themselves’.
Richard Coben advised to ‘look not to parliament, look only to yourselves’.
Modern liberalism
• Individuality
Mill disagreed with Bentham and give
developmental model of individualism
• Poitive freedom
Green–classical liberal freedom(negative freedom) becoming ‘freedom
to starve',means it justifies exploitation to maximize profit
• Social liberalism
From safety net welfare(classics liberalism)to cradle to grave welfare
(modern liberalism)
Welfare state in UK based on Beveridge Report set to attack '5 giants'--
>want, disease, ignorance, squalor and idleness
• Economic management
In The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, Keynes
challenged self-regulating market.
By the end of World War II, Keynesianism was widely established as
key to 'Long boom'.

Liberal democracy
fuses two styles of rule:
• Constitutional rule
 Bcuz egoism plus power equals corruption.
Lord Acton →"Great men are almost always bad men"
Montesquieu→ 'power should be a check to power’

• Democratic rule
Bentham→adult suffrage is only way of promoting ‘the greatest
happiness for the greatest number'.
Mill→In its unrestrained form,democracy leads to tyranny, but, in the
absence of democracy, ignorance and brutality will prevail.
James Madison→argued that the best defence against majoritarianism
is a network of checks and balances that would make government
responsiv.

Kant works-Critique of Pure Reason,Metaphysics of Morals

Mill's work–utilitarianism,Considerations on Representative Government
Bentham→justified laissez-faire,constitutional reform,political democracy
His Works–A Fragment on Government,An Introduction to the Principles
of Morals and Legislation.
James Madison work–the federalist
Chapter-3

CONSERVATISMS

‘Conservatism’ was first used in the early nineteenth century to describe a

distinctive political position or ideology. It can refer to moderate or cautious
behavior, a lifestyle that is conventional, even conformist, or a fear of, or refusal to
accept, change, particularly denoted by the verb ‘to conserve’.
As a political ideology, conservatism is defined by the desire to conserve, particular
through support for tradition, a belief in human imperfection, and the attempt to
uphold the organic structure of society.
Chief distinction within conservatism is between what is called traditional
conservatism and the New Right.
• Traditional conservatism defends established institutions and values on the
ground that they safeguard the fragile ‘fabric of society’, giving security-
seeking human beings a sense of stability and rootedness.
• The New Right is characterized by a belief in a strong but minimal state,
combining economic libertarianism with social authoritarianism, as
represented by neoliberalism and neoconservatism.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Conservative ideas arose in reaction to the growing pace of political, social and
economic change, which was symbolized by the French Revolution. During the 19th
century, Western states were transformed by industrialization and reflected in the
growth of liberalism, socialism and nationalism. While these ideologies preached
reform, and at times supported revolution, conservatism stood in defence of an
increasingly embattled traditional social order.
Conservative thought varied considerably as it adapted itself to existing traditions
and national cultures. UK conservatism, for instance, has drawn heavily on the ideas
of Burke, who advocated not blind resistance to change, but rather a prudent
willingness to ‘change in order to conserve’.
Forms of conservatism have emerged that have sought to blend the establishment of
strong central authority under ‘strongman’ leaders with the mobilization of mass
popular support on issues such as nationalism, economic progress and the defence of
traditional values. Examples of this have included Narendra Modi in India, Recep
Tayyip Erdogan in Turkey and Jair Bolsorano in Brazil. This form of conservative
politics is associated with the wider phenomenon of rightwing populism.
CORE THEMES
It is often suggested that conservatives have a clearer understanding of what they
oppose than of what they favor. In that sense, conservatism has been portrayed as a
negative philosophy, its purpose being simply to preach resistance to, or at least
suspicion of, change.
However, if conservatism were to consist of no more than a knee-jerk defence of the
status quo, it would be merely a political attitude rather than an ideology. In fact,
many people or groups can be considered ‘conservative’, in the sense that they resist
change, without in any way subscribing to a conservative political creed. Socialists
who campaign in defence of the welfare state or nationalized industries could be
classified as conservative in terms of their actions, but certainly not in terms of their
political principles
Others have argued that what is distinctive about conservatism is its emphasis on
history and experience, and its distaste for rational thought. Conservatives have thus
typically eschewed the ‘politics of principle’ (a reliance on ideals and abstract theory)
and adopted instead a traditionalist political stance. Conservatism is neither simple
pragmatism nor mere opportunism. It is founded on a particular set of political
beliefs about human beings, the societies they live in, and the importance of a
distinctive set of political values. The most significant of its central beliefs are:
Tradition
It is often argued that the ‘desire to conserve’ is the defining theme of conservative
ideology, especially when it is linked to a defence of tradition. In its broadest sense,
tradition encompasses anything that is passed down from the past to the present.
Anything from long-standing customs and practices, to an institution, political or
social system, or a value or set of beliefs, can therefore be regarded as a tradition.
For some conservatives, the emphasis on tradition reflects their religious faith. If the
world is thought to have been fashioned by God the Creator, traditional customs and
practices in society will be regarded as ‘God given’. As the pace of historical change
accelerated, old traditions were replaced by new ones, and these new ones – for
example, free elections and universal suffrage – were clearly seen to be manmade
rather than in any sense ‘God given’. The religious objection to change has been kept
alive by modern fundamentalists, particularly those who believe that God’s wishes
have been revealed to humankind through the literal truth of religious texts. Most
conservatives, however, support tradition without needing to argue that it has divine
origins.
Tradition reflects the accumulated wisdom of the past. The institutions and practices
of the past have been ‘tested by time’, and should therefore be preserved for the
benefit of the living and for generations to come. This is the sense in which we
should respect the actions of the dead, who will always outnumber the living.
Tradition reflects an almost Darwinian belief that those institutions and customs that
have survived have only done so because they have worked and been found to be of
value. They have been endorsed by a process of ‘natural selection’ and demonstrated
their fitness to survive.
Conservatives also venerate tradition because it generates a sense of identity for both
society and the individual. Established customs and practices are ones that
individuals can recognize; they are familiar and reassuring. Tradition thus provides
people with a feeling of ‘rootedness’ and belonging, which is all the stronger because
it is historically based. It generates social cohesion by linking people to the past and
providing them with a collective sense of who they are. Change, on the other hand, is
a journey into the unknown: it creates uncertainty and insecurity, and so endangers
our happiness.
Human imperfection
In many ways, conservatism is a ‘philosophy of human imperfection’ (O’Sullivan,
1976). Other ideologies assume that human beings are naturally ‘good’, or that they
can be made ‘good’ if their social circumstances are improved. In their most extreme
form, such beliefs are utopian and envisage the perfectibility of humankind in an
ideal society. Conservatives dismiss these ideas as, at best, idealistic dreams, and
argue instead that human beings are both imperfect and unperfectible. Human
imperfection is understood in several ways. In the first place, human beings are
thought to be psychologically limited and dependent creatures. In the view of
conservatives, people fear isolation and instability. They seek the security of knowing
‘their place’. A portrait very different from the image of individuals as self-reliant,
enterprising ‘utility maximizers’ proposed by early liberals. The belief that people
desire security and belonging has led conservatives to emphasize the importance of
social order, and to be suspicious of the attractions of liberty. Order ensures that
human life is stable and predictable; it provides security in an uncertain world.
Liberty, on the other hand, presents individuals with choices and can generate change
and uncertainty.
Humankind’s intellectual powers are also thought to be limited. Conservatives have
traditionally believed that the world is simply too complicated for human reason to
grasp fully. The political world, as Michael Oakeshott put it, is ‘boundless and
bottomless’. Conservatives are therefore suspicious of abstract ideas and systems of
thought that claim to understand what is, they argue, simply incomprehensible. They
prefer to ground their ideas in tradition, experience and history, adopting a cautious,
moderate and above all pragmatic approach to the world, and avoiding, if at all
possible, doctrinaire or dogmatic beliefs. High-sounding political principles such as
the ‘rights of man’, ‘equality’ and ‘social justice’ are fraught with danger because
they provide a blueprint for the reform or remodeling of the world. Reform and
revolution, conservatives warn, often lead to greater suffering rather than less. For a
conservative, to do nothing may be preferable to doing something, and a conservative
will always wish to ensure, in Oakeshott’s words, that ‘the cure is not worse than the
disease’.
Nevertheless, conservative support for both traditionalism and pragmatism has
weakened as a result of the rise of neoliberalism.
• In the first place, neoliberalism is radical, in that it has sought to advance free-
market reforms by dismantling inherited welfarist and interventionist
structures.
• Second, neoliberal radicalism is based on rationalism and a commitment to
abstract theories and principles, notably those associated with economic
liberalism.

ORGANIC SOCIETY
As per as conservatives view, Freedom is willing acceptance of social obligation and
tying it by individual who recognize their values.They put deliveration of one’s duty
at priority because without this society will be rootless. For them the bond of duty
and obligation holds society together. This particular view towards society is known
as ORGANICISM.
°Conservatives took society as a living being,where different parts of society works
together to keep it in proper condition.They differentiate Society from
machines/atrefacts in two ways-
a) Unlike machine, society cant be reassembled again.
b) Unlike machine, Society is shaped by natural necessity factors.
The term Organic metaphor has profound implications about conservatives, as they
denote that unlike liberals and socialist,who had mechanical view on society ,hence
they want reform in the term of reform & revolutions, conservatives wants preserve
that organic nature.
Rise of neoliberalism(self-reliant belief) has weakened support of conservativism(of
organic).
HIERARCHY & AUTHORITY
Conservatives believe in hierarchy & fixed social gradation
°They don’t believe in social equality. Here they agree with liberal thought
i.e.,natural inequality of individuals.
Therefore ,pre-Democratic conservatives like Burke gave concept of Natural
Aristocracy.
But conservatives don’t go with liberal view on authority as they believe that
authority is the CONTRACT made by free individuals foe their own benefit, whereas
conservatives, believe that authority develops naturally.
°They believe authority is rooted in nature of society & its institution.
*Conservatives lays special emphasis on LEADERSHIP & DISCIPLINE.
PROPERTY-
An asset that poses deep emphasis on conservatives.They believe that the property
has range of psychological & social advantage.
They say that those who possess property tends to respect others property also.
°It can regarded as extension of individual’s personality.Property is not the mere
creation of present generation much of it has been passed down from earlier
generation as well.

Conservatism, political doctrine that emphasizes the value of traditional institutions

and practices.

Conservatism is a preference for the historically inherited rather than the abstract and
ideal. Conservatives favour institutions and practices that have evolved gradually
and are manifestations of continuity and stability.

TYPES OF CONSERVATISM
The chief sub-traditions within conservatism are as follows:
1. libertarian conservatism
2. authoritarian conservatism
3. paternalistic conservatism
4. Christian democracy

1. LIBERTARIAN CONSERVATISM
Although conservatism draws heavily on pre-industrial ideas such as organicism,
hierarchy and obligation, the ideology has also been much influenced by liberal
ideas, especially classical liberal ideas. Liberal doctrines, especially those concerning
the free market, have been advanced by conservatives since the late eighteenth
century, and can be said to constitute a rival tradition to conservative paternalism.
These ideas are libertarian in that they advocate the greatest possible economic
liberty and the least possible government regulation of social life. Libertarian
conservatives have not simply converted to liberalism, but believe that liberal
economics is compatible with a more traditional, conservative social philosophy,
based on values such as authority and duty. This is evident in the work of Edmund
Burke, in many ways the founder of traditional conservatism, but also a keen
supporter of the economic liberalism of Adam Smith.
Libertarian conservatives are not, however, consistent liberals. They believe in
economic
individualism and ‘getting government off the back of business’, but are less
prepared to
extend this principle of individual liberty to other aspects of social life.
Conservatives,
even libertarian conservatives, have a more pessimistic view of human nature. A
strong
state is required to maintain public order and ensure that authority is respected.
Indeed,
in some respects libertarian conservatives are attracted to free-market theories
precisely
because they promise to secure social order. Whereas liberals have believed that the
market economy preserves individual liberty and freedom of choice, conservatives
have
at times been attracted to the market as an instrument of social discipline. Market
forces regulate and control economic and social activity. For example, they may deter
workers from pushing for wage increases by threatening them with unemployment.
As such, the market can be seen as an instrument that maintains social stability and
works alongside the more evident forces of coercion: the police and the courts. While
some conservatives have feared that market capitalism will lead to endless
innovation and restless competition, upsetting social cohesion, others have been
attracted to it in the belief that it can establish a ‘market order’, sustained by
impersonal ‘natural laws’ rather than the guiding hand of political authority.
Nevertheless, the relationship between conservatism and economic libertarianism
deepened further as a result of the emergence of neoliberalism.

2. AUTHORITARIAN CONSERVATISM
Authoritarianism is belief in or the practice of government ‘from above’, in which
authority is
exercised over a population with or without its consent. Authoritarianism thus differs
from authority. The latter rests on legitimacy, and in that sense arises ‘from below’.

Throughout the nineteenth century, conservatives in continental Europe remained

faithful
to the rigid and hierarchical values of autocratic rule, and stood unbending in the face
of rising liberal, nationalist and socialist protest. Nowhere was authoritarianism more
entrenched than in Russia, where Tsar Nicholas I (1825–55) proclaimed the
principles of ‘orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality’, in contrast to the values that had
inspired the French Revolution: ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’. Nicholas’
successors stubbornly refused to allow their power to be constrained by constitutions
or the development of parliamentary institutions. In Germany, constitutional
government did develop, but Otto von Bismarck, the imperial chancellor, 1871–90,
ensured that it remained a sham. The unwillingness of continental conservatives to
come to terms with reform and democratic government extended well into the
twentieth century. For instance, conservative elites in Italy and Germany helped to
overthrow parliamentary democracy and bring Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler to
power by providing support for, and giving respectability to, rising
fascist movements. More recent manifestations of the link between social
conservatism and authoritarianism have tended to be associated with neo-
conservatism.

In domestic policy, neo-conservatism is defined by support for a minimal but strong

state, fusing themes associated with traditional or organic conservatism with an
acceptance of economic individualism and qualified support for the free market.
Neoconservatives have typically sought to restore public order, strengthen ‘family’ or
‘religious’ values, and bolster national identity. In foreign policy, neoconservatism
was closely associated with the Bush administration in the USA in the years
following 9/11. Its central aim was to preserve and reinforce what was seen as the
USA’s ‘benevolent global hegemony’ by building up US military power and pursuing
a policy of worldwide ‘democracy promotion’

NEO-CONSERVATISM
Refers to developments within conservative ideology that relate to both domestic
policy and foreign policy. In domestic policy, neoconservatism is defined by support
for a minimal but strong state. Neoconservatives, in domestic policy, have typically
sought to restore public order, strengthen ‘family’ or ‘religious’ values, and
bolster national identity. They have been inspired from traditional or organic
conservatism with an acceptance of economic individualism and qualified
support (not blind support) for the free market.
 • Emerged in the USA in the 1970s

• It was defined by a fear of social fragmentation or breakdown, which was seen

as a product of liberal reform and the spread of ‘permissiveness’ (willingness
to allow people to make their own moral choices; suggests that there are no
authoritative values).

NEOLIBERALISM NEOCONSERVATISM

• Prefer a minimal state • Seek to strengthen leadership

(Classical Liberalism, and authority in society (a
Atomism, Radical) strong state) This emphasis on
• Neoliberalism is often equated authority, allied to a
with a belief in market heightened sensitivity to the
fundamentalism; that is, an fragility of society,
absolute faith in the capacity demonstrates that
of the market mechanism to neoconservatism has its roots
solve all economic and social in traditional or organic
problems. conservatism. (traditional
• Economic dynamism conservatism, organicism)
• self-interest/enterprise • Strong authority can solve
• equality of opportunity social and economic problems.
• internationalism, pro • Social Order
globalisation • Traditional/Community values
• Natural hierarchy
• insular nationalism, anti
globalisation

• Both of them (neoliberalism and neoconservatism) accept the rolling back of

the state’s economic responsibilities.

Domestic policy of Neoconservatives

The two principal domestic concerns of neoconservatism
• Social order
• Public morality
Social Order
Neoconservatives believe that rising crime, delinquency and anti-social behaviour
are generally a consequence of a larger decline of authority. They have
therefore called for a strengthening of social disciplines and authority at every
level. This can be seen in relation to the family.
Family is an authority system: it is both naturally hierarchical – children
should listen to, respect and obey their parents – and naturally patriarchal. The
husband is the provider and the wife the home-maker. This social
authoritarianism is matched by state authoritarianism, the desire for a strong
state reflected in a ‘tough’ stance on law and order leading to greater emphasis
on custodial sentences and to longer prison sentences, reflecting the belief that
‘prison works’.

Public Morality
Neoconservatives want to reassert the moral foundations of politics. They
criticise the ‘permissive 1960s’ and the culture of ‘doing your own thing’.
Neoconservatives see two dangers in a permissive society. In the first place,
the freedom to choose one’s own morals or lifestyle could lead to the choice
of immoral or ‘evil’ views [allegiance to the conservative idea of human
imperfection] .
The second danger is not so much that people may adopt the wrong morals or
lifestyles, but may simply choose different moral positions.

In the neoconservative view, moral

pluralism is threatening because it undermines the cohesion of society. A
permissive society is a society that lacks ethical norms and unifying moral
standards. It is a ‘pathless desert’, which provides neither guidance nor
support for individuals and their families. If individuals merely do as they
please, civilized standards of behaviour will be impossible to maintain.

Foreign policy of Neoconservatives

 • The link between the domestic and foreign policy aspects of neoconservative
thinking is a concern about the nation and the desire to strengthen
national identity in the face of threats from within and outside.

• The value of the nation, from the neoconservative perspective, is that it binds
society together, giving it a common culture and civic identity, which is all
the stronger for being rooted in history and tradition. National patriotism
thus strengthens people’s political will.

• The most significant threat to the nation ‘from within’ is the growth of
multiculturalism, which weakens the bonds of nationhood by threatening
political unity and creating the spectre of ethnic and racial conflict.
Neoconservatives have therefore often been in the forefront of campaigns for
stronger controls on immigration and, for a privileged status to be granted
to the ‘host’ community’s culture.

• Such concerns have widened and deepened as a result of the advance of

globalization. E.g. In the UK, the main perceived threat came from the
process of European integration. A process that commenced in the 1980s
under Thatcher and culminated in withdrawal from the EU (Brexit) in 2020,
UK conservatism was increasingly defined by ‘Euroscepticism’. Since the
turn of the twenty first century, however, neoconservatism has been associated
more and more clearly with right-wing populism.

• In USA neoconservatism was closely associated with the Bush administration

in the years following 9/11. Its central aim was to preserve and reinforce what
was seen as the USA’s ‘benevolent global hegemony’ by building up US
military power and pursuing a policy of worldwide ‘democracy promotion’.

Paternalistic Conservatism
Paternalism literally means to act in a fatherly fashion.
• As a political principle, it refers to power or authority being exercised over
others with the intention of conferring benefit or preventing harm.

• Social welfare and laws such as the compulsory wearing of seat belts in cars
are examples of paternalism.
 • ‘Soft’ paternalism is characterized by broad consent on the part of those
subject to paternalism.

• ‘Hard’ paternalism operates regardless of consent, and thus overlaps with

authoritarianism.

• The basis for paternalism is that wisdom and experience are unequally
distributed in society; and those in authority ‘know best’.

