Handout 2 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

Lecture 2
EE-215 Electronic Devices and Circuits
Asst Prof Muhammad Anis Ch

Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic

The Exponential Model
The Constant-Voltage Drop Model
The Ideal Diode Model
The Small-Signal Model

The Exponential Model

provides the most accurate description of diode operation
in the forward-bias region
is the most difficult to use
because of its severely non-linear nature
v
Exponential model ⟹ i = IS e V T

for this circuit

VD

ID = IS e V T
and using KVL
VDD = ID R + VD
VDD −VD
or ID = R
if IS for the diode is given,
we have two equations in two unknowns ID and VD
VD
VDD −VD
ID = IS e V T and ID = R

if IS for the diode is given,

we have two equations in two unknowns ID and VD
These two equations can be solved using either
Graphical Analysis
or Iterative Analysis
Graphical Analysis using the Exponential Model
VD
VDD −VD
ID = IS e V Tand ID = R
this analysis is performed by

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Handout 2 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

plotting the two equations on the i-v plane

the point of intersection is the desired solution ( VD , ID )

the curve represents the exponential diode equation.

while the straight line represents the KVL equation
Such a straight line is called load line.
The load line intersects the diode curve at point Q
Q represents the operating point of the circuit.
The coordinates of Q give the values of ID and VD
Example 4.4 using Graphical Analysis
Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit in Fig. 4.10 with
VDD = 5V and R = 1kΩ. Assume that the diode has a current of 1mA at a voltage of
0.7V .

Solution:

here VDD = 5V , R = 1kΩ

and I = 1mA for V = 0.7V
V
1mA
I = IS e V T ⟹ IS = I
V = 0.7V = 6.9144 × 10−16 A
e VT e 25mV
VD
VDD −VD
As the 2 circuit equations are ID = IS e V T and ID = R
VD
5−VD
⟹ ID = 6.9144 × 10−16 e 25m and ID = 1k
VD
5−VD
ID = 6.9144 × 10−16 e 25m and ID = 1k
Plotting these 2 equations in Matlab or Octave with give the desired solution
VD , ID

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Handout 2 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

reading VD , ID from the plot ⟹VD = 0.7358V

and ID = 4.264mA
Iterative Analysis using the Exponential Model
the 2 circuit equations
VD
VDD −VD
ID = IS e V Tand ID = R
can also be solved using a simple iterative procedure
Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic
VD
VDD −VD
ID = IS e V T and ID = R
Example 4.4 using Iterative Analysis
Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit in Fig. 4.10 with
VDD = 5V and R = 1kΩ. Assume that the diode has a current of 1mA at a voltage of
0.7V .

Solution:

to start, let VD = 0.7V

Iteration 1:
VDD −VD 5−0.7
KVL ⟹ ID = R
= 1k
= 4.3mA
to have a better estimate of VD
I I
using V2 − V1 = VT ln I21 or V2 = V1 + VT ln I21
for V1 = 0.7V and I1 = 1mA (given)
and V2 = VD =? , I2 = ID = 4.3mA
I
V2 = V1 + VT ln I21 ⟹VD = 0.7 + 25m ln 4.3m1m
= 0.736V
thus after this first iteration we have
VD = 0.736V , ID = 4.3mA

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Iteration1 ⟹VD = 0.736V , ID = 4.3mA

Iteration 2:
for the 2nd iteration
VDD −VD 5−0.736
ID = R
= 1k
= 4.264mA
I
V2 = V1 + VT ln I21
here V1 = VD from first iteration, I1 = ID from first iteration
⟹VD = 0.736 + 25m ln 4.264m
4.3m
= 0.7358V ≈ 0.736V
so 2nd iteration ⟹ VD = 0.736V and ID = 4.264mA
As the values obtained in the 2nd iteration
are very close to those obtained in the first iteration,
further iterations are not required
so the solution is VD = 0.736V , ID = 4.264mA
Example 4.4 using Graphical and Iterative Analysis
Iterative Analysis solution : VD = 0.736V , ID = 4.264mA
Note that this solution closely match (exactly match to the 4 decimal),
to the one obtained using Graphical Analysis
i.e. VD = 0.7358V , ID = 4.264mA (Graphical Analysis solution)

The Constant Voltage Drop Model

is the simplest
and most widely used model
is based on the observation that a conducting diode has
voltage drop in a narrow range of 0.6V - 0.8V
thus the model assumes a constant value of 0.7V

Example 4.4 using The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model

Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit in Fig. 4.10 with
VDD = 5V and R = 1kΩ. Assume that the diode has a current of 1mA at a voltage of
0.7V .