• Opponents argue that authority is not to be trusted and that paternalism

restricts liberty and contributes to the ‘infantilization’ of society
While continental conservatives (in continental Europe) adopted an attitude of
uncompromising resistance to change (against French Revolution, support
monarchy…), a more flexible and ultimately more successful Anglo-American
tradition can be traced back to Edmund Burke.
The lesson that Burke drew from the French Revolution was that change can be
natural and inevitable, in which case it should not be resisted. ‘A state without
the means of some change,’ he suggested, ‘is without the means of its conservation’
(Burke [1790]. The characteristic style of Burkean conservatism is cautious,
modest and pragmatic (Similar to pragmatic approach of Aristotle); it reflects a
suspicion of fixed principles, whether revolutionary or reactionary.
As Ian Gilmour (1978) put it, ‘the wise Conservative travels light’ – (no
commitment to fixed principles)
The values that conservatives hold most dear – tradition, order, authority, property
and so on – will be safe only if policy is developed in the light of practical
circumstances and experience. Such a position will rarely justify dramatic or
radical change, but accepts a prudent willingness to ‘change in order to
conserve’. Pragmatic conservatives support neither the individual nor the state in
principle, but are prepared to support either, or, more frequently, recommend a
balance between the two, depending on ‘what works’. (Aristotle’s principle of
Golden Mean).

One Nation conservatism (Paternalistic conservatism, evolved after industrial

revolution/feudalism)
• Traced back to Benjamin Disraeli (1804–81), a former UK prime minister.
• He emphasized the principle of social obligation, in contrast to the extreme
individualism then dominant within the political establishment.

• Disraeli wrote against a background of growing industrialization,

economic inequality and revolutionary upheaval. He tried to draw attention
to the danger of Britain being divided into ‘two nations: the Rich and the
Poor’.

• Disraeli’s argument was based on a combination of prudence and principle.

• Growing social inequality contains the seeds of revolution. A poor and

oppressed working class, would not simply accept its misery. Reform would
therefore be sensible, because, in stemming the tide of revolution, it would
ultimately be in the interests of the rich/established order.

• Disraeli appealed to moral values. He suggested that wealth and privilege

brought with them social obligations, in particular a responsibility for the
poor or less well-of (Gandhi’s theory of trusteeship can be traced to
paternalistic conservatism).

• Disraeli drew on the organic conservative belief that society is held together
by an acceptance of duty and obligations. He believed that society is
naturally hierarchical, but also held that inequalities of wealth or social
privilege give rise to an inequality of responsibilities.

• The wealthy and powerful must shoulder the burden of social responsibility,
which, in effect, is the price of privilege.

• These ideas were based on the feudal principle of noblesse oblige, the
obligation of the aristocracy to be honourable and generous. For example,
the landed nobility claimed to exercise a paternal responsibility for their
peasants, as the king did in relation to the nation.

• In office, Disraeli for the first time extended the right to vote to the
working class, and for the social reforms that improved housing conditions
and hygiene. Disraeli’s ideas contributed to a reforming tradition that appeals
both to the pragmatic instincts of conservatives and to their sense of social
duty.
 • In the UK, these ideas provide the basis of so-called ‘One Nation
conservatism’, whose supporters sometimes style themselves as ‘Tories’ to
denote their commitment to pre-industrial, hierarchic and paternal values.
TORYISM
‘Tory’ was used in eighteenth-century Britain to refer to a parliamentary
faction that (as opposed to the Whigs) supported monarchical power and
the Church of England, and represented the landed gentry; in the USA, it
implied loyalty to the British crown. The British Conservative Party
emerged out of the Tories, and in the UK ‘Tory’ is still widely used as a
synonym for Conservatives. Toryism is best understood as a distinctive
ideological stance within conservatism. Its features are a belief in
hierarchy, tradition, duty and organicism. It articulates neo- feudal belief
in a ruling class and a pre-democratic faith in established institutions, the Tory
tradition is also hospitable to welfarist and reformist ideas, provided these
serve the cause of social continuity.

• Disraeli’s ideas were subsequently taken up in the late nineteenth century by

Randolph Churchill in the form of ‘Tory democracy’. Churchill stressed
the need for traditional institutions – for example, the monarchy, the
House of Lords and the church – to enjoy a wider base of social support.
One Nation conservatism can thus be seen as a form of Tory welfarism.

• One Nation tradition, adopted ‘middle way’ between the extremes of

laissez-faire liberalism and socialist state planning. Conservatism was
therefore the way of moderation, and sought to draw a balance between
rampant individualism and overbearing collectivism

• Harold Macmillan’s The Middle Way ([1938] . Macmillan a former UK

prime minister advocated ‘planned capitalism’, which he described as ‘a
mixed system which combines state ownership, regulation or control of
certain aspects of economic activity with the drive and initiative of private
enterprise’. (India adopted mixed economy in 2nd 5yr plan)

• Thus, paternalist conservatism provides only a qualifed basis for social and
economic intervention. The purpose of One Nationism, for instance, is to
consolidate hierarchy rather than to remove it, the wish to improve the
conditions of the less well-of being motivated to a significant degree by the
desire to ensure that the poor no longer pose a threat to the established
order.
 • Paternalistic conservatism • Libertarian conservatism
(Neoliberalism)
• Pragmatism • Principles
• Traditionalism • Radicalism
• Social obligation • Individual egoism
• Organic society • Atomistic individual
• Hierarchy • Meritocracy
• Natural order • Market order
• “middle way economics” • Laissez-faire economics
• Qualified welfarism • Anti - welfarism

Christian Democracy (not so important)

• A political and ideological movement prominent in Western and central
Europe (after World War 2) and, to a lesser extent, Latin America. Although
it is often classified as a progressive, if doctrinally imprecise, form of
conservatism.

• Christian democratic thinking has, affected centre-right parties.

• Christian democratic thinking gradually took shape during the nineteenth

century as the Catholic Church attempted to come to terms with the
ramifications of industrialization and, in particular, the emergence of liberal
capitalism and the explicit challenge that revolutions posed to Church
authority.

• The French Catholic Church came, over time, to accept democratic political
forms and advocated growing concern about the threats posed by
unrestrained capitalism.

• The Vatican lamented the material suffering of the working class and
emphasized the reciprocal duties of labour and capital.

• In this view, as Protestantism is associated with the idea of spiritual

salvation through individual effort, its social theory typically endorses
individualism and extols the value of hard work, competition and personal
responsibility.
 • The ‘Protestant ethic’ has thus sometimes been treated as a form of capitalist
ideology (Weber, [1904– 5] 2011).

• Catholic social theory, by contrast, focuses on the social group rather than
the individual, and has stressed balance or organic harmony rather than
competition.

• French philosopher and political thinker Jacques Maritain (1884– 1973), the
leading figure in the attempt to develop an ideology of Christian democracy,
this was expressed through the notion of ‘integral humanism’ (Maritain,
[1936] 1996). Integral humanism underlines the role of cooperation in the
achievement of shared practical goals, and thereby implies that
unrestrained capitalism fails to serve the ‘common good’.

• Christian democracy is typically critical of laissez-faire capitalism, but does

not reject capitalism altogether. Rather, it advocates a ‘third way’ between
market capitalism and socialism, often termed social capitalism. The central
theme in this model is the idea of a social market; that is, an attempt to
marry the disciplines of market competition with the need for social
cohesion and solidarity. The market is thus viewed not as an end in itself
but rather as a means of generating wealth in order to achieve broader
social ends.

Future of Conservatism
• A key implication of conservatism (that is critical of change and venerates
tradition), that appears to be more closely associated with the past than the
future is that it means that conservative ideology is permanently outdated.

• Conservatism therefore seems to be trapped in an endless game of

ideological catch up. Many conservative parties have difficulty in coming to
terms with issues such as gender equality, same-sex marriage, trans rights
and minority rights, with the implication that they have sometimes struggled
to attract support from voters who are young, female, gay, transgender or
from ethnic minority backgrounds.
• But, it is abundantly clear that conservatism’s attachment to the past has
failed to consign it to the ideological fringe, still less threaten its survival.
Indeed, a concern to ensure continuity with the past may be one of the
sources of conservatism’s remarkable ideological resilience.

• ‘Traditional’ values may be more compelling and enjoy greater substance

than ones that, by contrast, appear merely fashionable, something that may
be even more the case as the pace of change accelerates.

• Unlike rationalist ideologies such as liberalism and socialism, conservatism

is unwilling to be tied down to a fixed system of ideas (Conservatives are
better known by what they are against rather than what they want to
make).

• The most intellectually modest of political ideologies, conservatism enjoys

an unusual degree of flexibility, allowing conservative thinking to adapt to
new and challenging historical circumstances. It has chameleon like
capacity for ideological reinvention.

• Although conservatism seems destined to remain a political ideology of

major significance, it is less clear what form of conservatism will
predominate in the future.

• In particular, it is possible to envisage two, sharply different conservative

futures. In the first, conservatism is defined by its close alignment with
‘accelerated’ globalization. This form of conservatism is primarily
concerned with economic issues and places a priority on the principles of
individualism and market. Libertarian and anti-statist tendencies within
conservatism therefore flourish at the expense of paternalistic ones
(NEOLIBERALISM). It gained prominence in the final decades of the
twentieth century. It gained impetus from the fact that conservative parties
were often able to respond more quickly and more successfully to
globalizing tendencies than their socialist and liberal counterparts, in part
because they were less deeply committed to Keynesian-welfarist
orthodoxies.

• The second possible conservative future nevertheless emerged from the turn of
the twenty-first century onwards, precipitated by rise of right-wing populism.
Instead of operating hand in hand with globalism, this form of conservatism
 is decidedly anti-globalist in character. Defined by its alignment with
illiberal nationalism, this form of conservatism places a particular emphasis
on opposing immigration and rejecting multiculturalism, and, in some
cases, introducing economic protectionism.
Chapter-4
SOCIALISM

The term ‘socialist’ derives from the Latin sociare, meaning to combine or to
share.Socialists therefore prefer cooperation to competition.

Historical overview
Socialism, as an ideology, has traditionally been defined by its opposition to
capitalism and the attempt to provide a more humane and socially worthwhile
alternative.
● At the core of socialism is a vision of human beings as social
creatures united bytheir common humanity.
● Socialist ideas were quickly linked to the development of a new but
growing classof industrial workers, who suffered the poverty and
degradation that are so often features of early industrialization.
● In the late nineteenth century, the character of socialism was
transformed by a gradual improvement in working-class living
conditions and the advance of political democracy.
● The Growth of trade unions, working-class political parties and sports
and social
clubs served to provide greater economic security and to integrate the
working class into industrial society.
● Socialism in African, Asian and Latin American countries often
developed out ofthe post-1945 anticolonial struggle, rather than a
class struggle. The idea of class
exploitation was replaced by that of colonial oppression, creating a
potent fusion of socialism and nationalism.
● More moderate forms of socialism were practised elsewhere in
the developingworld; for example, by the Congress Party in India.
● Distinctive forms of African and Arab socialism also developed, being
influencedrespectively by the communal values of traditional tribal
 life and the moral principles of Islam.
● In Latin America in the 1960s and 1970s, socialist revolutionaries
waged war against military dictatorships, often seen to be
operating in the interests of US imperialism.

During the late twentieth century, socialism suffered a number of major

setbacks. The most dramatic of these was the collapse of communism in
Eastern Europe through a series of largely peaceful revolutions that
culminated in the fall of the Berlin Wall
Core Theme
socialism can be understood in at least three distinctive way:

1. first, socialism is seen as an economic model, usually linked to

some form ofcollectivization and planning.
2. The second approach treats socialism as an instrument of the labour
movement, Socialism is thus really a form of ‘labourism’, a vehicle
for advancing the interest of organized labour.
3. third and broader sense as a political creed or ideology, characterised
by a particular cluster of ideas, values and theories.The most significant
of these are:
a. community
b. cooperation
c. equality
d. class politics
e. common ownership

Community
● This is a collectivist vision because it stresses the capacity of
human beingsfor collective action, their willingness and ability
to pursue goals by
working together, as opposed to striving for personal self-interest.
● John Donne (1571–1631): (in his poem) "No man is an
Island entire ofitself; every man is a piece of the Continent,
a part of the main……"
● Human beings follow the principle of fraternity.
● Socialists believe that the individual is inseparable from
society. Human beings are neither self-sufficient nor self-
contained; to think of them as separate or atomized
‘individuals’ is absurd.
● This has led socialists to develop utopian visions of a better
society, in
which human beings can achieve genuine emancipation and
fulfillment asmembers of a community.
● African and Asian socialists have often stressed that their
traditional,
 pre-industrial societies already emphasize the importance of
social life and the value of community. In these circumstances,
socialism has sought to preserve traditional social values in the
face of the challenge from Western individualism

● Julius Nyerere president of Tanzania 'tribal socialism’.

 Collectivism
Collectivism is the idea that human nature has a social core, and
implies that social groups, whether ‘classes’, ‘nations’, ‘races’ or
whatever, are meaningful political entities. However, the term is
used with little consistency.
Mikhail Bakunin and other anarchists used collectivism to refer to
self-governing associations of free individuals. Others have
treated collectivism as strictly the opposite of individualism,
holding that it implies that collective interests should prevail over
individual ones. It is also sometimes linked to the state as the
mechanism through which collective interests are upheld,
suggesting that the growth of state responsibilities marks the
advance of collectivism.

Cooperation
If human beings are social animals, socialists believe that the natural
relationship among them is one of cooperation rather than
competition. The principal reason
why the human species had survived and prospered was because of its
capacity for ‘mutual aid’.
● To socialist commitment to cooperation has stimulated the growth of
cooperative
enterprises, designed to replace the competitive and hierarchic
businesses that have proliferated under capitalism.

Equality
● They do not believe that all people are born identical, possessing
precisely the same capacities and skills.
● Socialist egalitarianism is characterized by a belief in social equality, or
equality of outcome.
● Egalitarianism: A theory or practice based on the desire to promote
equality;
egalitarianism is sometimes seen as the belief that equality is the
primary political value.
● Social equality underpins community and cooperation. Equal
 outcomes thereforestrengthen social solidarity.
● Marxists and communists believe in absolute social equality, brought
about by the abolition of private property and collectivization of
productive wealth.
● Redistribution of wealth through the welfare state and a system of
progressive taxation.
Class politics
● This is demonstrated most clearly in the Marxist belief that historical
change is the product of class conflict.
● Social class has not been accepted as a necessary or permanent feature
of society
● socialist societies have either been seen as classless or as societies
in which class inequalities have been substantially reduced.

Common ownership
Socialists criticize private property for a number of reasons:
● Property is unjust: wealth is produced by the collective effort of
human labour and should therefore be owned by the community,
not by private individuals.
● It breeds acquisitiveness and so is morally corrupting. Private
property
encourages people to be materialistic, to believe that human happiness
or fulfilment can be gained through the pursuit of wealth.
● It is divisive. It fosters conflict in society.

Types of Socialism
● Communism
● Social democracy

Communism
● Rejects private property and advocates common or collective
ownership over means of production.
● More or less based on the ideas of Karl Marx.
● After Marx's death Friedrich Engels, Karl Kautsky & Georgi
Plekhanov condensed Marx's ideas and theories into a
systematic and comprehensiveworldview that suited the needs
of the growing socialist movement.

✤Three forms of Marxism namely classical, Orthodox, neo-

Marxism
Classical Marxism
It is the " Marxism of Marx"and it is the philosophy of history that
outlines why capitalism is doomed and why socialism is destined to
replace it. It is based on the scientific analysis of history and society.
Marx rejected the earlier socialists like St Simon, Fourier, Owen as Utopian
because theiranalysis was not scientific. Marx calls his theory as
PRAXIS( action based on theory and theory based on action)
• Marx gave a materialist conception of history i.e. historical materialism.
It was arejection of the historical idealism of Hegel.
• Marx held material circumstances to be fundamental to all forms of
social andhistorical development.
• Man's Social being determines consciousness
• In his critique of political economy Marx suggested that social
consciousness andthe' legal and political Super structure' arises from the
economic base which is the real foundation of society.

Marx also took the idea of dialectics from Hegel.

According to him, capitalism is doomed because it embodies its own

antithesis, the proletariat ,seen by Marx as the" grave digger of
capitalism".

Marx's Theory of history isTeleological it aims to establish a

classless and a stateless Communism.

Young Marx focussed more upon the Alienation caused by

capitalism.man is alienated
→ From product of his labour
→From the process of labour
→ From fellow workers
→ From themselves

However in his later works Marx analysed capitalism more in

terms of class conflict and exploitation. Marx defined class in
terms of economic power.
The class which controls the means of production is the ruling class.
In capitalism two classes existed. Bourgeoisie and proletariat( Haves
and haves not)
. Class antagonism is the inherent feature of capitalism.

In theCommunist Menifesto Marx argued that" the history of all hitherto

existing
societies is the history of class struggle" .Classes rather than individuals,
parties or other movements,are the chief agents of historical change.
Marx believed that the relationship between classes is one of
irreconcilable
 antagonism. The subordinate class being necessarily and
systematically exploited by the ruling class. This he explained by
reference to the idea of Surpluse value.

● Marx predicted that capitalism will be overthrown by a proletarian

revolution. Thiswould be not merely a political Revolution rather it
would be a social Revolution
also.
 ● The class conscious proletariat : Class in itself changes into class for
itself (Higher level of consciousness).
● Immediately after the revolution a transitional socialist stage will be
achieved. It
would be characterized by the dictatorship of the proletariat. This
transition phase is for safeguarding the gains of the revolution by
preventing the counter revolution carried out by the dispossessed
bourgeoisie.
● However as the class antagonism began to fade with the emergence of
full
Communism the state would Wither away and a classless, stateless
society will be achieved.

Orthodox Communism

Orthodox Communism closely follows Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels'

original principles, aiming for a classless society with collective ownership of
the means of production and
equitable wealth distribution.

Key Thinkers

1. Karl Marx:Central figure, authored "The Communist Manifesto" and "Das

Kapital."

- Major Quote: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his
needs."

2. Friedrich Engels: Collaborated with Marx and co-authored "The

CommunistManifesto."

- Major Quote: "The state is not 'abolished.' It withers away."

Key Figures

1. Vladimir Lenin: Led the Bolshevik Party and the October Revolution in Russia.
● The central feature of Leninism was a belief in the need for a new kind
of politicalparty, a revolutionary party or vanguard party. Unlike Marx,
Lenin did not believethat the proletariat would spontaneously develop
 revolutionary class consciousness, as the working class was deluded by
bourgeois ideas and beliefs.
● Thus he disobeyed his master.
● further proposed that the vanguard party should be organized
according to the principles of democratic centralism. Lenin’s
theory of the party,nevertheless,attracted criticism from fellow
Marxists. In particular, RosaLuxemburg.
 - Major Quote: "Communism is Soviet power plus the electrification
of the whole country."

2. Joseph Stalin:Succeeded Lenin as leader of the Soviet Union.

- Major Quote: "Death is the solution to all problems. No man – no

problem."

ROSA LUXEMBURG (1871–1919)

● first Marxist critique of the Bolshevik tradition from the point

of view ofdemocracy.
● Emphasizing the benefits of a broadly based democratic
organization, she
condemned Lenin’s conception of a tightly centralised vanguard party
as an attempt to exert political control over the working class--> By
associating vanguardism
with the rise of despotism
She was a significant figure in
orthodox Communism, known
for her:

1. Revolutionary Activism: Advocated mass action and class struggle for

the proletarianrevolution.

2. Anti-War Stance: Strongly opposed World War I as a product of capitalist

imperialism.

3. Dictatorship of the Proletariat: Supported it as a transition to

communism butemphasized democratic principles within.

4. Internationalism: Stressed the global spread of socialism as essential for

achieving truecommunism.

Key words
1. Proletariat:The working class, oppressed in capitalism.

2. Bourgeoisie: Capitalist class owning means of production.

3. Class Struggle: Central to Marxism, it's the conflict between proletariat and
bourgeoisie.
4. Historical Materialism:Marx's theory - history driven by economic factors.

5. Dictatorship of the Proletariat: Post-revolution phase with the working class

in power.

6. Communist Manifesto: Foundational document of communism.

7. Collective Ownership: Means of production owned collectively.

8. Dialectical Materialism: Marxist philosophy combining dialectics and

materialism.

9.Alienation: Estrangement from labor's products and human essence.

Orthodox Communism envisions a stateless, classless society where

resources are shared equitably, profoundly impacting history, notably through
the Russian Revolution and the Soviet Union.

Neo-Marxism
Neo-Marxism is a contemporary adaptation of Marxist theory. It addresses
the limitations of classical Marxism and introduces new ideas while
retaining core Marxist principles.
Two principal factors shaped the character of neo-Marxism.
1. when Marx’s prediction about the imminent collapse of capitalism
failed to materialize, neo-Marxists were forced to re-examine
conventional class analysis.
2. neo-Marxists were usually at odds with, and sometimes profoundly
repelled by, theBolshevik model of orthodox communism.

Key thinkers
1. Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979)

● According to Marcuse, social domination has resulted in social

unhappiness whichcan be alleviated only by a fundamental change in
society itself. Marcuse also saw
 the philosophy of reason at work in bourgeois morality, especially in
Kant's moral philosophy.Coined " Repressive tolerance " - exposing
how seemingly tolerant
societies can still maintain oppressive structures.

- Major Quote: "A comfortable, smooth, reasonable, democratic

unfreedom prevails inadvanced industrial civilization."

2. Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe: Developed the concept of

"hegemony," emphasizing the role of ideology in maintaining
power structures.

- Major Quote (Mouffe): "The very idea of radical democracy depends on

the existence ofan agonistic public sphere in which different hegemonic
projects can confront each other."

3. Antonio Gramsci: Introduced "cultural hegemony" - how dominant classes

use culture to maintain control.

- Major Quote: "The intellectuals are the dominant group's 'deputies'

exercising thesubaltern functions of social hegemony and political
government."

Keywords and Concepts:

1. Hegemony: Dominance of a group or ideology through consent, not

coercion.

2. Repressive Tolerance: Marcuse's concept revealing how tolerant

societies can uphold oppression.

3.Cultural Hegemony:Gramsci's idea of control through cultural influence.

4.Radical Democracy: Addresses structural

inequalities. 5.Advanced Industrial Society:

 Modern, complex societies.

Neo-Marxism reinterprets Marxism for modern challenges, emphasizing

culture, ideology, and discourse in understanding power dynamics and social
change.

Social democracy
● Social democracy is an ideological stance that supports a broad
balance betweenmarket capitalism, on the one hand, and state
intervention on the other.
● It is associated with following views :
1. capitalism is the only reliable means of generating wealth, but it is a
morally defective means of distributing wealth because of its
tendency towards poverty and inequality
2. the defects of the capitalist system can be rectified through
economic and social intervention, the state being the custodian of
the public interest;
3. Social change can and should be brought about peacefully and
constitutionally.

● took shape around the mid-twentieth century, fully developed in the

early post-1945 period
● In the 1970s-80s, social democracy has struggled to retain its electoral
and politicalrelevance because of advance of neoliberalism and
changed economic and social
circumstances
● weakened the theoretical basis of socialism as it is concerned with social
justice

Ethical socialism
● based on both humanistic and religious principles
● Proponents -Fourier, Owen and William Morris; e.g. France, the
UK and other Commonwealth (1854–96)
● draws heavily on Christianity;
○ The Christian ethic that has inspired UK socialism is that of universal
brotherhood, the respect that should be accorded to all individuals as
creations of God, a principleembodied in the commandment 'Thou
shalt love thy neighbour as thyself ’
● R. H. Tawney's works reflected Christian ethics and in his The
Acquisitive Society(1921), he condemned unregulated capitalism
because it is driven by the ‘sin of
avarice’ rather than faith in a ‘common humanity’.

Reformist socialism
● Reformism: The advocacy of improvement through reform, as
opposed to fundamental revolutionary change.
At the heart of this was the goal of ‘taming’ capitalism rather than
 abolishing it. A majorinfluence on this process in the UK was the
Fabian Society, formed in 1884. Led by Beatrice Webb (1858–1943)
and Sidney Webb (1859–1947), and including noted intellectuals such
as George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells
● The Fabians embrace the idea of ‘the inevitability of gradualism’.
○ Gradualism: Progress brought about by gradual, piecemeal
improvements, rather than dramatic upheaval; change through legal
and peaceful reform.

Reason for adopting social democracy :

1. The mixed economy.
2. Economic management, seeing the need for capitalism to be
regulated in order to deliver sustainable growth.
3. The welfare state, viewing it as the principal means of reforming or
humanizing capitalism
4. E.g. Swedish Social Democratic Labour Party abandoned planning in
the 1930s,West German Social Democrats at the Bad Godesberg
Congress of 1959

KEY FIGURES
● Eduard Bernstein : Evolutionary Socialism - first major work of Marxist
revisionism. Bernstein argued that economic crises were becoming less,
not more,
acute, and drew attention to the ‘steady advance of the working class’. On
this basis, he drew attention to the possibility of a gradual and peaceful
transition to socialism, and questioned the distinction between liberalism
and socialism, later abandoning all semblance of Marxism.

● Anthony Crosland in The Future of Socialism subscribed to managerialism.

Managerialism: The theory that a governing class of managers,
technocrats and state officials – those who possess technical and
administrative skills – dominates both capitalist and communist
societies.
○ recognized that economic growth plays a crucial role in the achievement
of socialism.A growing economy is essential to generate the tax
revenues needed to finance more generous social expenditure, and the
prosperous will only be prepared to finance the needy if their own living
standards are underwritten by economic growth.

The crisis of social democracy

John Maynard Keynes

● Keynesian social democracy is a political ideology based on the

assumption that the government should intervene within the economy
to mitigate the problems of market failure.(prevailed early post-1945)
 ● In social democracy, there is a conflict between its commitment to
both economic efficiency and egalitarianism
● Why wasn't this conflict confronted in the post 1945 period?
○ sustained growth, low unemployment & low inflation
improved the living standards of all social groups and helped
to finance more generous welfare provision
● Challenges faced :
○ recession in the 1970-80s : precipitated a ‘fiscal crisis of the
welfare state’; demand for welfare support increased as
unemployment re-emerged; the tax revenues that financed
welfare spending was reduced
○ political, social and international factors in 1980s-90s :
■ electoral viability of social democracy was undermined by de-
industrialization
■ shrinkage of the traditional working class
■ In the early post-1945 : democracy was around progressive politics,
since the 1980s➡ around the interests of ‘contented majority’ (J. K.
Galbraith (1992) ) which is “is not in fact a numerical majority. But the
contented vote, and they vote to protect their contentment from any short-term
threat _ the chief threat being taxation” ( The Culture of Contentment )
■ Social democratic parties got defeated; e.g. UK Labour
Party(1979 -1992);SPD (Germany : 1982 -1998); French Socialist
Party (1993 & 2002)
○ From the 1980s; neo-revisionism emerged (e.g. The UK, the
Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Australia and New Zealand)
■ These countries distanced from the principles and commitments
of traditionalsocial democracy
■ Resulted in ideological stance : Third way - The notion of an
alternative form of economics to both state socialism and free-
market capitalism, sought at different times by conservatives,
socialists and fascists

The Future of Socialism

● Reasons for growth of socialism
○ More acceptance due to expansion of the franchise over time -
 inclusion ofworking-class voters boosted growth of democratic
socialism
○ 1917 Russian Revolution- creation of world’s first socialist state
○ Spread aftermath of World War II – orthodox communism :
Eastern Europe,China,
—democratic socialism : Germany, Sweden, U.K.

● Reason for fall of socialism

 ○Due to fall of communism but also by the retreat of social
democratic parties inmany parts of the world from traditional
values
○ E.g.
■ dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991
■ breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s
■ China (late 20th century) transitioned from a centrally planned
economy to amixed economy with elements of capitalism.
○ as an economic model, capitalism delivers prosperity by having a
market mechanism that ensures unrivalled efficiency by drawing
resources to their most profitable use
○ Since the advent of globalisation from the 1980,capitalism benefited
from freer trade but for socialism it further restricted the scope for
economic management at a national level
● Conditions which can revive socialism
○ imperfections of the capitalist system. As Ralph Miliband put it, ‘the
notion that capitalism has been thoroughly transformed and
represents the best that humankind can ever hope to achieve is a
dreadful slur on the human race’.
○ Socialism can stand as a critique of global exploitation and
inequality, especially within-country inequality over the last four
decades. This can deepen social divisions and increasingly acute
political dysfunction.

NOTES

CAPITALISM:- is an economic system as well as a form of property

ownership. key features:
● Based on generalized commodity production, a ‘commodity’ being
a good orservice produced for exchange – it has market value
rather than use value.
● Productive wealth in a capitalist economy is predominantly held in
private hands.
● Economic life is organized according to impersonal market forces,
in particular the forces of demand and supply
 ● Material self-interest and maximization provide the main
motivations forenterprise and hard work.

MAO ZEDONG
● His legacy is often associated with the Cultural Revolution (1966–70),
a radical egalitarian movement that denounced elitism and
‘capitalist roaders’ (those inclined to bow to pressure from bourgeois
forces), and that resulted in widespread social disruption, repression
and death.
Collectivism: prioritizes the good of a group over the welfare of the individual.
In
collectivist cultures, people are guided by shared goals and value
interdependence and group solidarity. Collectivism is often associated with
communism and is the opposite of individualism.

ROBERT OWEN: British socialist, industrialist and pioneer of the

cooperative movement,
● Owen’s A New View of Society (1816) envisaged a transformation
in humannature consequent on a change in its environment,
suggesting that progress
requires the construction of a ‘rational system of society’.
● His efforts to improve the working conditions of his factory
workers. Hebelieved that education and socialism could help
cure social problems.

PERSPECTIVES ON EQUALITY
● LIBERALS believe that people are ‘born’ equal in the sense that they
are of equalmoral worth. This implies formal equality, notably legal
and political equality, as well as equality of opportunity.

● CONSERVATIVES have traditionally viewed society as naturally

hierarchical and have thus dismissed equality as an abstract and
unachievable goal.

● SOCIALISTS regard equality as a fundamental value and, in particular,

endorse
social equality. Despite shifts within social democracy towards a liberal
belief inequality of opportunity, social equality, whether in its relative
 (social democratic) or absolute (communist) sense, has been seen as
essential to ensuring social
cohesion and fraternity, establishing justice or equity, and enlarging
freedom in a positive sense.

● ANARCHISTS place a particular stress on political equality,

understood as anequal and absolute right to personal autonomy.

● FEMINISTS take equality to mean sexual equality, in the sense of equal

rights andequal opportunities (liberal feminism) or equal social or
economic power (socialist feminism) irrespective of gender.
 ● ECOLOGISTS advance the notion of biocentric equality, which
emphasizes that all life forms have an equal right to ‘live and
blossom’.

UNIVERSAL BASIC INCOME: is a policy concept that involves providing

a regular and unconditional cash payment to all individuals within a given
population, regardless of their income, employment status, or wealth.

PERSPECTIVES ON THE ECONOMY

● LIBERALS :-
○ Classical liberals favour laissez-faire capitalism,
○ Modern liberals recognize the limitations of the market and
accept limitedeconomic management.

● CONSERVATIVES : fearing the free-for-all of laissez-faire and the

attendant risks of social instability. Neoliberal conservatives
nevertheless endorse unregulated
capitalism.

● SOCIALISTS
○ Marxist tradition have expressed a preference for common
ownership andabsolute social equality
○ Orthodox communism was expressed in state collectivization
and centralplanning.

● ANARCHISTS
○ Anarcho-communists endorse common ownership and
small-scaleself-management,
○ Anarcho-capitalists advocate an entirely unregulated market
economy.

● FASCISTS:- linked to corporatism and its supposed ability to draw

labour andcapital together into an organic whole.

● ECOLOGISTS condemn both market capitalism and state collectivism

for being growth obsessed and environmentally unsustainable.
 Economics must therefore be subordinate to ecology, concern with
long-term sustainability and harmony between humankind and nature.

THOMAS PIKETTY:-
 ● Thomas Piketty's
"Capital in the 21st century" is a groundbreaking work that examines
the dynamics of income and wealth inequality over time. It argues
that without deliberate policy interventions, inequality is likely to
continue increasing in the21st century, with significant social and
economic consequence

VLADIMIR LENIN (1870–1924)

● A Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Lenin was the first
leader of the Soviet state (1917–21).
● In What Is to Be Done? (1902), he emphasized the central
importance of a tightlyorganized ‘vanguard’ party to lead and guide
the proletarian class.
● In 'Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism' (1916), he developed
an economic
analysis of colonialism, highlighting the possibility of turning
world war into class war.
● The State and Revolution (1917) outlined Lenin’s firm commitment to
the
‘insurrectionary road’ and rejected ‘bourgeois parliamentarianism’.
Chapter-5
Anarchism
Introduction to Anarchism
Anarchism is a political and social philosophy that advocates for a society without
hierarchical authority, government, or oppressive institutions. It promotes voluntary
cooperation, individual freedom, and the abolition of coercive systems. Anarchists
believe that individuals are capable of self-governance and that power should be
decentralized or eliminated entirely. The history of anarchism is rich and diverse, with
various schools of thought and influential figures contributing to its development.

Historical Roots of Anarchism

Early Anarchist Thinkers: Anarchist ideas can be traced back to ancient times, with
thinkers like Laozi and Zeno of Citium advocating for non-hierarchical societies.
However, modern anarchism emerged in the 19th century as a response to the
oppressive conditions of the industrial revolution.

Proudhon and Mutualism: Pierre-Joseph Proudhon is often considered the first self-
proclaimed anarchist. He introduced the idea of "mutualism," which advocated for a
society based on mutual cooperation and the abolition of private property.

Collectivist and Communist Anarchism: Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin were
prominent figures in the development of collectivist and communist anarchism,
respectively.
Collectivists proposed a society where individuals receive the product of their labor,
while communists envisioned a society where resources are collectively owned and
distributed based on need.

Core Themes of Anarchism

Anti-Authoritarianism: Anarchism is fundamentally opposed to all forms of hierarchical

authority, including governments, capitalism, and religious institutions. Anarchists
argue that these structures lead to oppression and restrict individual freedom.
Voluntary Cooperation: Anarchism promotes voluntary cooperation among individuals
and communities. It envisions a society where people work together based on mutual
consent rather than coercion.

Direct Action: Anarchists often engage in direct action, such as protests, strikes, and
civil disobedience, to challenge oppressive systems. Direct action is seen as a way to
create immediate change and resist authority.

Decentralization: Anarchism advocates for the decentralization of power. Instead of

centralized governments, anarchists support local self-governance and decision-
making. Seen in GANDHIAN ‘GRAM SWARAJ’ AND CONCEPT OF ‘CONCENTRIC OCEANIC
CIRCLES’.

Anti-Capitalism: Many anarchists are also anti-capitalist, as they view capitalism as a

system that perpetuates inequality and exploitation. They seek to replace it with
economic systems based on cooperation and solidarity.

Equality and Solidarity: Anarchists emphasize the importance of equality and solidarity
among all individuals. They reject discrimination based on factors like race, gender, or
class.

Non-Violence: While some anarchists may engage in acts of civil disobedience, many
advocate for non-violence as a means of achieving social change. They believe in
resolving conflicts through peaceful means.
Anarchism thus has a dual character: it can be interpreted as either a form of ‘ultra-
liberalism’, which resembles extreme liberal individualism or as a form of ‘ultra-
socialism’, which resembles extreme socialist collectivism.
The broader principles of Anarchism includes-
1.Anti-statism– for Anarchist authority is an offence against the principles of freedom
and equality .the anarchist critique of authority usually focuses on political authority,
especially when it is backed up by the machinery of the modern state.Anarchists
emphasize that the authority of the state is absolute and unlimited: law can restrict
public behaviour, limit political activity, regulate economic life, interfere with private
morality and thinking, and so on. For Emma Goldman government was symbolized by
‘the club, the gun, the handcuff, or the prison’.
2.Natural order - for anarchist state is unnecessary , anarchists believe that human
beings are capable of living together peacefully without the need for imposed order. At
the heart of anarchism lies a distinctive tendency towards utopianism .In the analysis of
human nature collectivist anarchists have highlighted the human capacity for sociable
and cooperative behaviour, while individualist anarchists have drawn attention to the
importance of enlightened human reason.According to them human nature is ‘plastic’,
in the sense that it is shaped by the social, political and economiccircumstances within
which people live. Just as law, government and the state breed a
domination/subordination complex, other social institutions nurture respect,
cooperation and harmony.
3.Anti-clericalism-
Anarchist anti-clericalism refers to the strong opposition to the influence and power of
religious institutions, particularly the clergy and organized religion, within anarchist
thought and activism. This aspect of anarchism is rooted in a deep skepticism of
hierarchical structures and authority, which extends to religious hierarchies as well.
4.Economic Freedom-
it is the economic structure of life that most keenly exposes tensions within anarchism.
While many anarchists acknowledge a kinship with socialism, based on a common
distaste for property and inequality, others have defended property rights and even
revered competitive capitalism.Many anarchists are critical of capitalism, viewing it as a
system that perpetuates inequality, exploitation, and hierarchical power
structures.Collectivist anarchists advocate an economy based on cooperation and
collective ownership, while individualist anarchists support the market and private
property.Anarchists of all kinds have a preference for an economy in which free
individuals manage their own affairs without the need for state ownership or regulation

Contemporary Anarchism
Anarchism continues to evolve and adapt to contemporary issues. It has influenced
various social movements, including environmentalism, feminism, and anti-
globalization activism. Additionally, digital spaces have provided new avenues for
anarchist organizing and communication.

In conclusion, anarchism is a diverse and dynamic political philosophy with a rich

history and core themes centered around anti-authoritarianism, voluntary cooperation,
and the pursuit of individual and collective freedom. It remains a significant force in
contemporary social and political discourse, challenging hierarchical structures and
advocating for a more equitable and just society.

Different types of Anarchism

Anarchism is a broad and diverse political philosophy with various schools of

thought and approaches. While there are many nuanced and overlapping
subtypes of anarchism, here are some of the major types:

Mutualism:Mutualists, like Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, advocate for a society where

individuals receive the product of their labor, often through a system of mutual
banking and cooperative enterprises. They believe in property rights but oppose
absentee ownership and the accumulation of wealth through rent and interest.

Collectivist Anarchism: Collectivist anarchists, like Mikhail Bakunin, emphasize

collective ownership of the means of production and the distribution of goods
based on one's contribution to society. They aim for a society that values both
individual and collective interests.

Anarcho-Communism:Anarcho-communists, such as Peter Kropotkin, envision a

society where all resources are collectively owned and wealth is distributed
according to need. They reject both private property and markets in favor of
communal organization.

Individualist Anarchism: Individualist anarchists, like Max Stirner, stress the

absolute autonomy of the individual. They advocate for a society where
individuals are free from external authority and can pursue their desires and self-
interest. Some individualist anarchists support private property.
Anarcho-Syndicalism:Anarcho-syndicalists believe in using labor unions and
direct action to achieve anarchist goals. They emphasize workers' self-
management and seek to abolish both the state and capitalist systems through
strikes and industrial action.

Green Anarchism (Anarcho-Primitivism):Green anarchists critique industrial

civilization and advocate for a return to simpler, more sustainable forms of living.
They prioritize environmental concerns and oppose technology and mass
production.

Anarcha-Feminism- Anarcha-feminists combine anarchist and feminist principles

to address both gender and class oppression. They argue that patriarchy and
capitalism are intertwined, and achieving gender equality requires dismantling
both systems.

Notable Figures: Emma Goldman, Voltairine de Cleyre

Queer Anarchism-Queer anarchists focus on LGBTQ+ liberation and view

sexuality and gender as social constructs that should be challenged. They seek
to create inclusive, non-hierarchical communities that are accepting of diverse
gender and sexual identities.

Notable Figures: Silvia Federici, Judith Butler

Christian Anarchism-Christian anarchists interpret the teachings of Jesus as

advocating for non-violence, communal living, and the rejection of worldly
authority. They strive for a society based on Christian principles but without
hierarchical structures.