Solution:

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Handout 2 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

constant voltage drop model ⟹ VD = 0.7V

VDD −VD 5−0.7
KVL ⟹ ID = R
= = 4.3mA
1k
Graphical Analysis solution ⟹VD = 0.7358V , ID = 4.264mA

The Ideal-Diode Model

Already studied in detail

The most commonly used model

is the constant-voltage-drop model
The ideal diode model is very useful in determining
which diodes are on and which are off
in a multi-diode circuit
Example 4.4 using The Ideal-diode Model
Determine the current ID and the diode voltage VD for the circuit in Fig. 4.10 with
VDD = 5V and R = 1kΩ. Assume that the diode has a current of 1mA at a voltage of
0.7V .

Solution:

ideal diode model ⟹ VD = 0V

VDD −VD 5−0
KVL ⟹ ID = R
= 1k
= 5mA
Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic

Example 4.4
Exponential Model using Graphical Analysis ⟹VD = 0.7358V , ID = 4.264mA
Exponential Model using Iterative Analysis⟹ VD = 0.736V , ID = 4.264mA
Constant-Voltage-Drop model⟹ VD = 0.7V , ID = 4.3mA
Ideal-Diode-Model⟹VD = 0V , ID = 5mA
Exercise D4.11
Design the circuit in Fig E4.11 to provide an output voltage of 2.4V. Assume that the
diodes available have 0.7V drop at 1mA.
Solution:

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here V1 = 0.7V , I1 = 1mA

required is VO = 2.4V
VO 2.4
⟹ VD = 3
= 3
= 0.8V
ID =?
I2
V2 − V1 = VT ln I1
hereV2 = 0.8V and ID = I2 =?
I ID
V2 − V1 = VT ln I21 ⟹0.8 − 0.7 = VT ln 1m
ID 0.1 ID
or 0.1 = VT ln 1m
⟹ 25m = ln 1m
0.1 0.1
ID
or 1m = e 25m ⟹ ID = 1me 25m = 54.6mA

VO = 2.4V
ID = 54.6mA
As ID is the current flowing through resistor R
Applying ohm's law at R
⟹ ID = 10−2.4R
= 54.6mA
10−2.4 7.6
or R = = 54.6m = 139.19Ω
54.6m

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The Small-Signal Model

this model is useful in applications where
a diode is forward biased
and a small AC signal is superimposed on the DC quantities
in such applications,
one can first determine the DC operating point (VD , ID ) of the diode
then for small signal operation, around the DC bias point,
the diode is modeled by a resistance equal to the inverse of the slope
of the tangent to the exponential i-v characteristic at the bias point.

here a dc voltage VD , represented by a battery is applied to the diode

and a time-varying signal vd (t) , is superimposed on the dc voltage VD
In the absence of vd (t) , the diode voltage equals VD
and the diode current is ID = IS eVD /VT

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when the signal vd (t) is applied, the total instantaneous diode voltage vD (t) is
vD (t)= VD + vd (t)
and the total current is ⟹iD (t)= IS evD (t)/VT

iD (t)= IS evD (t)/VT

iD (t)= IS e(VD +vd )/VT ∵ vD (t)= VD + vd (t)
iD (t)= IS eVD /VT evd /VT
iD (t)= ID evd /VT ∵ID = IS eVD /VT
As in terms of series, exponential can be represented as
ex = ∑∞ xn x2 x3 4
n=0 n!
=1+x+ 2!
+ 3!
+ x4! + ⋯
⟹iD (t)= ID evd /VT = ID {1 + VdT + 2!1 ( VdT ) + ⋯}
v v 2

iD (t)= ID {1 + 2! ( VT ) + ⋯}
vd 1 vd 2
VT
+
vd
now if the amplitude of the signal vd (t) is kept sufficiently small i.e. V ≪1
T

⟹( VdT ) ≪
v 2 vd
VT

⟹{1 + 2! ( VT ) + ⋯}≈{1 + }
vd 1 vd 2 vd
VT
+ VT

⟹iD (t)= ID {1 + 2! ( VT ) + ⋯}≈ ID {1 + }

vd 1 vd 2 vd
VT
+ VT
this is the small signal approximation.
and this approximation is valid for signals whose amplitudes are
smaller than about 5mV
vd 5m
e.g. if vd = 5mV ⟹ V = = 0.2 T 25m

3rd term in series= 2! ( V ) = 2! (0.2) = 0.02 which is 10

1 vd 2 1 2
T
times smaller than 2nd term and can be ignored.
iD (t)≈ ID {1 + }
vd
VT

or iD (t)= ID
ID
+ VT
vd
(id = vd ) superimposed on the dc
ID
thus we have a signal (ac) current VT
current ID
i.e. iD = ID + id
ID
where id = V vd
T
thus the signal current id is directly proportional to the signal voltage
vd
this quantity relating the signal current id to the signal voltage vd is called the
small-signal conductance.
id ID
small-signal conductance= v = VT
d

the inverse of this conductance is the diode small-signal resistance (also

called diode incremental resistance)
VT vd
diode small-signal resistance= rd = ID
= id
thus rd is inversely proportional to the diode bias current ID
One can see the small signal approximation from the graphical representation