Notable Figures: Leo Tolstoy, Dorothy Day

These are just a few of the many types of anarchism, and individuals within each
subtype may have nuanced views. Anarchism is characterized by its
commitment to decentralized, non-hierarchical, and anti-authoritarian principles,
and different branches emphasize various aspects of these core ideas.

Prominent anarchist scholars-

 • WILLIAM GODWIN
• PROUDHON
• KROPOTKIN
• EMMA GOLDMAN
• THOREAU
• EMMA GOLDMAN

THE FUTURE OF ANARCHISM

• Anarchism's Limited Influence

Anarchism's primary goal, the overthrow of the state and dismantling of political
authority, is considered by many as unworkable. Anarchist violence, at times, has
created negative associations between anarchism and violence but ultimately
strengthened the state's repressive machinery

• Enduring Appeal of Anarchism

o Anarchism's moral appeal stems from its uncompromising stance against
authority and its belief that a "better world is possible."
o Anarchism's value may extend beyond seizing political power, as it focuses
on radically dispersing and decentralizing political authority.
o Anarchism's socio-cultural influence reaches into various concerns, making
it an influential force in diverse movements, including anti-globalization

This demonstrates anarchism's capacity to stimulate innovative thinking

and engage in a range of issues, thus proving why it continues to endure
and appeal to certain demographics, especially the youth.

Chapter-6
Nationalism

Preview
Word nation is derived from the word nasci meaning to be born.
In the form of natio it referred to a group of people united by birth or birthplace. It
implied a breed of people or a racial group, but possessed no political significance.
Timeline
Late 18th century- individuals and groups started to be classified as nationalists.
Anti-Jacobian French priest Augustin Barruel was first to use the term nationalism in
print in 1789.
Mid- 19th century – nationalism was widely recognised as a political doctrine or
movement. Eg. (revolutions across Europe in 1848)
Nationalism
can be defined broadly as the belief that the nation is the central principle of political
organisation. It is based on 2 core assumptions.
1. Human kind is naturally divided into distinct nations
2. The nation is the most appropriate , and perhaps only legitimate, unit of political
rule.
Classical political nationalism
– within the so-called nation states, nationality and citizenship would coincide.
Forms of nationalism (complex and highly diverse ideological phenomenon)
• Political
• Cultural
• Ethnic
Nationalism
• Has been associated – with a principled belief in national self-determination,
based on
the assumptions that all nations are equal.
• Has been used to – defend traditional institutions and the established social order
• As well as – to fuel programmes of war, conquest and imperialism.
• Has been linked to – widely contrasting ideological traditions, ranging from
liberalism to fascism.

Historical overview
Idea of nationalism was born during the French Revolution. Revolutionaries in France
rose up against Louis XVI in 1789, and did so in the name of the people, and understood
the people to be the ‘French nation’. – Their ideas were influenced by the writings of
Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the new doctrine of popular self- government. Nationalism
was therefore, a revolutionary and democratic creed, reflecting the idea that ‘subjects of
the crown’ should become ‘citizens of France’.
Ernest Renan (French rationalist scholar) – the nation is a daily plebiscite.
Latin America in early 19th century, Simon Bolivar ‘the liberator’ led revolutions against
Spanish rule in New Grenada (present day countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador,
Peru and Bolivia).
Due to liberal and nationalist pressure autocratic and multinational empires of Turkey,
Austria and Russia started to crumble.
1848- nationalist uprising in Italian states, Czechs, Hungarians and in Germany .
19th century was a period of nation building.
Italy once dismissed by the Austrian chancellor Metternich as a ‘mere geographical
expression’ became a united state in 1861, unification completed with the acquisition of
Rome in 1870.
Germany was unified in 1871, following the Franco-Prussian war.
By the end of the 19th century,
• nationalism became a truly popular movement, with the spread of flags, national
anthems, patriotic poetry and literature, public ceremonies and antional holidays.
• Became the language of mass politics
• Made possible the growth of primary education, mass literacy, and the spread of
popular newspapers.
• Came to stand for social cohesion, order and stability.
• Previously associated with liberal and progressive movements , was taken up
increasingly by conservative and reactionary politicians.
The end of world war 1 in 1918 saw the completion of the process of nation building in
central and eastern Europe.
At the Paris Peace Conference, Woodrow Wilson advocated the principle of national self
-determination.
Key concept
Nation- A collection of people bound together by shared values and traditions, a
common language, religion and history, and usually occupying the same geographical
area.
Independence- The process through which a nation is liberated from foreign rule,
usually involving the establishment of sovereign statehood.
Unification- The process through which a collection of separate political entities, usually
sharing cultural characteristics , are integrated into a single state.
Patriotism- from the latin word patria, meaning fatherland. It is a sentiment, a
psycological attachment to one’s nation, literally a ‘love of one’s country’.
Chauvinism- Uncritical and unreasoned dedication to a cause or group, typically based
on a belief in its superiority , as in ‘national chauvinism’.
Xenophobia- A fear or hatred for foreigners ; pathological ethnocentrism.
Imperialism- the policy of extending the power or rule of the state beyond its boundaries
, typically through the establishment of an empire.
Neo-imperialism (neocolonialism) - Characterised by economic and ideological
domination ,often seen as a product of structural imbalances in the international
economy and/or biases that operate within the institutions of global economic
governance.
Nation-state – A sovereign political association within which citizenship and nationality
overlap; one nation within a single state.
Empire- A structure of domination in which diverse cultural, ethnic or nation groups are
subjected to a single source of authority.
Economic nationalism- An economic policy that seeks to bolster the domestic economy
through protectionism , involving the use of tariffs, and so called non-tariff barriers.
Political nationalism- A form of nationalism that regards the nation as a natural political
community, usually expressed through the idea of national self-determination.
Core themes
• The nation
• Organic community
• Self-determination
• Culturalism

A. THE NATION
Basic belief of nationalism – nation should be central principle of political organization.
Nation , state , country and even race are used interchangeably.
Debate – whether a particular group is nation or not ?
Ex. Kurds , Tamils , Tibetans etc.
At fundamental level – nation are cultural entities, collection of people bound together
by shared value , common culture and traditions
Although particular cultural features are connected with:
 a) Language – embodies sense of familiarity and belonging
Ex. German nationalism
Exception – Americans , Australians and New Zealanders speaks English but not
consider themselves as English-Nation
b) Religion – expresses values and beliefs
Ex. Northern Ireland same language but divided among Protestant and Catholics
Exception- Poland Italy Brazil and Philippines share common Catholic faith but
not Catholic-Nation
c) Ethnicity or racial unity
Ex. Germany during Nazi period

National identity is preserved by recalling past glories

Ex. France – Bastille day parade
Nation can only be defined subjectively
Perspective on nation
1. Liberals – civic view of nation ; focus on polity , rights etc.
2. Conservatives – organic view ; common ethnic identity and shared history
3. Socialist – nation as artificial division
4. Anarchists – nation as myth and oppression
5. Fascist – nation as organically unified social whole which gives purpose and
meaning to individual existence
6. Populist – to safeguard native people
Conservative and fascist agree that nations are held together by primordial bonds i.e.
ancient and deep rooted bonds.
Civic nationalism highlights the importance of civic consciousness and patriotic loyalty.

B. ORGANIC COMMUNITY
All nationalist agree that nations are organic communities thought they disagree about
defining features of the nation
Approaches :
1. Primordial – portray national identity as historically embedded ; all nationalist are
primordial ; believe that there is little difference between ethnicity and nationality
2. Modern - national identity in response to changing situations and historical
challenges.
Ernest Gellner (1983) thus emphasized the degree to which nationalism is linked
to modernization particularly industrialization ;
 pre-modern - feudal bonds and loyalties , industrial societies - social mobility,
self-striving and competition.
Benedict Anderson (1983) - modern nations as a product of socio-economic
change
3. Constructive – to serve interest of powerful group
Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm (1983)- nations are based on ‘invented
traditions’.
In the case of Marxism, nationalism as a device through which the ruling class
counters the threat of social revolution by ensuring that national loyalty is
stronger than class solidarity, thereby binding the working class to the existing
power structure.

C. SELF DETERMINISM
Nationalism as a political ideology only emerged when the idea of national community
encountered the doctrine of popular sovereignty. This occurred during the French
Revolution and was influenced by the writings of Rousseau, sometimes seen as the
‘father’ of modern nationalism. General will was the seed from which nationalist
doctrines sprang. The form of nationalism that emerged from the French Revolution was
based on the vision of a people or nation governing itself. In other words, the nation is
not merely a natural community: it is a natural political community
The goal of nationalism: - Founding of nation-state; by
1. Unification – ex. Germany
2. Independence – ex. Poland , India
For nationalists, the nation-state is the highest and most desirable form of political
organization.
Nationalism legitimizes the authority of government. Political sovereignty in a nation-
state resides with the people or the nation itself. Consequently, nationalism represents
the notion of popular self-government
Nationalists believe that the forces that have created a world of independent nation-
states are natural and irresistible
Misleading - nationalism is always associated with the nation-state or to the idea of self-
determination. Some nations, for instance, may be satisfied with a measure of political
autonomy
Ex. Welsh nationalism in UK
Nationalism not always associated with separatism, devolution.
 Rousseau - architect of political nationalism, influence by liberal, socialist, and
anarchist. The Social Contract (1762) argued natural man throw of corruption,
exploitation and domination .A radical form of democracy based on “general will ",
political liberty and equality for all.
Culturalism - Rousseau is commonly called father of nationalism, In contrast to ideas
of French revolution.
Johann Gottfried herder ( 1744- 1803)- German poet , known as father of cultural
Nationalism , intellectual opponent of the Enlightenment, ‘spirit’ helped both to found
cultural history , work Reflections on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind
Black Nationalism is in US, group by Black Muslim, black pattern.
MARCUS GARVEY (1887–1940) Jamaican political thinker and activist Garvey’s
vision of Africa as a ‘homeland’ provided the basis for a pan-African philosophy and an
associated political movement, Africa to ‘redeem’ it from European colonialism was
largely ignored,
Hindu civilization was advanced by BJP, power since 2014, Chinese principles and
moral values.
Ethnicity is common consciousness of shared origin. Ancient or historic territory is a
homeland.
Cultural and ethnic view of nationalism viewed closely known as ethics.
China in principles and moral values.
Cultural forms of nationalism is seen as tolerant and consistent with progressive political
goal Ethnicity refer a common consciousness of shared origin and traditions, historic
territory a homeland , in case of Zionism .
Ethic and cultural nationalism is known as ethno cultural nationalism. Cultural
Nationalism is associated with demand for assimilation and culture purity.
Types of Nationalism
Nationalism is both progressive and regressive, political nationalism is complex
phenomenon. It is both rational and irrational. Appealed to principles, beliefs, national
self-determination. Nationalism emerged historical context, with fuse to absorb other
political doctrines.
Liberal Nationalism Oldest form of nationalism.
Liberals stood for individual freedom whereas nationalist believed nations to be sovereign
entities with liberty and rights. Therefore, liberal nationalism opposed all form of foreign
domination and oppression
It also stood for self-government based on constitution therefore the ultimate goal of
liberal nationalism like J S Mill was establishment of independent nation state based on
nationality. Rousseau views on popular sovereignty gave
direction to French revolution Mazzini stood for unification of Italy.
Woodrow Wilson emphasized on self-determination.
Liberals also believe that the principle of balance or natural harmony applies to the
nations of the world, not just to individuals within society.
The achievement of national self-determination is a means of establishing a peaceful and
stable international order.
Liberal nationalists have certainly accepted that constitutionalism and democracy reduce
the tendency towards militarism and war, but when sovereign nations operate within
conditions of ‘international anarchy’, self-restraint alone may not be sufficient to ensure
what Kant called ‘perpetual peace’.
Liberals - two means of preventing a recourse to conquest and plunder.
First is national interdependence, aimed at promoting mutual understanding and
cooperation. This is why liberals have traditionally supported the policy of free trade:
economic interdependence.
Second, national ambition should be checked by the construction of international
organizations capable of bringing order to an otherwise lawless international scene.

Conservative nationalism
It adhere to a form of cultural nationalism that emphasizes the preservation of national
identity as well as cultural identity.
It emphasis on the regeneration of nation as distinctive civilization i.e. its peculiar
tradition, myths, songs, etc.
John Gottfried Herder is regarded as the father of cultural nationalism, along with writer
John Fiske spoke about uniqueness and superiority of common cultures
Conservative nationalism tends to develop in established nation-states, rather than in
those that are in the process of nation building.
Principal goal of conservative nationalism is to maintain national unity by fostering
patriotic loyalty and ‘pride in one’s country’, especially in the face of the divisive idea of
class solidarity preached by socialists.
Conservative character of nationalism is maintained by an appeal to tradition and history;
nationalism thereby becomes a defence for traditional institutions and a traditional way
of life
Conservative nationalism is prominent when the sense of national identity is felt to be
threatened or in danger of being lost. Issues of immigration and supranationalism have
therefore helped to keep this form of nationalism alive in many modern states.
Conservative nationalists are concerned about the threat that supranational bodies, such
as the EU, pose to national identity and so to the cultural bonds of society.

Expansionist nationalism
It is an aggressive, radical and militaristic form of nationalism that is invariably
associated with chauvinistic beliefs and doctrines which tends to blur the distinction
between nationalism and racialism.
It is also referred as integrated nationalism. It arises from a sentiment of intense, even
hysterical nationalist enthusiasm. This form of nationalism came into existence in late
19th century. When European powers wanted to establish in Africa.
National prestige was linked increasingly to the possession of an empire and each colonial
victory was greeted by demonstrations of public approval.
In the UK, a new word, jingoism, was coined to describe this mood of popular
nationalism
In early 20th century world was divided into 2 categories the Triple Entente comprising uk
France and Russia and the Triple Alliance containing Germany Austria and Italy.
The authoritarian or fascist regimes of Japan, Italy and Germany embarked on policies of
imperial expansion and world domination, eventually leading to war in 1939.
Military glory and conquest are goals of national greatness which generated feelings of
nationalism
Expansionist nationalism advocates chauvinism (term derived from the name of Nicolas
Chauvin) and rationalism. It is believed in superiority of one’s own nation and their rights
of self determination
Nations are not thought to be equal in their right to self-determination; rather, some
nations are believed to possess characteristics or qualities that make them superior to
others. Clearly evident in European imperialism,
which was justified by an ideology of racial and cultural superiority. In nineteenth-century
Europe it was widely believed that the ‘white’ peoples of Europe and America were
intellectually and morally superior to the ‘black’, ‘brown’ and ‘yellow’ peoples of Africa
and Asia
 TENSIONS WITHIN . . . NATIONALISM
Liberal nationalism v. Expansionist nationalism
national self-determination national chauvinism
inclusive exclusive
voluntaristic organic
progressive reactionary
rational/principled emotional/instinctive
human rights national interest
equal nations hierarchy of nations
constitutionalism authoritarianism
ethnic/cultural pluralism ethnic cultural purity
cosmopolitanism imperialism/militarism
collective security power politics
supranationalism international anarchy

Internationalism is the theory or practice of politics based on transnational or global

cooperation.
Supranationalism: The ability of bodies with transnational or global jurisdictions to
impose their will on nation-states.
Cosmopolitanism: It is the idea that all human beings are members of a single
community.
Militarism: The achievement of ends by military means, or the extension of military
ideas, values and practices to civilian society.
Jingoism: A mood of nationalist enthusiasm and public celebration provoked by military
expansion or imperial conquest
Pan-nationalism: A style of nationalism that is dedicated to unifying a disparate people
either through expansionism or political solidarity (‘pan’ means ‘all’ or ‘every’)

Anti-colonial and postcolonial nationalism-

Global spread of nationalism, primarily through the experience of colonial rule and anti-
colonial movements in Asia and Africa. It also highlights the influence of Western-
educated leaders in these movements, the connection between nationalism and economic
concerns, and the diverse forms of anti-colonial nationalism.
1. **Imperialism and Nationalism**: nationalism, which originated in Europe, became a
worldwide phenomenon due to imperialism. Colonial rule fuelled a desire for national
liberation in Asia and Africa and gave rise to anti-colonial nationalism.

2. **Decolonization**: anti-colonial movements reshaped the political landscape of the

20th century, leading to the eventual collapse of European empires after World War II.
Some nations achieved peaceful independence, while others faced revolutions and armed
struggles.

3. **Different Forms of Nationalism**: diverse forms of anti-colonial nationalism,

including those rooted in liberal values, spirituality (e.g., Gandhi's non-violent
approach), and socialism. Socialist ideologies, despite their internationalist leanings,
appealed to many nationalists in the developing world due to their focus on addressing
colonial exploitation and inequality.

4. **Marxism and Anti-Colonialism**: the role of Marxist theories in framing

colonialism as a form of class oppression, which led to both political independence and
economic emancipation in the eyes of many developing-world nationalists.

5. **Postcolonial Nationalism**: After independence, some countries embraced

Marxist-Leninist principles, while others adopted more pragmatic, less ideological forms
of nationalistic socialism. However, in the postcolonial era, there has been a shift away
from Western ideas and culture, with a focus on finding anti-Western voices, particularly
through religious fundamentalism.

The scholars and their notable works include:

- Mahatma Gandhi: Known for his philosophy of non-violence and Indian nationalism.
- Frantz Fanon: Discussed the psychological dimensions of colonial subjugation.
- Mao Zedong: Advocated revolutionary Marxism in China.
- Ho Chi Minh: Led Vietnam in its struggle against colonialism.
- Fidel Castro: Played a key role in the Cuban Revolution.
- Karl Marx: Known for his influential works on socialism and class struggle.
- V. I. Lenin: Offered an analysis of imperialism as an economic phenomenon.
- Various postcolonial leaders and movements: Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Angola, Algeria,
Libya, Zambia, Iraq, and South Yemen embraced different forms of nationalism, often
involving socialism.
THE FUTURE OF NATIONALISM-
Nationalism faces internal challenges from ethnic and cultural diversity within modern
nations, sometimes leading to the rise of multiculturalism. Additionally, globalization,
supranational organizations, economic interdependence, and environmental concerns
pose external threats to nationalism.
Despite these challenges, nationalism remains resilient due to its ability to adapt to
different circumstances and serve various ideological purposes. It can be used to
promote democracy or authoritarianism, national liberation or expansionism, and can
both counter and align with globalization. Nationalism often appeals to those who feel
isolated or powerless, offering a sense of security, identity, and simple solutions to
complex problems. This enduring appeal is rooted in social psychology, as people tend
to create in-groups and out-groups during times of uncertainty and anxiety, with the out-
group often becoming a scapegoat for the in-group's frustrations.
In essence, nationalism persists in world politics due to its adaptability and its ability to
address the psychological needs of individuals and groups in times of upheaval.

Chapter-7
FASCISM

Preview

• Defining theme of fascism: ‘strength through unity’ (organically unified national

community)

Historical overview

• Nazis in Germany, proclaimed that ‘1789 is Abolished’.

 • In Fascist Italy, slogans such as: ‘Believe, Obey, Fight’ and ‘Order, Authority,
Justice’ replaced the principles of the French Revolution, ‘Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity’.
• Fascism attempted to make the political world anew, quite literally to root out and
destroy the inheritance of conventional political thought (O’Sullivan (1983))

• Neo-fascism and ‘classical’ fascism differ in a number of substantive ways. These

include the neo-fascist tendency to scapegoat non-European

CORE THEMES

• Fascism, according to:

a. Hugh Trevor-Roper: ‘an ill-assorted hodge-podge of ideas’ (Woolf,
1981)
b. Hitler: "Weltanschauung'
• Fascism may thus be better described as a political movement or even a political
religion, rather than an ideology.
• Ideological core of fascism:
a. ‘resistance to transcendence’(Ernst Nolte’s (1965) )
b. A. J. Gregor’s (1969) belief that it looks to construct ‘the total
charismatic community’
c. Roger Grifn’s (1993) assertion that it constitutes ‘palingenetic
ultranationalism
d. Roger Eatwell’s (2003) assertion that it is a ‘holistic-national
radical Third Way’

FASCISM’S STRUCTURAL CORE:

1. Anti-rationalist:

• Nietzsche proposed that human beings are motivated by powerful emotions, their
‘will’ rather than the rational mind, and in particular by the ‘will to power’.
• In ‘Reflections on Violence’ Sorel highlighted the importance of ‘political myths’,
which are descriptions of political reality that engaged the emotions and provoked
action.
 • French philosopher, Henri Bergson gave the theory of ‘vitalism’, which states
that the purpose of human existence is to give expression to the life force, rather
than to allow it to be confined or corrupted by the tyranny of cold reason.
• despite the inclination towards nihilism, fascism saw itself as a ‘creative force’, a
means of constructing a new civilization through ‘creative destruction’
• In Fascism the strength of the nation or race is seen as a reflection of this
collective cohesion.
• The idea of creating a "new man" or "fascist man" was a concept promoted by
fascist

.
2. Struggle:

• The ideas of Charles Darwin, particularly his theory of natural selection, have
been adapted into the concept of "social Darwinism," which was influential in
the emergence of fascism. Social Darwinism, as applied by some fascist
ideologies, promoted the belief that societal and international struggle was a
natural and necessary condition, where competition and conflict were seen as
mechanisms for human progress, ensuring that the strongest and fittest individuals
or nations would thrive.

• Hitler “Victory is to the strong and the weak must go to the wall”

• Weakness was despised and the elimination of the weak and inadequate is
welcomed for the common good, as the survival of a species is more important
than the life of any single member of that species. In ‘eugenics’, introduced by the
Nazis in Germany, mentally and physically handicapped people were first forcibly
sterilized and then systematically murdered.

3. Leadership and Elitism:

• Radical rejection of equality

• Deeply elitist and fiercely patriarchal being natural and desirable
• Fascism envisions a society structured into three tiers: a supreme leader with
absolute authority, a warrior elite distinguished by heroism and self-sacrifice,
and the masses, perceived as weak and obedient. This hierarchical view justifies
authoritarian rule, centralized power, and suppression of dissent within fascist
regimes.
 • Fascist leadership, particularly in Nazi Germany, drew inspiration from
Nietzsche's concept of the Übermensch, representing supremely gifted and
morally unbound individuals who embodied charismatic authority, rising above
conventional morality to exert power.
• In Italy, the principle that ‘Mussolini is always right’ became the core of fascist
dogma.

Contemporary example

1. Greece’s Golden Dawn: Rise of military dictatorship in Greece after the Global
Financial
crisis of 2007-08. Greece, which maintained huge social sector support, became debt
ridden.
Austerity measure were imposed by World Bank and IMF. Thus, dictatorship
flourished not
just because of prevalent poverty and unemployment, but more because of a crisis
of
democratic representation. It espoused all core fascist values, like the continuity of the
‘Greek
Race’, myths of ancient Greece like heroism, to cleanse the Greek nation of pollution
imposed by political outsiders.

4. Socialism:

• Mussolini and Hitler sometimes claimed their ideologies were a form of

'socialism,' despite strong opposition from socialists. Fascists did share certain
anti-capitalist sentiments, particularly among lower-middle-class activists, but
their core ideology remained distinctly different from socialism.
• Nazi coins, ‘Common Good before Private Good’.
 • Mussolini- “Human existence is only meaningful if it is sustained and
determined by the community.”; “No human or spiritual values exist or have
meaning outside the state.”
• Both the Italian and German regimes tried to bend big business to their political
ends through policies of nationalization and state regulation.
• The concept of fascist socialism is challenged by Marxist arguments that suggest
fascism aimed to preserve capitalism rather than overthrow it. Fascist
economic ideas were often vague and pragmatic, with a stronger emphasis on
anti-communism than anti-capitalism, prioritizing national unity and race over
social class divisions.

5. Ultranationalism:

• Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan pursued imperial ambitions
driven by a belief in strict self-sufficiency, where economic strength relied on
direct control of resources and energies, using conquest and expansion as a means
to achieve both economic security and national greatness.

NOT IMPORTANT FROM

Fascism is a Perspectives on Authority :
• LIBERALS believe that authority arises ‘from below’ through the consent of the
governed. Authority is rational, purposeful and limited. Have a preference for
legal-rational authority and public accountability.
• CONSERVATIVES see authority as arising from natural necessity, being
exercised ‘from above’. Authority is beneficial as well as necessary, in that it
fosters respect and loyalty, and promotes social cohesion.
• SOCIALISTS are suspicious of authority, which is regarded as implicitly
oppressive and generally linked to the interests of the powerful and privileged.
However, they endorse the authority of the collective body, as a means of
checking individualism and greed.
• ANARCHISTS view all forms of authority as unnecessary and destructive,
equating authority with oppression and exploitation.
• FASCISTS regard authority as a manifestation of personal leadership or charisma.

Concept of an all-encompassing system of political rule -> typically

Totalitarianism established by pervasive ideological manipulation +
open terror and brutality.

Is it the same as No - it seeks ‘total power’ through the politicization of

autocracy, every aspect of social and personal existence -> thus
authoritarianism and implies the abolition of civil society -> the abolition of
traditional ‘the private’
dictatorship?

based on their
rejection of toleration,
pluralism and the open Right wing Fascism
society
Left wing Communism

Marcuse -> have claimed that liberal democracies also

exhibit totalitarian features

● Types of Fascism

Generic Tends towards totalitarianism:

Fascism

1. Creation of ‘fascist man’ - loyal, dedicated and utterly

 obedient – effectively obliterates the distinction between
‘public’ and ‘private’ existence. => Extreme Collectivism
=> collective egoism consumes individual egoism.

2. No distinction between state and civil society

3. monistic belief in a single value system, and a single

source of truth

Extreme Statism A form of State worship

(Italian Fascism)
Mussolini, Giovanni Gentile proclaimed: ‘Everything for
the state; nothing against the state; nothing outside the
Fascism 159 state.’

Giovanni Gentile ‘Philosopher of Fascism’

-> Radical critique of individualism based on ‘internal’

dialectic - > abolish the division between public and private
life once and for all.

Nature of state State is the end.

Associated with Hegel: uncritical reverence to state

Hegel portrayed the state as an ethical idea, reflecting the

altruism and mutual sympathy of its members.

The state is capable of motivating and inspiring individuals

to act in the common interest -> thus, if state expands ->
individual develops and expands -> higher levels of
civilization achieved
Did the Italian state Not really. It operated like a traditional or personalized
realize the dictatorship.
totalitarian ideal?

For example, the Italian monarchy survived throughout the

fascist period
-> many local political leaders, especially in the south,
continued in power
-> the Catholic Church retained its privileges and
independence throughout the fascist period.

Nazi State Based on Race

Nature of State Did not venerate the state.

Hitler - described the state as a mere ‘vessel’, implying that
creative power derives not from the state but from the race,
the German people.

State was a means to an end

Alfred Rosenberg - dismissed the idea of the ‘total state’

-> instead as an ‘instrument of the National Socialist
Weltanschauung’

Alfred Rosenberg Major intellectual influence on Hitler and the Nazi Party

Idea of the ‘race-soul’- in The Myth of the Twentieth

Century (1930)
arguing that race is the key to a people’s destiny.

His hierarchy of racial attributes allowed him to justify

 both:
● Nazi expansionism (by emphasizing the superiority
of the ‘Aryan’ race) and
● Hitler’s genocidal policies (by portraying Jews as
fundamentally ‘degenerate’, along with ‘subhuman’
Slavs, Poles and Czechs).
Did the Nazi state Yes, in comparison to the Italian state.
realize the
totalitarian ideal?
The Nazi state was brutally effective in suppressing political
opposition, and succeeded in extending political control
over the media, art and culture, education and youth
organizations.

Corporatism means of incorporating organized interests into the

processes of government

Two faces

Authoritarian closely associated with Fascist

Corporatism Italy

As an ideology It offers an alternative to

capitalism and socialism based
on holism and group integration.

As an economic form s characterized by the extension

of direct political control over
industry and organized labor

Liberal corporatism (‘neo-corporatism’ or ‘societal’

corporatism

found in mature liberal democracies

 for organized interests to be granted
privileged and institutional access
to policy formulation.

liberal corporatism strengthens

groups rather than the government

Examples Nordic Model

Tripartite Cooperation: In Sweden, for instance, there is a

tradition of tripartite cooperation between the government,
labor unions, and employers' associations

Mussolini’s Third -> Corporatism opposes both the free market and central
Way planning

-> based on the belief that business and labor are bound
together in an organic and spiritually unified whole.
+ Mosley in
the UK and
Perón in
Argentina
(Peronism)
Influenced by traditional Catholic social thought -> stress on the value of
individual hard work, emphasizes that social classes are
bound together by duty and mutual obligations = (Contrast
to protestant thought)

Role of state Mediation of class relations -> responsible for ensuring that
the national interest takes precedence over narrow sectional
interests

The ‘corporate state’-> an instrument -> through which the

fascist state controlled major economic interests
= Working-class organizations were smashed and private
 businesses were intimidated.

Modernization State as an agent of modernization

Walt Rostow: Rostow's book "The Stages of Economic
Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto"

‘Forward looking’ Influence of Futurism: movement in the arts that glorified

Italian state factories, machinery and industrial life generally

Futurism + Dynamism = a cult of the machine and a

rejection of the past

(past = the glories of a lost era of national greatness; in

Mussolini’s case, Imperial Rome)

Mussolini’s view the attraction of an all-powerful state was, in part, that it

would help Italy break with backwardness and tradition, and
become a future-orientated industrialized country

RACISM

The belief that political or social conclusions can be drawn from the idea that
humankind is divided into biologically distinct races.
Racist theories based on two assumptions: -

1. - biologically, genetic or species

2. - cultural, intellectual or moral.

 • Political racism means manifest in calls for racial segregation i.e., apartheid in
South Africa.

• A form of implicit racism has been associated with conservative nationalism

For example, Enoch Powell in the UK in the 1960s and Jean-Marie Le Pen in France
since the 1980s have argued against ‘non-white’ immigration into their countries on the
grounds that the distinctive traditions and culture of the ‘white’ host community
would be threatened

• systematic and developed forms of racism are based on explicit assumptions

about the nature, capacities and destinies of different racial groups. In many cases,
these assumptions have had a religious basis
• Ex: - biblical justification doctrines of racial segregation in USA by Ku Klux
Klan lead formation of apartheid system

RACISM IN FASCISM

• (Not all forms of fascism involve overt racism, and not all racists are necessarily
fascists)
• Italian fascism, is a voluntaristic form of fascism, in that, at least in theory, it could
embrace all people regardless of race, colour or, indeed, country of birth.
• When Mussolini passed anti-Semitic laws after 1937, he did so largely to placate
Hitler and the Germans, rather than for any ideological purpose.
• But some argue that its emphasis on militant nationalism means that all forms of
fascism are either hospitable to racism or harbour implicit or explicit racist
doctrines (Griffin, 1993).

NAZI RACE THEORIES

• Nazi theory a combination of racial anti-Semitism and social Darwinism.

• Anti semitism: - force in European politics,
• Example: - the notion of Jews responsible for the death of Christ.
• And used as anti Semitism as nationalism and imperialism spread throughout
Europe, Jews were subjected to increasing persecution in many countries.
• Anti-Semitism was therefore elaborated into a racial theory The first attempt to
develop a scientific theory of racism was undertaken by Joseph-Arthur Gobineau,
• Gobineau argued: - there is a hierarchy of races with very different qualities and
characteristics
• Ex. white people superior and others are uncreative
FUTURE OF FASCISM

• Fascism is seen as a result of specific interwar conditions, including the recent

introduction of democracy in Europe
• The disruptive effects of industrialization on the lower middle class, and the post-
World War I atmosphere marked by the 1917 Russian Revolution, which instilled
fear among the propertied classes of potential social upheaval spreading across
the continent
• World War I did not resolve global conflicts and rivalries but instead left a legacy
of embittered nationalism and a thirst for revenge
• The Great Depression of the 1930s, marked by widespread unemployment and
economic collapse, created an atmosphere of crisis and deep pessimism.
• Emergence of Neo-Fascism in Western World
• Racial supremacy
• Xenophobia
• Anti-immigration
• Nativism
• Populist leaders - Trump, Bolsonaro, Erodgoan
 Chapter-8: POPULISM
RELATED UPSC Qs 1. Elitist theory of democracy denies the possibility of democracy as 'rule of the people'. Elucidate. [2022]
2. Discuss the issues of debate in contemporary democratic theory. [2012]
3. The modern pluralist democracies have posed a great threat to the fabric of nation state. Discuss [2000]

Core Themes: Debates around the Nature of Populism

Aspect Details Explanation + Scholarly Views
Roots or Sometimes traced back to the latter Derived from the Latin populus, meaning people.
stages of the French Revolution →
Robespierre and the Jacobins. The relationship between populism and democracy has been a topic of debate.

Influenced by the radical democratic Canovan (Populism, 1981) suggests that populism is intrinsically linked to democracy, given its emphasis on the voice of the people.
thinking of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Historical Overview or Evolution USA → Founding of the People’s Party in 1892; in Latin America emerged during the 1930s and 1940s, initially drawing its impetus from the
intensified hardships imposed by the Great Depression.

Latin America → In the 80s two contrasting manifestations of populism left wing (pink tide) and right wing.

In the 21st Century ‘age of populism’ primarily in Europe, North America, and other parts of the world after the 2007–09 global financial crisis.

Populist revolt against mainstream politics (‘politics as normal’) increased prominence of right-wing nationalist parties and the rise of ‘strongman
leaders in parts of the world.

Nature of Populism Shaped by 2 fundamental stances: Mudde and Kaltwasser (2015 and 2017) advocate for an ideational approach to populism, viewing it as a political ideology.
Admiration of ‘the people’ and
Outright condemnation of the elite or Presents "the people" as a morally good force and contrasts them against "the elite" → portrayed as corrupt and self-serving.
establishment.
Emphasise its Manichean tendency to see the world in terms of 'us' and 'them'.
Treated as a movement, syndrome,
style of politics, and a political Jan-Werner Müller (What Is Populism?, 2017) - argues that at populism's core is a rejection of pluralism
strategy.

A thin-centred ideology with a limited

range of core features.

Draws from → conservatism,

nationalism, and socialism.

Populist Strategy Populism as a strategy is linked with Anti-party party: A party that sets out to subvert traditional party politics by rejecting parliamentary compromise and rejects conventional or
anti-party parties. traditional politics and compromise → emphasising a strategy based on popular mobilisation.

Like all ideologies, however, populism is associated with a distinctive set of ideas and beliefs. The most important of these are:

The People Populists view the people as a Their key claim is that the people are the ultimate source of political authority. Thus, populism is conceived of selectively as the ‘real people’ o
homogeneous entity that is both ‘true people’ – in either socialist or nationalist terms, seeing their wishes and instincts also as the sole legitimate guide to political action.
innocent and entirely trustworthy.
The 'real' people are seen as righteous and pure (Muller, 2017).

Mudde and Kaltwasser (Populism: A Very Short Introduction, 2017) discuss the influence of Rousseau's idea of the 'general will' on populist ideo
emphasising the indivisible collective will of the entire community.

Example: The rise of the Aam Aadmi Party in India, which claims to represent the common man against the corrupt elite.

The Elite Elitism is, broadly, a belief in, or View them as out of touch with the 'real' people, corrupt, and morally debased. Thus, central to populism is the dichotomy of 'the people' and 'th
practice of, rule by an elite or minority. elite'.

3 types → Classical, Normative & Making them → ‘enemy of the people’, political elite, economic elite and cultural elite.
Modern.
E.g. Populists like Trump have criticised mainstream media outlets like The New York Times (establishment’s media - propagating their liberal
values) as being part of the 'liberal elite' → “FAKE NEWS”
Populist Democracy Dichotomy- “Popular Sovereignty” Populist rule often features regular elections for legitimacy, personalised leadership, a dominant state, limited opposition, curtailed rights,
→ Democratic force (cue→ 'General especially in media, and a majoritarian approach with potential intolerance towards minorities.
Will’), and “Demagoguery” → A threat
to democracy, a pathological political The governance style of Viktor Orban in Hungary, which has been characterised by a suppression of media freedoms and a majoritarian
phenomenon (Plebianisation of approach to governance.
Democracy → Pratap Bhanu Mehta).

Other descriptions Several manifestations. Plebiscitary democracy uses direct voting, like referendums, bypassing representative structures. Criticised for potential manipulation and maskin
(key terms) authoritarianism with popular appeal.

Majoritarianism prioritises majority preferences, either 'absolute' or 'simple'. It implies majority views should prevail, possibly compelling
minorities. Critics say it may suppress minority voices, and often show intolerance towards pluralism (Muller, 2017).

Populism is an example of reformist illiberal democracy → Freed Zakaria (The Rise of Illiberal Democracy, 1997) described illiberal democrac
democratically elected regimes that routinely ignore constitutional limits on their power.

Aspects Right-wing Populism Scholarly Views (Right-wing) Left-Wing Scholarly Views (Left-wing)
Populism
Examples (Right-wing) Examples (Left-wing)
Definition Focuses on socio-cultural concerns, Mudde's "Populism: A Very Short Introduction" defines right- Emphasises socio-economic Laclau's "On Populist Reason" (2005) emphasizes the importa
often prioritising national identity, wing populism as combining populism with authoritarianism concerns, championing issues of constructing a popular subject.
tradition, and perceived threats to and nativism. like poverty, inequality, and
societal order. job security. Rise of Syriza in Greece, Podemos in Spain.

Rise of right-wing parties in Europe, such as the AfD in

Germany and the National Rally in France.

Comprises 2 forms:

National populism Authoritarian

populism

Emergence of the wider People are equivalent to the

phenomenon of ‘strongman’ nation (Eatwell and Goodwin,
politics, exemplified by figures 2018) , national populists
such as Viktor Orban, Recep oppose immigration and
Tayyip Erdogan and another deep scepticism
Philippines’ president Rodrigo towards internationalism.
Dutert .

Historical Emerged in response to perceived Betz's "Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe" Emerged in response to Chantal Mouffe's (2018) writings on left populism emphasise i
Context threats to national identity due to (1994) provides a historical overview of the rise of right-wing economic disparities, roots in opposition to neoliberal hegemony.
immigration, globalisation, and populism in Europe. corporate influence, and the
socio-cultural changes. effects of globalisation on the Bernie Sanders' campaigns in the USA, Jeremy Corbyn's leaders
working class. in the UK Labour Party.

The Brexit vote in the UK, Trump's election in the USA.

Core Values Allied to tradition, authority, and Norris and Inglehart's "Cultural Backlash: Trump, Prioritises economic justice, Chantal Mouffe (2018) emphasises the construction of a "peop
order. Emphasises the preservation Brexit, and Authoritarian Populism" (2019) delve into the workers' rights, and from various disenfranchised groups.
of national identity and societal cultural drivers of right-wing populism. opposition to corporate
norms. influence. Advocates for Movements like Occupy Wall Street, anti-austerity protests in
inclusivity and environmental Europe.
sustainability.
Anti-immigration policies, defence of traditional values.

Globalisation Often sceptical of it. Rodrik's "The Globalization Paradox" (2010) suggests Critiques the economic David Harvey's "A Brief History of Neoliberalism" (2005) off
globalisation clashes with democracy. aspects of globalisation, critique of neoliberal globalisation.
Emerges in response to especially its impact on
globalisation's challenges: workers and the environment. Anti-globalization protests, such as the Battle of Seattle in 1999
immigration, economic disparities,
and eroding national identity. Brexit, Trump's "America First" stance.

Müller's "What is Populism?" (2017) → populists are

sceptical of international institutions. Example: Orban's
EU criticisms.

International bodies erode national sovereignty.