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Using the small-signal approximation is equivalent to

assuming that the signal amplitude is sufficiently small such that
the signal swing along the i-v curve is limited to a short almost-linear
segment
the slope of this linear segment
equals the slope of the tangent to the i-v curve at the operating point
Q
equals the small signal conductance
= [ ∂vDD ]
1 ∂i
⟹ rd iD =ID
1 ID
i.e. slope of the i-v curve at i = ID is equal to r
d
= VT

= [ ∂vDD ]
1 ∂i
rd iD =ID

∂vD ( S
I evD /VT ) ∵ iD = IS evD /VT
∂iD ∂
∂vD
=
= IS evD /VT ∂v∂D (vD /VT )= IS evD /VT ( V1T )
∂iD
∂vD
As iD = IS evD /VT
= IS evD /VT ( V1T )= VDT
∂iD i
∂vD

= [ ∂vDD ] = [ VDT ]
1 ∂i i ID
⟹ rd = VT
iD =ID iD =ID
The small signal model
⟹dc and ac analysis can be performed independently
first dc analysis is carried out, which leads to the Q point
then the small signal equivalent circuit is obtained by
eliminating all dc sources
i.e. replacing dc voltage source by short circuit
replacing dc current source by open circuit
VT
and replacing the diode by its small-signal resistance rd = ID

Example 4.5

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Consider the circuit shown in Fig 4.14(a) for the case in which R = 10kΩ. The power
supply V + has a dc value of 10 V on which is superimposed a 60-Hz sinusoid of 1-V
peak amplitude. (This “signal component” of the power suply voltage is an
imperfection in the power-supply design. It is known as the power-supply ripple.)
Calculate the dc voltage of the diode and the amplitude of the sine-wave signal
appearing across it. Assume the diode to have a 0.7-V drop at 1 mA current.

using the small signal model ⟹ dc analysis can be performed first followed by small-
signal analysis
dc analysis
let VD ≈ 0.7V
ohm's law across R ⟹
10−0.7 9.3
ID = R
= 10k
= 0.93mA
As this value is very close to 1mA, the diode voltage will be very close
to the assumed 0.7V
⟹ the Q point is VD = 0.7V , ID = 0.93mA

ac analysis
the Q point is VD = 0.7V , ID = 0.93mA
At this operating point, rd is
VT 25mV
rd = ID
= 0.93mA
= 26.9Ω
small-signal equaivalent circuit can be drawn by replacing 10V voltage source
by short-circuit and diode by rd
in the figure
vs is 60Hz 1-V peak sinusoidal component of V+

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vd is the corresponding signal across the diode

by voltage divider rule (fig c)

vs =(2.683m)vs
r 26.9
vd = rd +Rd
vs = 26.9+10k
for vs,peak = 1V
vd,peak = 2.683mV
Note that this vd,peak < 5mV
⟹ the small-signal model is valid for this problem
Use of the Diode Forward Drop in Voltage Regulation
A voltage Regulator
is a circuit which can provide a constant dc voltage between its output terminals
inspite of the changes in the load current drawn from the regulator output
terminals
or change in the dc power supply voltage that feeds the regulator
circuit.
As the forward-voltage drop of the diode remains
almost constant at approximately 0.7V,
while the current changes by relatively large amounts,
a forward-biased diode can be used as a simple voltage regulator
Regulated voltages greater than 0.7V can be obtained by connecting diodes in
series.

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Example 4.6
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 4.15. A string of three diodes is used to provide a
constant voltage of about 2.1 V. We want to calculate the percentage change in this
regulated voltage caused by (a) a ±10% change in the power-supply voltage and (b)
connection of a 1 kΩ load resistance.

Solution

no load
VO = 2.1V
IR = ID
DC analysis
ohm's law at R
10−VO 10−2.1
⟹ ID = R
= 1k = 7.9mA
VO 2.1
thus Q point is ID = 7.9mA, VD = 3 = 3
= 0.7V

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Handout 2 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

Q point is ID = 7.9mA, VD = 0.7V

AC analysis
VT 25m
rd = ID
= 7.9m
= 3.2Ω
ac model is obtained by replacing
10V dc source by short circuit
and each diode by a resistor of 3.2Ω (= rd )
using voltage divider
vs =(9.5m)vs
3r 9.6
vo = 3rd +1k
d
vs = 9.6+1k
⟹vo,peak =(9.5m)vs,peak
for vs,peak = 1V ⟹vo,peak = 9.5mV