Immigration Sees immigration as a threat to Eatwell & Goodwin's "National Populism" (2018) → More open to immigration, Pro-immigrant stances of left-wing parties in Europe, sanctuary
Concerns national identity and societal order. immigration fuels European populism. often linking opposition to in the USA.
xenophobia and corporate
Refugee crisis stoking anti-imm Example: Brexit + Rise of populist movements exploitation.
sentiment. worldwide.

Political Gains significant electoral support B. Moffitt's "The Global Rise of Populism: Performance, Gains support by addressing Chantal Mouffe (2018 and Ernesto Laclau (2005) works on
Impact by appealing to nationalistic Political Style, and Representation" (2016) discusses the economic disparities, populism emphasise its potential for radical democracy[A form
political style and impact of right-wing populists. advocating for workers' rights, democracy that favours decentralisation and participation, t
 sentiments and perceived threats to Viktor Orban in Hungary, Marine Le Pen in France. and opposing neoliberal widest possible dispersal of political power] → populists foste
societal order. policies. ‘democratisation of democracy’.

Rise of left-wing populist leaders in Latin America, such as Ev

Morales in Bolivia and Rafael Correa in Ecuador.
JP Movement → Partyless
System of democracy

Economic May support protectionist policies Dani Rodrik's "Straight Talk on Trade: Ideas for a Advocates for wealth Thomas Piketty's "Capital in the Twenty-First Century" (201
Stance to safeguard national industries. Sane World Economy" (2017) → protectionism's appeal redistribution, progressive emphasises the need for wealth redistribution.
in globalisation. taxation, and social welfare
programs. Progressive economic policies of leaders like Bernie Sanders an
Tariffs imposed by Trump administration → Trade War. Elizabeth Warren.

Robert Reich's "The System" (2020) → globalisation Naomi Klein's "This Changes Everything" (2014) → linking
creates economic disparities. Example: Rust Belt's shift capitalism to climate change. Example: Green New Deal advoca
in 2016 US election → Some groups feel left behind by
globalisation.

Cultural Emphasises a homogeneous national Anti-immigrant sentiments in right-wing populist campaigns. Promotes inclusivity, Emphasis on multiculturalism and diversity in left-wing populis
Stance identity, often opposing perceived diversity, and often opposes movements.
threats like immigration. S. Huntington's "Who Are We?" (2004) → US the dominant cultural
national identity threats. Example: Germany's AfD narrative. Nancy Fraser's "From Progressive Neoliberalism to Trump"
rise. (2019) →left's focus on inclusivity. Example: Bernie Sanders' 20
campaign.

Return to traditional values threatened by globalisation.

Relationship Views elites as out of touch and Populist leaders' frequent criticisms of the "liberal elite."
Opposes corporate elites and Nancy Fraser's (2019) works emphasise the role of elites in
with Elites corrupt, especially liberal or those seen as perpetuating perpetuating economic injustices.
cosmopolitan elites. Elite → Opposed to the people, often viewed as corrupt or economic inequality.
out of touch. Criticisms of Wall Street (occupy wallstreet movement) and
corporate influence (USA → deformed polyarchy by Robert D
in politics.

Noam Chomsky's "Profit Over People" (1999) → critiques

corporate dominance. Example: Latin American left-wing
movements against corporatism.
THE Norris and Inglehart view contemporary populism as essentially a cultural backlash against the advance of liberal values, a process that has seen the trajectory of social and cultural change. It
FUTURE OF includes changing family structures, and especially changes in the role of women, the spread of post-material values, and growing respect for minorities in general and multicultural rights in parti
POPULISM

In another view, the contemporary populist upsurge is unlikely to subside anytime soon, and may even be getting stronger; populism is not just a politico-cultural phenomenon; it also has deep
economic roots, linked to the dynamics of economic globalisation. An increase in within-country inequality helps to foster both resentment towards elites and disillusionment with a democratic sy
that no longer seems to ‘work’ for the less Well-off. Such developments are difficult and may be impossible to reverse because they stem both from the inner workings of globalisation itself.
Chapter-9
Feminism

Table of
Contents Preview
....................................................................................................................................
1
Historical Overview ...............................................................................................1
Core Themes ................................................................................................... 3
Redefining ‘the political’ ............................................................................ 3
Sex and gender ........................................................................................... 3
Liberals .......................................................................................................... 3
Conservatives ......................................................................................... 3
Socialists................................................................................................. 3
Fascists ................................................................................................... 3
Feminists ....................................................................................................... 3
Fundamentalists ........................................................................................... 3
Patriarchy ................................................................................................... 3
Equality and difference .................................................................................... 4
Types of feminism ......................................................................................... 5
Traditional feminist theories .................................................................... 5
Liberal Feminism ......................................................................................... 5
Socialist Feminism ....................................................................................... 6
Radical Feminism......................................................................................... 7
Modern approaches to gender and sexuality.......................................... 8
Third-Wave Thinking And Intersectionality ...................................... 8
Trans Theory And Feminism ..................................................................... 8
Queer Theory ......................................................................................... 8
The future of feminism ................................................................................. 9
Keywords .......................................................................................................10
‘Feminist’ was first used in the
nineteenth century as a medical term to
Preview describe either the feminisation of men
or the masculinisation of women.
In modern usage, feminism is linked to
the goal of advancing the role of
women; although, it has come to be Hisľorical Overview
associated with the wider project of
● Christine de Pisan’s Book of the
transforming gender relations.
City of Ladies, published in Italy
in 1405
,advocating women’s right to
education and political influence.

● IN 19TH CENTURY organised

women’s movement developed
first text of modern feminism; Mary
Wollstonecraf’, A Vindication of the
Rights of
Woman ([1792] 1967), written against ● Second-wave feminism:
The form of
the backdrop of the French Revolution feminism that emerged in the 1960s
● first-wave or liberal feminism :
and 1970s, and was characterized
Female suffrage, right to vote;
by a more radical concern with
believed that if women could vote,
‘women’s liberation’, including,
all other forms of sexual
and perhaps especially, in the
discrimination or prejudice would
private sphere.
quickly disappear.
● Betty Friedan’s Te Feminine
● Seneca Falls convention, held in Mystique
1848,
did much to relaunch feminist
marked the birth of the US women’s
thought
rights movement , adopted a ● Books: Kate Millett’s Sexual
Declaration of Sentiments, written by
Politics (1970) and Germaine
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902),
Greer’s Te Female Eunuch
drew for female suffrage.
(1970) focus on personal,
● Te National Women’s Sufrage
Association, led by Stanton and Susan
B. Anthony (1820– 1906), was set up in
1869 and merged with the more
conservative American Women’s
Sufrage Association in 1890.
● amendment to the Second
Reform Act,
proposed by John Stuart Mill.
● Feminism’s ‘frst-wave’ ended

with the achievement of

female sufrage, introduced frst
in New Zealand in 1893
● Liberal feminism: A form of
feminism
that is grounded in the belief that
sexual diferences are irrelevant to
personal worth, and calls for equal
rights for women and men in the public
sphere.
 psychological and sexual feminism that links the
aspects of female oppression subordination of women to the
● not merely political emancipation dynamics of the capitalist
but
‘women’s liberation’.,e economic system, emphasizing
growing Women’s that women’s liberation
Liberation Movement. requires a process of radical
● Radical feminism: A form of social change.
feminism
● Radical diversification,
that holds gender divisions to be
difficult to identify common
the most politically signifcant of
ground
social cleavages, and believes that
● Transfeminism: A form of
they are rooted in the structures of feminism
domestic life. that rejects the idea of fixed
● Started 1960s to 1970s identities and specifcally avows
● Gender perspective became sexual and gender ambiguity.
important themes in academics ● Growing intersectionality, , for
● 1990s Female organisations existed instance, race, social class,
in ethnicity,
all developed western countries
● Gender: A social and cultural
distinction between males and
females, as opposed to sex, which
refers to biological and therefore
ineradicable diferences between
women and men
● Postfeminism: Either the
perception
that many or all of the goals of
feminism have been achieved,
or the loss of support for
feminism among women.
● Womens movt moved ‘ beyond
feminism”
● Socialist feminism: A form of
age, religion, nationality and sexual ● In this sense,
orientation can overlap or ‘intersect’ individualism is
with gender ‘gender-blind’.
● Sexism: Prejudice or
discrimination
Conservaľives:
based on sex; especially
● Gender is one of the factors
discrimination against women.
that gives society its organic
Core Themes and hierarchical character.
● Sexual division of labour
between
Redefining ‘the political’
women and men is natural
Sex and gender and inevitable
● The central core of
Socialisľs
feminism is the
● Rarely treated gender as a
achievement of genderless
politically significant
‘personhood’.
● Simone de Beauvoir pointed category.
out,
‘Women are made, they are not
born’.
● Establishing a concept of gender
that is divorced from biological
sex had crucial significance for
feminist theory.

Different Thinkers
Liberals:
● Regarded differences between

women and men as being of

entirely private or personal
significance
● In the public sphere, everyone is
considered an individual.
 ● Gender divisions are significant a strict dress code, and
when they reflect and are restrictions on women’s
sustained by deeper economic access to aspects of public
and class inequalities. life.

Fascisľs: Patriarchy
● View gender as a fundamental ● Lit. 'rule by the father'

division within humankind. ● Feminist use the term

● Men naturally monopolise to describe power
leadership
relation between men
and decision-making
● Women are suited to and women
● Broader terms like ' Male
domestic, supportive and supremacy '
subordinate roles. or ' Male dominance ' to
describe gender relations in
Feminisľs: society at large
● Gender as a cultural or ● Millet (1970) :
political distinction, Patriarchal government - institution
● Gender divisions are therefore a where that half of populance which
manifestation of male power is
● Difference feminists may

believe that gender

differences reflect a
psychobiological gulf
between female and male
attributes and sensibilities

Fundamenľalisľs
● Ultra-conservative view of

gender roles, typically

characterised by male
‘guardianship’ over the family,
the observation by women of
female is controlled by that half Socialist feminist - social equality
which is male for women, in terms of economic
Patriarchy - hierarchic society with power Radical feminist - equality in
both sexual and generational family and personal life
oppression ● Equality feminism - desire to
liberate
● Usage of term:
women from ' difference '
● Liberal feminist - under-
● Difference feminism:
representation of women in
-Regard equality as misguided
senior positions in public life
or undesirable
● Socialist feminist - emphasize
the -Demand for equality embodies
economic aspect of patriarchy desire to be 'like men'
● Radical feminist - systematic, -For many, liberation means
institutionalized and pervasive being ' female identified '
form of male power rooted in
family
" The pattern of male domination and
female subordination that characterizes
society at large is essentially a
reflection of power structure that
operate within domestic life. "

Equality and difference

● Traditionally, feminism is a

movement for the

achievement of sexual
equality
● Some embraced contrasting
notions of
equality, some in favour of idea of
difference
● Liberal feminist - legal and
political
equality, equal access to public realm
-Women and men fundamentally
different at psycho-biological level
-Sex difference have political and
social importance
● Cultural feminism - emphasis on
experiences unique to women and
promote ' sisterhood '

Me Too Movement

● Social activist, Tarana Burke -

leader of The Me Too
movement
● First used the term in 2006 to
indicate
solidarity with sufferers of sexual
violence
● October 2017, movement viral
as
#MeToo on social media
● Significance -
Raised awareness of the extent of
sexual abuse
Helped to strengthen legal protections
for women and girls
● Recent concerns :
● Declining emphasis on

addressing concerns of
socially marginalised
women
● Supporters view the problem as
systematic, tackled by transformation
of society but fails to recognize regarded as rational creatures in
individual women as moral agent their own right.
● Goal of feminism - not to ‘Second-wave’ feminism also
transform
has a significant liberal component
society but equip women to navigate
their way within society
Betty Friedan -> critique of the
‘feminine mystique ->she referred
Types of feminism to the cultural myth that women
seek security and fulfilment in
Traditional feminist theories domestic life and ‘feminine’
Until the early 1990s, feminist behaviour
discourse still revolved predominantly
around first and second-wave themes In 1966, Friedan helped to found
and issues, although new approaches and became the first leader of the
to feminism had been emerging for a National Organization of
decade or more. Debate within
feminism therefore continued to be
conducted largely between three
‘core’ traditions, namely:-

Liberal Feminism

Early feminism -> 1st wave of

women’s movement = influenced by
the ideas and values of liberalism.

The first major feminist text,

Wollstonecraf’s A Vindication of
the Rights of Woman ([1792] 1967)
->claimed that the ‘distinction of
sex’ would become unimportant in
political and social life if women
gained access to education and were
Women (NOW), which has the need for love, represented by
developed into a powerful pressure children, home and the family.
group and the largest women’s
Although such a stance has
organisation in the world.
encouraged some liberal feminists
The philosophical basis of liberal to proclaim that women can ‘have
feminism lies
it all’ – that is, a successful career
in the principle of individualism. as well as the satisfaction of
motherhood and homemaking
– radical feminists have criticised it
Cultural feminism: A form of for contributing to a ‘mystique of
motherhood’.
feminism that emphasises an
engagement with a
Female emancipation, in the
woman-centred culture and
liberal sense, may mean that other
lifestyle, and is typically repelled
forms of social disadvantage – for
by the corrupting and aggressive
example, those linked to social
male world of political activism.
class and race – are ignored.

J. S. Mill argued in favour of equal

citizenship and political rights.

The entire suffrage movement was

based on liberal individualism and
the conviction that female
emancipation would be brought
about once women enjoyed equal
voting rights with men

In The Second Stage (1983)

Friedan thus discussed the problem of
reconciling the achievement of
‘personhood’, made possible by
opening up broader opportunities for
women in work and public life, with
Liberal feminism may therefore the prospect of genuine
reflect the interests of white, middle- emancipation.
class women in developed societies Central theme of socialist
but fail to address the problems of feminism=>patriarchy can only be
working class women, black women understood in the light of social and
and women in the developing world. economic factors.

Finally, the demand for equal rights, Friedrich Engels’ The Origins of the
Family, Private Property and the
which lies at the core of liberal
State ([1884] 1976)
feminism, has principally attracted
->suggested that the position of
those women whose education and
women in society had changed
social backgrounds equip them to take
fundamentally with the
advantage of wider educational and
development of capitalism and the
career opportunities.
institution of private property.
Socialisľ Feminism

Socialist feminism only became

prominent in the second half of the
twentieth century.

Socialist feminists have not believed

that women simply face political or
legal disadvantages that can be
remedied by equal legal rights or the
achievement of equal opportunity.

They argue that the relationship

between the sexes is rooted in the
social and economic structure itself,
and that nothing short of profound
social change – some would say a
social revolution – can ofer women
Engels called ‘the world that the ‘women’s question’
historical defeat of the female cannot be separated from social
sex'. and economic life, they are
profoundly divided about the
Like many subsequent socialist
nature of that link.
feminists, Engels believed that
Orthodox Marxists insist on
female 198 oppression operates
the primacy of class politics over
through the institution of the
sexual politics.
‘bourgeois family.

Most socialist feminists agree that Many modern socialist feminists

the confinement of women to a find it difficult to accept the
domestic sphere of housework and
primacy of class politics over
motherhood serves the economic
interests of capitalism. sexual politics, in part because of
the disappointing progress made by
Bearing and rearing children, women in state-socialist societies
women are producing the next such as the Soviet Union.
generation of capitalism’s workers. They refuse to analyse the
position of women in simple
Their role as housewives, women economic terms and have, instead,
relieve men of the burden of
housework and child-rearing,
allowing them to concentrate their
time and energy on paid and
productive employment.

The traditional family provides

the worker with a powerful
incentive to find and keep a job
because he has a wife and children
to support.

Although socialist feminists agree

 given attention to the cultural and women and men have their origin
ideological roots of patriarchy. in a process of conditioning. It
This can be seen, for example, in largely takes place within the
Juliet
family - ‘patriarchy’s chief
Mitchell’s (1971) assertion that
institution’.
women must achieve emancipation in
four key areas: work, reproduction,
sexuality and the socialisation of
children

Radical Feminism
Central feature ➡ the belief that
sexual oppression is the most
fundamental feature of society and
that other forms of injustice are
merely secondary.
Gender is thought to be the
deepest social cleavage and the
most politically significant; more
important, for example, than
social class, race or nation
.
Patriarchal Attitudes (Figes) ➡
A stereotype of femininity being
imposed on women by men.

The Female Eunuch (1970)

(Greer) ➡ Women have been
castrated and turned into sexless
objects by the cultural stereotype
of the eternal feminine.
Sexual Politics (Millett) ➡
different roles of
↳ She proposes that patriarchy recognise and
should be challenged through a embrace their
process of consciousness- sisterhood.
raising
Against Our Will (Susan
Brownmiller) ➡ men dominate
➢ Women’s liberation requires women through a process of
physical and sexual abuse. Men
a sexual revolution in which have created an ideology of
these structures (family, rape, which amounts to a
counscious process of
domestic & personal life, etc)
intimidation by which all men
are overthrown and replaced keep all women in a state of
➢ Pro-woman position ➡ fear.
particularly
strong in France and the USA
○ Women should not try
The majority of radical feminists
remaining faithful to the goal of
to be more like men constructing a
➡ instead, they should non-sexist society, in which women and

men live in harmony with one another

TENSIONS WITHIN …
FEMINISM
Liberal feminism Radical feminism

Female emancipation Women’s liberation

Gender equality Patriarchy
Individualism Sisterhood
Conventional politics The personal is political
public/private divide Transform private realm
 Access to public realm Gender equality
Equal rights/opportunities Sexual politics
reform/gradualism Revolutionary change
Political activism Consciousness-raising

Modern approaches to gender sexism becomes

and sexuality entangled with racism,
Third-Wave ethnicity, religion,
Thinking And social class etc
Inľersecľionaliľy Third wave feminism illustrated the
The term ‘third-wave feminism’ was extent to which the contemporary
increasingly adopted from the 1990s women’s movement is characterised
onwards. by diversity, hybridity and what the
Third-wave feminists tried to US scholar and advocate, Kimberlé
rectify an over-emphasis within Crenshaw (born 1959), dubbed
earlier forms of feminism on the ‘intersectionality’.
aspirations of middle-class, This has allowed the voices of,
white women in developed societies. among others, low-income women,
This has allowed the voices of, women in the developing world,
among others, ‘women of colour’ and LGBTIQ
low-income women, women in the people to be heard more
developing world, ‘women of colour’ effectively.
and LGBTIQ people to be heard
more effectively.
● Intersectionality:
Intersectionality implies
that women may be
subject to interlocking
systems of oppression
and discrimination, as
Black feminism has been particularly Heteronormativity establishes
effective in this respect, challenging heterosexuality as the baseline for
the tendency within conventional humankind, a position sustained by
forms of feminism to ignore racial cultural belief, religion and
differences and to suggest that institutional arrangements, linked,
women endure a common oppression among other things, to marriage,
by virtue of their gender. Especially taxation and
strong in the USA, and developed in
the writings of theorists such as bell
hooks, black feminism portrays
sexism and racism as linked systems
of oppression, and highlights the
particular and complex range of
gender, racial and economic
disadvantages that confront women
of colour.

Trans Theory And Feminism

Trans theorists reject the binary
conception of gender.
From this non-binary perspective,
gender is not something that is
determined at birth or ascribed to
individuals by society; instead, it is a
matter of self-identity.

Queer Theory
The term ‘queer theory’ was coined
in 1990 by the Italian-American
feminist theorist Teresa de Lauretis.
The deifning feature of queer theory
is robust opposition to
heteronormativity (sometimes
dubbed anti-heteronormativity).
adoption rights. Heteronormativity once fashionable idea of
systematically marginalizes – and ‘postfeminism’ is starkly
‘invisibilizes’ misleading. Rather than being dead
– gay people. – or at least transformed into
Resistance to this can nevertheless be something else, which is not really
explained by reference to the concept feminist – feminism is alive and
of gender performativity, particularly vibrant and shows every sign of
as developed by Judith Butler (2006). continuing to be so (Walby, 2011).
To say that gender is performative is What has happened to feminism is
to say that how we understand gender, that it has become less visible, or
and how we position ourselves as less easily noticed, but this may be
gendered or sexual beings in relation more a reflection of feminism’s
to other, is a product of repeated widening influence than its
words and actions. Gender and incipient decline. First, feminism is
sexuality are therefore not an no longer only (or mainly) an
expression of what one is (identity), outsider protest movement.
but of what one does (social action). Instead, it has increasingly moved
into the mainstream.
The fuľure of feminism
Second, the ideological orientation
The image of feminism as constantly of feminism has been revised and
beleaguered and in retreat, conjured broadened.
up by the
 Keywords

Keyword Explanat
ion
Gender A social and cultural distinction between males and
females, as opposed to sex, which refers to
biological and therefore ineradicable differences
between women and men.
Postfeminism Either the perception that many or all of the goals of
feminism have been achieved, or the loss of support
for feminism among women.
Sexism Prejudice or discrimination based on sex; especially
discrimination against women
Androgyny The possession of both male and female
characteristics; used to imply that human beings are
sexless ‘persons’ in the sense that sex is irrelevant to
their social role or political status
Difference A form of feminism which holds that there are deep
feminism and possibly ineradicable differences between women
and men, whether these are rooted in biology, culture
or material experience.
Essentialism The belief that biological factors are crucial in
determining psychological and behavioural traits.
Equality feminism A form of feminism that aspires to the goal of
sexual equality, whether this is defined in terms of
formal rights, the control of resources, or personal
power.
‘Pro-woman’ A form of feminism that advances a positive image of
feminism women’s attributes and propensities, usually stressing
creativity, caring and human sympathy, and
cooperation.
Cultural feminism A form of feminism that emphasises an engagement
with a woman-centred culture and lifestyle, and is
typically repelled by the corrupting and aggressive
male world of political activism
Consciousness- Strategies to remodel social identity and challenge
raising cultural inferiority by an emphasis on pride, self-
worth and self assertion
Genderqueer Denoting or relating to people who do not conform to
prevailing expectations about gender, usually by
crossing over or moving between gender identities.
Transgender Denoting or relating to people who do not conform to
the sex they were assigned at birth, and who may seek
to realign their gender and their sex through medical
intervention
 Heteronormativit Institutional and other arrangements that present
y heterosexuality as the ‘normal’, natural and/or preferred
way of life for human beings.
Performativity Repeated actions or rituals through which a subject
(gendered or otherwise) is constructed

Chapter-10

Ecologism

Extra info
The term ‘ecology’ was coined by the German zoologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866.
Derived from the Greek oikos, meaning household or habitat.
Since the early years of the twentieth century, ecology has been recognized as a
branch of biology. It has, however, increasingly been converted into a political
term by the use made of it, especially since the 1960s, by the growing green or
environmental movement.

Historical View
This was evident in the nineteenth century, when the spread of urban and industrial
life created a profound nostalgia for an idealized rural existence.
The growth of ecologism since the 1960s has been provoked by the further and
more intense advance of industrialization and urbanization. Rachel Carson’s The
Silent Spring (1962) is often considered to have been the first book to draw
attention to a developing ecological crisis. Other early works included Ehrlich and
Harriman’s How to Be a Survivor (1971), the unofficial UN report Only One Earth
(1972).
From the 1980s onwards, environmental questions have been kept high on the
political agenda by green parties, which now exist in most industrialized countries,
often modelling themselves on the pioneering efforts of the German Greens.
Core Themes
Green theorists believe that conventional ideologies commit the sad, even comic,
mistake of believing that humans are the centerpiece of existence. David Ehrenfeld
(1978) called this the ‘arrogance of humanism’. Ecologism has therefore
uncovered new ideological terrain. It differs from both the ‘politics of material
distribution’ and ‘identity politics’.
Environmentalism: A concern about the natural environment and particularly
about reducing environmental degradation: a policy orientation rather than an
ideological stance.
Humanism: A philosophy that gives moral priority to the achievement of human
needs and ends.
The central themes of ecologism are:
• Ecology
• systems thinking
• sustainability
 • environmental ethics
• from having to being.

Ecology
Ecologism favours ecocentrism and either rejects anthropocentrism altogether, or
seeks to recast it in line with the principle of ecology.
Arne Naess has termed this divide in green movement as ‘shallow ecology’ and
‘deep ecology’.
• Shallow ecology:
A green ideological perspective that harnesses the lessons of ecology to fulfil human
needs and ends, and is associated with values such as sustainability and conservation.
It Is criticised as ‘weak’ ecologism, and is called ‘environmentalism’ to distinguish
it more clearly from ecologism.
• Deep ecology:
A green ideological perspective that rejects anthropocentrism and gives priority to
the maintenance of nature, and is associated with values such as biocentric equality,
diversity and decentralization.
Traditional ideological perspective of nature
Fritjof Capra has described nature, from traditional ideological perspective, as the
‘Newtonian world-machine’, which can be tinkered, repaired, improved on or even
replaced to satisfy the needs of its master I.e. humans. This mechanistic world-view
that lay at the heart of the ‘Cartesian-Newtonian paradigm’ has fundamentally
destabilized the relationship between humankind and nature.
This led to a search for a new, non-mechanistic paradigm, which was reflected in the
notion of Holism. Holism later emerged as systemic thinking in 20th century as
systemic thinking.
Different perspectives on nature:
• LIBERALS
See nature as a resource to satisfy human needs, and thus rarely question human
dominion over it.
• CONSERVATISTS
Often portray nature as threatening, even cruel, characterized by an amoral struggle
and harshness that also shapes human existence.
• SOCIALISTS
Like liberals, have viewed and treated nature as merely a resource. However, a
romantic or pastoral tradition within socialism has also extolled the beauty, harmony
and richness of nature, and looks to human fulfilment through a closeness to nature.
• ANARCHISTS
Have often embraced a view of nature that stresses unregulated harmony and growth.
Nature therefore offers a model of simplicity and balance, which humans would be
wise to apply to social organization in the form of social ecology.
• FASCISTS
Have often adopted a dark and mystical view of nature that stresses the power of
instinct and primal life forces, nature being able to purge humans of their decadent
intellectualism.
• FEMINISTS
Notably ecofeminists, tend to view nature as creative and benign, qualities that they
tend to share with women generally. In this view, the quest to counteract male
domination should therefore see women aligning themselves – ‘female nature’,
patriarchy and the environmental crisis being linked.
• ECOLOGISTS
Particularly deep ecologists, regard nature as an interconnected whole, embracing
humans and non-humans as well as the inanimate world. Nature is sometimes seen
as a source of knowledge and ‘right living’, human fulfilment coming from a
closeness to and respect for nature, not from the attempt to dominate it.

System thinking (a counter to traditional ideological perspective)

A way of thinking that treats living systems as integrated wholes, in which,
ultimately, there are no parts but only patterns in an inseparable web of relationships.
• Gaia hypothesis( an alternative basis for system thinking influenced from
eastern religions such as Hinduism, Daoism and pre Christian religion which
forwards the concept of mother earth) by James lovelock is based on the idea
of earth as a living entity which acts, above all, to maintain its own existence.
Sustainability
Problems – consumerism , materialism , reckless growth assumes earth to be a
cowboy economy . Cowboy economy : ,an economy with unlimited opportunities,
like the American West during the frontier period
In response to this ,Kenneth Boulding gives idea of ‘spaceship Earth’, because this
emphasizes the notion of limited and exhaustible wealth. As a spaceship is a capsule,
it is a ‘closed’ system. Garrett Hardin (1968) developed a particularly influentials
model to explain why over-exploitation of environmental resources has occurred, in
the form of the ‘tragedy of the commons’. According to him, ‘Freedom in a
commons brings ruin to all’

SOLUTION ?
- Lies in the concept of sustainability
- E. F. Schumacher - his idea of ‘Buddhist economics’. For Schumacher, this
would involve humankind abandoning its obsession with wealth creation, and
focusing instead on ‘right livelihood’, a transformation facilitated in large part
by a shift to smaller-scale living and working arrangements.
- Exists 2 strands- modern ecologists – support ‘weak’ sustainability, which
tries to reconcile ecology with economic growth through getting richer but at
a slower pace
- Radical ecologists - solution would appear to lie in ‘zero growth’ and the
construction of a ‘post-industrial age. literally a ‘return to nature’.

Environmental Ethics
- Conventional ethical systems are clearly anthropocentric, orientated around
the pleasure, needs and interests of human being.
- An alternative approach to environmental ethics involves applying moral
standards and values developed in relation to human beings to other species
and organisms.
 ethical veganism - The philosophical belief that cruelty and suffering to animals be
avoided at all practical costs and support for animal rights

- Peter Singer (1976) claimed that an altruistic concern for the well-being of
other species derives from the fact that, as sentient beings, they are capable of
suffering. Drawing on utilitarianism , he pointed out that animals, like
humans, have an interest in avoiding physical pain, and he therefore
condemned any attempt to place the interests of humans above those of
animals as ‘speciesism’
- Robert Goodin (1992), for instance, attempted to develop a ‘green theory of
value’, which holds that resources should be valued precisely because they
result from natural processes rather than human activity.

From Having To Being

. According to them, Consumerism is a psycho-cultural phenomenon whereby
personal happiness is equated with the consumption of material possessions, giving
rise to what the German psychoanalyst and social philosopher Erich Fromm (1979)
called a ‘having’ attitude of mind.
Consumerism works not through the satisfaction of desires, but through the
generation of new desires, keeping people in an unending state of neediness, want
and aspiration. Secondly, materialism and consumerism provide the cultural basis
for environmental degradation
Post materialism - Post materialism is a theory that explains the nature of
political concerns and values in terms of levels of economic development.
Warwick Fox (1990) – calls for ‘transpersonal ecology’, the essence of which is
the realization that ‘things are’, that human beings and all other entities are part of a
single unfolding reality.
For Naess, self-realization is attained through a broader and deeper
‘identification with others’
Inspired by the ideas of Buddhism is the doctrine of ‘no self’, the notion that the
individual ego is a myth or delusion, and that awakening or enlightenment involves
transcending the self and recognizing the oneness of life.
Types of Ecologism

Reformist Ecologism:
It seeks to advance ecological principles
and promote ‘environmentally sound’ practices, but without rejecting the central
features of capitalist modernity.
The watchword of this form of ecologism is therefore sustainable development
or, more specifically, environmentally sustainable capitalism.
The two main ideological influences on reformist ecology are liberalism and
conservatism.
Liberalism- a form of ‘enlightened’ anthropocentrism, that encourages
people to take into account long-term, and not merely short-term, interests.
Conservatism- conservation of nature is therefore linked to a defence of
traditional values and institutions.
Green Capitalism relies on the idea of consumer sovereignty and acknowledges
the impact of the trend towards so-called ‘responsible consumption

Ecosocialism:
It has more usually been associated with Marxism.
Rudolph Bahro (1982) argued that the root cause of the environmental crisis is
capitalism.
The core theme of ecosocialism is thus the idea that capitalism is the enemy of
the environment, while socialism is its friend.
ecologists should not form separate green parties or set up narrow environmental
organizations, but work within the larger socialist movement and address the real
issue: the economic system.

Ecoanarchism
The ideology that has the best claim to being environmentally sensitive.
Murray Bookchin brought out Our synthetic Environment (1962- 1975)-
:there is a clear correspondence between the ideas of anarchism and the principles
of ecology.
Anarchists = stateless society/ mutual respect and social solidarity among
human beings.
Green thinkers =balance or harmony develops spontaneously within nature,
in the form of ecosystems,require no external authority or control.
advocated the construction of decentralized societies, as a collection of
communes or villages . close to nature, each community attempting to achieve a high
degree of self-sufciency.
Ecofeminism
• Basic theme - ecological destruction has its origin in Patriarchy.
• Essentialism:- there are fundamental and ineradicable differences b/w men
and women.

Mary Daly talked women would liberate themselves from patriarchal culture if
they aligned themselves with ‘female nature’.

Deep Ecology
Term coined by Arne Naess in 1973. deep ecology is articulated in Aldo Leopold’s
Sand County Almanac
Anthropocentrism is an offence against principle of ecology. Deep ecology calls
for a change in consciousness, specifically the adoption of ‘ecological
consciousness’, or ‘cosmological consciousness’. At the heart of this is an ‘inter-
subjective’ model of selfhood that allows for no distinction between the self and
the ‘other’, thereby collapsing the distinction between humankind and nature.
Biocentric equality: The principle that all organisms and entities in the biosphere
are of equal moral worth, each being an expression of the
goodness of nature.
Biodiversity: The range of species within a biotic community, often thought
to be linked to its health and stability.
Land ethic : A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability
and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.
In addition to its moral and philosophical orientation, deep ecology has been
associated
with a wider set of goals and concerns.
• Wilderness Preservation
• Population control
• Simple living philosophy of "walking lighter on the earth"
• Bioregionalism
Future of Ecologism
Growing number of people to turn green
Problems :
It is difficult to see how ecologism can become a genuinely global ideology.
industrialism and its underlying values.
difficulties surround the anti-growth or degrowth message of ecologism.
Chapter-11

Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism is more an ideological 'space' than a political ideology

in itself.

Multiculturalism : The presence of, or support for the presence of, several
distinct cultural or ethnic groups within a society
• First used in Canada to describe distinctive approach to tackling the issue of
cultural diversity
• eg. Multiculturalism Act in 1988 in Canada, & Australia — declared itself
multicultural in 1970s
• Multiculturalism endorses and acknowledges communal diversity,
individual beliefs, values, different ways of life.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW:
• 1960 - 70s witnessed — political assertiveness among different minority
groups in form of ethnocultural nationalism.
o for eg: French-speaking people of Quebec in Canada, etc.
• Multicultural politics — strengthened by trends in international migration
since 1945 eg. massive migration to the Middle East from India, Bangladesh
and Pakistan, Chinese migrants in Africa & West Germany immigrants —
Gastarbeiter (guest workers) etc.
• Cause of migration — rise to upsurge in war, ethnic conflict and political
upheaval, and deepening economic fault-lines.
• In 2000s adopted 'official' multiculturalism as public policies eg. Spain and
Sweden.

CORE THEMES :

DESCRIPTIVE TERM NORMATIVE TERM

 • Sense of collective identity. • Implies a positive
• Used to describe govt. endorsement, typically based
responses to communal on right, respect & recognition
diversity either in public policy of different cultural groups.
or in design of institutions. • It is about the balance in
• Multicultural public policy, modern societies between
characterized to ensure cultural diversity and civic unity
equality of opportunity. are conducted.
• In form of Consociationalism ,
shaped political practices in
states .e.g. Netherlands &
Ireland etc.

1. Postcolonialism :
a. Purpose : expose and overturn the cultural & psychological
dimensions of colonial rule
b. “Decolonize the curriculum” ~ Postcolonial theory :
i. To establish the legitimacy of non- western/ anti – western
political ideas.
ii. To give the developing world a distinctive political voice ( not
liberalism & socialism).
c. Edward Said :
i. Notion of ‘Orientalism' - has been maintained through
elaborate stereotypical fictions (eg; ' mysterious East' , ‘lustful
Turks' & ' Asian inscrutability') — demean non- western
people & cultures.
ii. discourse of Orientalism – manifestation of wider phenomenon
of ' Eurocentrism'.
d. Eg. ‘back to Africa’ movement inspired by fgures such as Marcus
Garvey and Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement, founded in 2013.

2. Politics of Recognition :
 a. Republican thinking — eg. first-wave feminism — said to be
‘diference-blind’
i. believe that social advancement can be brought about largely
through the establishment of formal equality
b. Politics of Redistribution — arose out of the belief that universal
citizenship and formal equality are not sufficient, in themselves, to
tackle the problems of subordination and marginalization.

3. Culture and identity

a. Holds that culture is basic to political and social identity —
Montesquieu (1689–1775) and J. G. Herder — portrays human
beings as culturally defned creatures
b. In Modern form — cultural politics has been shaped by two main
forces: Communitarianism and identity politics
i. Communitarianism — Philosophical critique of liberal
universalism
1. 1980s and 1990s, a major debate raged in philosophy
between liberals and communitarians which ultimately
gave rise to liberal multiculturalism
ii. Identity Politics — ranges from ethnocultural nationalism and
religious fundamentalism to second-wave feminism and
pluralist multiculturalism.
c. Perspectives on culture
 i. Liberals : critical view and only values culture if promotes
intellectual development
ii. Conservatives : culture - strengthens social cohesion and
political unity ; supports mono-cultural societies.
iii. Socialists (marxists) : culture — political superstructure that
relies on economic base.
iv. Fascists : believe in strict and untrammelled
monoculturalism.
v. Populists : culture — battleground between commoners
(conservative values) and elites (liberal values).
vi. Feminists : critical of culture, believing that, is the form of
patriarchal culture
vii. Multiculturalists : Core part of personal and social identity
and different cultural groups can live together.

4. Minority rights : sometimes called ‘multicultural’ rights — Will

kymlicka (2000) identified three kinds of minority rights
a. Self-government rights belong to what are classified as so-called
national minorities,
b. Poly-ethnic rights are rights that help ethnic groups and religious
minorities, which have developed through immigration, to express and
maintain their cultural distinctiveness.
c. Special representation rights = positive discrimination towards
minority
d. Eg. African-Americans (since the 1960s) — ‘Affirmative action’ —
in Case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978),
the Supreme Court upheld the principle of ‘reverse’ discrimination
in educational admissions,

5. Togetherness in difference : fosters cross-cultural toleration and

understanding, and therefore a willingness to respect ‘difference’.
Diversity, in this sense, is the antidote to social polarization and prejudice.
a. Criticized for endorsing diversity at the expense of unity & reflected
growing interest in what is called ‘interculturalism’, which risks
blurring the contours of group identity and creating a kind of ‘pick-
and-mix’, melting-pot society — Individuals having ‘shallow’ sense
of social and historical identity

6. Charles Taylor thus argues that Individual self-respect is intrinsically

bound up with Cultural membership
 Concept of Cultural appropriation (or ‘cultural misappropriation’, to
emphasize its negative character) refers to the adoption of the customs,
practices or ideas of one culture by members of another and typically
more dominant culture, also known as Cultural Borrowing

Types of multiculturalism
1. Liberal multiculturalism : argues that a person's social identity and
personality are largely moulded by their community relationships, and
rejects extreme laissez-faire policies.
a. unswerving commitment to toleration and a desire to uphold
freedom of choice in the moral sphere
b. Draws an important distinction between ‘private’ and ‘public’
life estabilishing compatibility with civic nationalism — so-called
‘hyphenated nationality’ eg. African-Americans, Polish -Americans,
German-Americans
c. final aspect of liberal multiculturalism — regards liberal
democracy as the sole legitimate political system
d. Critics :
i. cannot accommodate ‘deep’ diversity Eg, liberal may be
unwilling to endorse practices such as female genital
mutilation, forced (and possibly arranged) marriages and female
dress codes

2. Pluralist multiculturalism : co-existence of different cultures, even in the

presence of a dominating culture & emphasizes on tolerance
a. Isaiah Berlin endorsed the idea of value pluralism : implies a form
of live-and-let-live multiculturalism, also known as politics of
indifference.

b. Bhikhu Parekh : In Rethinking Multiculturalism (2005), rejected

universalist liberalism and argues 'Variegated’ treatment, including
 affirmative action, is therefore required to put ethnic, cultural or
religious minorities on an equal footing with the majority

3. Cosmopolitan multiculturalism : Jeremy

Waldron equated multiculturalism with cosmopolitanism
a. Waldron stresses the rise of ‘hybridity’. Waldron’s emphasis on the
fluid, multifarious and often fractured nature of the human self
provided the basis for the development of cosmopolitanism as a
normative philosophy that challenges both liberalism and
communitarianism
b. Interculturalism and cultural mixing are positively encouraged Eg.
People having Italian food (Gastrodiplomacy), practice yoga, enjoy
African music and develop an interest in world religions

FUTURE OF MULTICULTURALISM

• Reconstruction of Cultural Diversity — eg. strict immigration controls,

enforced assimilation or pressure to repatriate – increasingly appear to be
politically fanciful.
• Amartya Sen (2006) — argues that multiculturalism not only leads to the
‘miniaturization’ of humanity, but also encourages people to identify only
with their own monoculture and fail to recognize the rights and integrity of
 people from other cultural groups. Multiculturalism thus breeds a kind of
‘ghettoization’.
• Conservatives — objects that shared values and a common culture are a
necessary precondition for a stable and successful society.
• Critics of multiculturalism claim that a fear or distrust of strangers or
foreigners is ‘natural’ and unavoidable — inherently flawed and conflict
ridden societies

Non-UPSC Facts
BOOKS
• EDWARD SAIDà
▪ ORIENTALISM ( 1978)
▪ CULTURE AND IMPERIALISM(1993)
• WILL KYMKICKA
o MULTICULTURAL CITIZENSHIP(2000)
o Multicultural Odysseys( 2007)
• CHARLES TAYLOR
o Multiculturalism and the politics of recognition(1994)
• JAMES TULLY
o Strange multiplicity(1995)
o Public philosophy and the new key (2008)
• ISAIAH BERLIN
o FOUR ESSAYS ON LIBERTY( 1969)
• BHIKHU PAREKH
o Rethinking Multiculturalism( 2005)

Chapter-12
FUNDAMENTALIM

Preview:
The word fundamentalism derives from Latin word fundamentum- meaning base.
Religious fundamentalism (RF) is characterised by a rejection of distinctionbetween religion
and politics. This implies that religious principles are not restricted to personal life.
Some forms of RF co-exist with pluralism (Christian fundamentalism in USA),because their
goals are limited, other forms of RF- revolutionary (Islamic fundamentalism).

● First used in evangelical Protestants pamphlets The Fundamentals,

upholding the literal truth of the Bible as a response to the modern
interpretations of Christianity.

● Fundamentalists prefer calling themselves

○ Traditionalists
○ Conservatives
○ Evangelical
○ Revivalists
■ Though calling it fundamentalism gives it a identity of being a
religio-political movement
■ For them there is no distinction between religion and politics
● Politics is religion

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

● Religious Fundamentalism-> modern phenomenon

○ Core idea
■ Religion cannot and should not be confined to private sphere,
but finds its highest and proper expression in the politics of
popular mobilization and social regeneration
○ The 'fundamentals ' are dynamically extracted by a charismatic leader.
● Europe first saw the decline in the fundamentalist religion, with a gradual
and long term withdrawal of Christianity from the public/political sphere.
○ Led to secularization of public sphere
■ Secularization Thesis=> the theory that modernization is
characterized by th3 spread of rationalist ideas and values in
place of religious ones.
○ Overtime this secularization was backed by legal force, eg. 1st
Amendment of US Constitution
 ○ This process reached its peak in communist states like USSR and
China

● This was followed by religious revivalism assuming an openly political form

as seen in Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran under Ayatollah Khomeini,
as leader of 1st Islamic state

● 1980s and 1990s also saw rise in fundamentalist movements in Hinduism,

Sikhism (India) and in Buddhism (Sri Lanka and Myanmar)

● 9/11 and its aftermath saw the peak interest in Fundamentalism and the
initiation of 'war on terror'
○ Interpreted by some as beginning of global struggle b/w Islam and
West.
■ Samuel P Huntington => Clash of Civilizations
● Growing tension and conflict in 21st century, which is
cultural in nature rather than
ideological/political/economic, because
○ Ideology has faded in significance post Cold-War
○ Globalization weakened state's ability to generate
civic belonging
● Criticism
○ Underestimate complex and fluid nature of
civilizations and their capacity to peacefully co-
exist.

Core Themes:

1. Religion as Politics: It views religion as inseparable from politics.

eg Theo- political
2. Essential Truths: Certain principles are seen as unquestionable.
eg Scriptural literalism
3. Anti-Modernism: Often opposes modern values and ideas.
4. Militancy: In some cases, it involves a militant or aggressive stance.
Fundamentalism fundamentally rejects the separation of religion and politics.
Ayatollah Khomeini famously stated, "Politics is religion." Religion often forms
the foundation of politics, and religion, in a broad sense, refers to an organized
community sharing beliefs about some transcendent reality.

In liberal culture, a clear distinction exists between the public and private spheres,
with strict separation to protect individual freedom. This division confines religion
to the private sphere, leaving public life organized on secular principles. This
process, known as the "privatization of religion," extends the separation to create a
distinction between politics and religion.

When faced with perceived corruption in the secular public sphere,

fundamentalism can take two approaches:

1. **Passive Fundamentalism**: Withdrawal and the focus on building insulated

communities that adhere to religious principles without extensive societal reform.

2. **Active Fundamentalism**: Engagement in politics, seeking to influence or

control the modern state to enact moral change.

Critics warn that merging religion and politics can lead to totalitarian tendencies,
but this varies among different fundamentalist movements.

Fundamentalism is a style of thought where certain principles are seen as absolute

truths, regardless of content. It opposes relativism, which allows for more
flexibility. Some political ideologies like fascism and communism lean toward
fundamentalism, while liberalism tends to be more relativistic.
In religious fundamentalism, core principles often come from sacred texts and are
taken as literal truths, although not all religious fundamentalism follows this
pattern

TYPES OF FUNDAMENTALISM

Islamic fundamentalism

- Islam sees religion and politics as intertwined, intensified by the rise of Islamism.
- In Islam, fundamentalism means a strong belief in Islamic principles governing
all aspects of life, including politics and personal morality.
- - Modern Islamism emerged after WWI.
- The Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928, blended politics and Islamic
charity.

- Afghan-Soviet war led to Mujahideen, giving rise to groups like al-Qaeda.

- The 2003 Iraq invasion fueled sectarian tensions and ISIS.
- Goal: Establish Islamic states governed by strict Islamic principles.

- Islamism is a politico-religious ideology.

- Common beliefs include:
1. Reconstruct society based on Islamic principles.
2. Replace secular states with Islamic ones.
3. Criticize the West and Western values.
- Sunni and Shia versions of Islamism exist, with Sunni linked to Wahhabism and
Shia to Iran's 'Islamic Revolution'.

- While Islamism aims to restore an Islamic state, it differs from traditional

caliphates.
- Caliphs consulted scholars, but modern Islamic states prioritize Sharia law.
- Militancy and violence are controversial aspects of Islamism.
- Jihad has two forms: "greater" as an inner spiritual struggle and "lesser" as an
outer struggle against Islam's enemies.

Salafi

- Salafism is a form of Sunni Islamism, closely related to Wahhabism.

- Wahhabism calls for a return to the earliest form of Islam, banning various
practices and influences.
- Salafism, emerging in the 19th century, sought to eradicate Western influences
within Islam.
- Salafism evolved from conservatism to activism and later influenced "Salaf-
jihadism."
- Salafi-jihadi groups like al-Qaeda, ISIS, and the Taliban became prominent.

Shia islam

- Shia Islamism differs from Sunni Islamism due to the Shia sect's distinct beliefs
and doctrines.
- Shia Islamism is focused on the return of the "hidden imam" or arrival of the
mahdi, a divinely guided leader.

Christian fundamentalism

3 main divisions of Churches in Christianity:-

● Catholic — Based on the temporal and spiritual leadership of the pope in
Rome.
● Orthodox — Emerged from the split with Rome in 1054
(Eg: Russian & Greek orthodox church)
● Protestant — Rejected Rome’s authority & established reformed national
versions of Christianity. Consider the Bible as the sole source of Truth &
believe in a personal relationship with God.

➢ Christian fundamentalists have been content to work mainly within a

pluralist & constitutional framework. They usually campaign around single
issues or concentrate their attention on moral crusading.
➢ One of the causes that Christian fundamentalism has helped to articulate is
ethnic nationalism.
(Eg:- Free Presbyterian Church in Northern Ireland)

The New Christian Right

During the 19th century, a fierce battle was fought within American Protestantism
between Modernists, who adopted a liberal view of the Bible, and Conservatives,
who took a literal view of it. Such religious passions & views were largely
confined to private affairs & rarely drawn into active politics.
However, in the late 1970s, The new Christian right, emerged which sought to
fuse religion & politics in attempting to ‘turn America back to Christ’.

Two main factors behind the emergence of the new Christian right.
I. Extension of the Public sphere post WWII
II. Increased political prominence of groups representing blacks, women &
homosexuals

Hindu Fundamentalism
➢ Hinduism is an ethnic religion, which emphasizes custom & social practice
rather than formal texts or doctrines.
➢ A fundamentalist movement emerged out of the struggle for Indian
independence, & gained prominence after the decline of Congress in the
Mid-1980s. (Demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya in 1992 being a key
point)
➢ The core goal of fundamentalist Hinduism is to challenge the multicultural,
multi-ethnic mosaic of India by making Hinduism the basis of national
identity.
➢ They call for the “Hinduization” of Sikh, Jain & esp. Muslim communities
➢ They aim to create a ‘Greater India’, stretching from Myanmar to Iraq, and
to establish India’s geopolitical dominance across Central Asia
➢ Hindu fundamentalism’s breakthrough into mainstream politics came when
the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) rose to power in 2014. After re-election in
2019, it consolidated the shift towards Hinduization by taking measures like
revocation of Art. 370, passing CAA.

Sikh Fundamentalism
 ● It is associated with the struggle to find an independent nation-state, not with
the remaking of a national identity but within an existing one.
● It overlaps with the concerns of liberal nationalism. However, it visions
Sikhism as the state religion.
● Events like the takeover of the Golden Temple in 1982 and the assassination
of Indira Gandhi in 1984 reflect the tension between hindu and sikh.
● Sikh nationalism is defined by its antipathy towards Hinduism as Hindu
Nationalism through anti-Islamic character.

The separate upsurges in Hindu, Sikh & Islamic fundamentalism in the Indian
subcontinent are interconnected developments. They have created a chain reaction
of threats & resentments and inspired one another by closely linking ethnic identity
to religious fervor.

Jewish Fundamentalism
● Jewish fundamentalists have transformed Zionism into a defense of the
“Greater Land of Israel’’, characterized by territorial aggressiveness.
● GushmunEmunim (Most Prominent Fundamentalist Group) – Campaign to
incorporate & build Jewish settlements in Territories occupied during the 6
Days War of 1967.
● Katch(The most radical group) – demands for expulsion of All Arabs from
the “Promised Land”

Zionism – It is a movement for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in

Palestine. The idea was first advanced in 1897 byTheodore Herzl at the World
Zionist Congress in Basel. In the beginning, it had secularist and nationalistic
aspirations but after the creation of Israel, it has acquired an expansionist & anti-
Arab character.
Buddhist Fundamentalism
 ● The rise of Buddhist nationalism in Sri Lanka is a result of growing tension
between the majority Buddhist Sinhalese population & the minority Tamil
community, comprising Hindus, Christians & Muslims.
● In contrast to the philosophy of Buddhism, the Theravada Buddhism of
Southern Asia has supported fundamentalism.
● The drive for the ‘Sinhalization’ & demand to make Buddhism a state
religion fuelled Tamil separatism, which began in the late 1970s and
continued till 2009.

The Future of Fundamentalism

There are 2 Main perspectives:-

❖ Decline of Fundamentalism – It's seen as a temporary response to
modernization. As the world moves towards globalization and liberal
democracy, fundamentalism may lose its political significance and retreat to
a private domain.
❖ Rise of Fundamentalism – Some believe secularism is weakening, and
fundamentalism is addressing deep human needs that secular ideologies fail
to. The global future might see religion-based power blocs, indicating that
fundamentalism could be a major force in global scenarios.
Chapter-13
Why Political Ideologies Matter

Keywords:
Political Ideologies, Political Parties, Paradigms, Ethics, Collective Identity, Misuse,
Tunnel Vision, Truth, Polarization, Social Cohesion, Culture Wars.

Introduction:
Political ideologies serve as vital frameworks in politics, guiding politicians,
political parties, and other actors in navigating the complex world of politics. They
operate as paradigms, offering values, theories, and assumptions. However, their
use can lead to both positive and negative consequences.

why we need political parties?

● provide politicians, parties and other political actors with an intellectual

framework which helps them to make sense of the world in which they live
● ideologies operate as paradigms. they guide the process of intellectual
enquiry by providing a set of values, theories and assumptions within which
the search for knowledge is conducted
● ensuring that politics has an ethical or emotional dimension so that what
‘is’ is always linked to what ‘ought to be’
● helping to forge a sense of the collective, by embedding the individual
within a social context

Use of ideologies may also be abused

 ● paradigms that structure and inform our search for knowledge may also
foster tunnel vision and even become intellectual prison
● difficult to think ‘outside’ or ‘beyond’ our fa ideological tradition
● ideologies tend to blur the distinction between truth and falsehood. There
is no reliable way of ‘proving’ that one political ideology is better than any
other ideology
● in the process of forging a sense of collective belonging, political ideologies
typically conjure up the image of a distrusted, feared or hated ‘other’,
bringing conflict polarization in the society

Why we need political ideologies

● constitutes the vital link between theory and practice in politics

● making sense of the world
o to widen and/or deepen our perceptual field, and, in the process, to
make better sense of the world in which we live
o that they alert us to relationships, processes and structures of which
we may previously have been unaware
o political ideologies help to expose ‘hidden’ prejudices and biases. This
makes them a device for promoting critical self-refection, a means of
uncovering ‘taken-for-granted’ assumptions and understandings
about the established order
o ideologies are treated as paradigms in the sense employed by
Thomas Kuhn in his pioneering “The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions”. a paradigm is ‘the entire constellation of beliefs, values,
techniques and so on shared by members of a given community’.
Paradigms help us to make sense of what would otherwise be an
impenetrably complex reality. they draw attention to relevant
questions and lines of enquiry, as well as indicate how the results of
intellectual enquiry might be interpreted.
● investing politics with moral purpose
o outlining a model of a desired future, a vision of the ‘good society’
o principal source of meaning and idealism in politics
o If politicians cannot cloak the pursuit of power in ideological purpose,
they risk being seen simply as power-seeking pragmatists, whose
policy programs lack coherence and direction
● forging the collective
 o they give people a reason to believe in something larger than
themselves
o acting as a form of social cement, providing social groups, and indeed
whole societies, with a set of unifying beliefs and values
o political ideologies can also bind together divergent groups and
interests within the same society
o In providing society with a unifying political culture, ideologies deliver
order and social stability

Do Ideologies Matter too much

● political ideologies can be used but they can also be abused. Their dangers
associated with political ideology include the following:
o imprisoning the mind
o distorting ‘truth’
o pitting ‘us’ against ‘them’
● imprisoning the mind
o Ideologies may also promote tunnel vision, or even act as intellectual
prisons
o Instead of widening and deepening our perceptual field, paradigms
may allow us to ‘see’ only what their account of political reality
allows us to see.
o By generating conformity among those who subscribe to them,
ideologies come to resemble political religions, sets of values,
theories and doctrines that demand faith and commitment from
‘believers’, who are unable to think ‘outside’ or ‘beyond’ their chosen
world-view.
● distorting ‘truth’
o they have an unreliable relationship with truth
o to suggest that ideologies can be deemed to be either true or false is
to miss the vital point that they embody values, dreams and
aspirations that are, by their very nature, not susceptible to scientifc
analysis
o Ideologies are embraced less because they stand up to scrutiny and
logical analysis, and more because they help individuals, groups and
societies to deal with the world in which they live
 o Although all ideologies may have an unreliable relationship with
truth, 'truth decay' has become more prominent due to the rise of
populism, particularly through its emphasis on conspiracy theories.
● pitting ‘us’ against ‘them’
o Although political ideologies build within people a sense of collective
belonging, this is often accomplished through a deepening of conflict
and division
o association between conflict and the collective may have a wider
application, and perhaps taints all ideological traditions
o Theorists in the field of social psychology have argued that there is a
basic tendency for people to divide the world into an in-group (‘us’),
consisting of those who support one’s own ideological beliefs, and an
out-group (‘them’), consisting of those who support rival political
ideologies. In a process of negative integration, our sense of ‘us’ is
strengthened by the existence of ‘them’ who we come to distrust,
fear or even hate
o tendency for the ideological landscape to be structured according to
the ‘us/them’ divide has become more prominent since the 1990s, as
issues related to identity, and thus who we are, displace more
conventional socio-economic issues. This is evident in the growing
prevalence of ‘culture wars’

Choosing between ideologies

● political ideologies were portrayed very much as a mixed blessing

● while ideologies may constitute an essential road to political understanding,
this road may also promote tunnel vision and distort truth
● the balance between understanding and distortion may not be uniform
across the ideological landscape; rather, it may differ from ideology to
ideology
● certain ideologies proving to be more reliable or more insightful than others
● ideologies vary in the extent to which they correspond to ‘the facts’ and
succeed in explaining real-world events and developments
● A widening gap thus developed between ideological belief and reality
● ideological thought is concerned not just with understanding the world, but
with doing so for a purpose: namely, remaking the world for the better
When we choose between political ideologies, then, we are not evaluating rival
intellectual frameworks so much as selecting the most compelling vehicle for
ethical and emotional engagement in politics.

Benefits of Political Ideologies:

Ethical Dimension: Ideologies connect the objective description of the world to

normative visions, infusing ethics into politics.
Collective Identity: They foster a sense of belonging by embedding individuals in a
broader social context.
Intellectual Framework: Ideologies aid in making sense of the world by guiding
intellectual inquiry and simplifying complex realities.
Moral Purpose: They outline a vision of the "good society" and provide meaning
and idealism in politic
Coherence: Ideologies help politicians provide a principled direction in their policy
agendas, preventing them from appearing as mere power-seekers.
Social Cohesion: They cement social groups and societies through shared beliefs
and values, delivering order and stability.

Comparing Ideologies:
Varied Impact: The influence of ideologies can differ among different belief
systems.
Reliability: Some ideologies may prove more reliable or insightful than others in
explaining real-world events.
Ideological Gaps: A widening gap may exist between ideological belief and reality,
affecting their effectiveness.
Choosing Ideologies:
Purposeful Selection: Individuals choose ideologies not just as intellectual
frameworks but as pathways for ethical and emotional engagement in politics.
In conclusion, political ideologies are indispensable in politics, offering guidance,
ethical grounding, and collective identity. While they have significant benefits,
their potential for misuse, tunnel vision, and polarization necessitates thoughtful
consideration when choosing an ideological framework

For conclusion in ideology debate

Moreover, because ideologies tend to blur the distinction between truth
and falsehood, there is, in the final analysis, no reliable way of ‘proving’ that
one
political ideology is better than any other ideology.

Or

However, the balance between understanding and distortion may not be

uniform across the ideological landscape; rather, it may differ from ideology
to ideology, certain ideologies proving to be more reliable or more insightful
than others. In that sense, some ideologies may matter more than others.
This may be evident in a number of ways. One of these is that ideologies
vary in the extent to which they correspond to ‘the facts’ and succeed in
explaining real-world events and developments. Socialism, for instance,
has widely been viewed as a less reliable and insightful political ideology,
as a result of the declining significance of social class since the 1970s. A
widening gap thus developed between ideological belief (reflected in the
socialist assumption that social classes are the principal actors in history)
and reality.

Conclusion in question of new global order or multipolar world

The notion of a distinction between facts and values is nevertheless foreign

to the thrust of ideological thought, which is concerned not just with
understanding the world, but with doing so for a purpose: namely, remaking
the world for the better (whatever that may mean in practice). When we
choose between political ideologies, then, we are not evaluating rival
intellectual frameworks so much as selecting the most compelling vehicle for
ethical and emotional engagement in politics.