Example 4.6a

vs,peak = 1V ⟹vo,peak = 9.5mV

1V
the percentage change in supply voltage is = 10V × 100 = 10%
the corresponding percentage change in output voltage is
9.5mV
= 2.1V × 100 = 0.45%
which is quite small
⟹ the diode is providing voltage regulation.
i.e. corresponding to ±1V (±10%) change in supply voltage,
the output voltage changes only by ±9.5mV (±0.45%)
Note that

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peak signal voltage across the three diodes is 9.5mV

⟹the peak signal voltage across each diode is
9.5mV
3
= 3.2mV < 5mV
thus the small signal model is valid here
Example 4.6b

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 4.15. A string of three diodes is used to provide a
constant voltage of about 2.1 V. We want to calculate the percentage change in this
regulated voltage caused by (b) connection of a 1 kΩ load resistance.

this part b can be approximately solved by

using the small signal model
connecting a load resistance of 1kΩ
⟹ 1k resistor draws a current of approximately 2.1
1k
≈ 2.1mA
⟹a decrease in diode current by 2.1mA i.e. Δid = −2.1mA
⟹voltage across each diode changes by
Δvd = Δid rd =(−2.1m)3.2 = −6.72mV
Δvo = 3Δvd = −20.16mV
Note that the voltage change across each diode is 6.72mV>5mV
thus using small-signal model in this part b is not entirely justified.
Example 4.6b; continued (Using Exponential Model)

Accurate solution of this part b can be obtained by

using exponential model (graphical analysis or iterative analysis)
IR = ID + IL
10−3VD 3VD −0
1k
= ID + 1k
10−3VD 3V
1k
− 1kD = ID
10−3VD −3VD 10−6V
ID = 1k
= 1k D
and the diode characteristic equation is
I2
V2 − V1 = VT ln I1

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for iterative analysis

starting point from part (a) is V1 = 0.7V , I1 = 7.9mA
let VD = 0.7V
10−6VD I2
ID = 1k
, V2 = V1 + VT ln I1
for Iteration 1: V1 = 0.7V , I1 = 7.9mA , VD = V1 = 0.7V
Iteration 1

10−6VD 10−6(0.7)
ID = 1k
= 1k
= 5.8mA
I
V2 = VD = V1 + VT ln I21 = 0.7 + 25m ln 5.8m
7.9m
= 0.69227V
for Iteration 2:V1 = 0.69227V , I1 = 5.8mA
10−6V 10−6(0.69227)
ID = 1k D = 1k
= 5.85mA
I2 5.85m
V2 = VD = V1 + VT ln I1
= 0.69227 + 25m ln 5.8m
= 0.69248V
Thus after iteration 2, we have ID = 5.85mA , VD = 0.69248V
⟹vO = 3VD = 2.0774
Δvo = 2.0774 − 2.1 = −22.6mV

Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region - Zener

Diodes

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In the breakdown region

the diode has a very steep i-v curve
⟹ that it can be used for voltage regulation
A voltage regulator is a circuit
that provides a constant dc output voltage
inspite of changes in its load current
or changes in its feeding power-supply voltage
For such voltage regulator applications,
special diodes are manufactured to operate specifically in the breakdown
region
such diodes are called zener diodes (or Breakdown diodes)
Zener diodes are fabricated with voltages in the range of a few volts to a few
hundred volts.
the circuit symbol for the zener diodes is

for Zener diodes

current flows into the cathode,
and the cathode is +ve with respect to the anode.
i.e. the zener diode is reverse biased
thus IZ and VZ both have +ve values
Specifying and Modeling the Zener Diode
for currents greater than the knee current IZK ,
the i-v characteristic is almost a straight line.
IZK is specified on the datasheet of the zener diode.
Also the voltage across the zener diode VZ at a

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specified test current IZT is given in datasheet.

from the fig, one can see that
corresponding to current change ΔI ,
the zener diode voltage changes by ΔV

and this change in voltage can be given as

ΔV = rz ΔI
where
rz is the inverse of the slope of the almost linear i-v curve at the operating
point Q
rz is called the incremental resistance of the zener diode at point Q
rz is also called dynamic resistance of the zerner diode at point Q

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As a consequence of this almost linear i-v characteristic

of the zener diode, it can be modeled as

here VZ0 denotes the point at which the straight line

1
of slope r intersects the voltage axis
z

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VZ0 is only slightly different from the knee voltage VZK

in practice, VZ0 and VZK are almost equal.

in equation form, this equivalent circuit can be expressed as

VZ = VZ0 + rZ IZ
where IZ > IZK and VZ > VZ0
Use of the Zener as a Shunt Regulator
zener diodes can be used for voltage regulation
when used for voltage regulation
a zener diode appears in parallel (or in shunt) with the load
thus such a voltage regulator is called a shunt regulator.
Line Regulation

change in output voltage ΔVO

Line Regulation = change in supply voltage = ΔVS
mV
and is expressed in V
Load Regulation

change in output voltage ΔVO

Load Regulation = change in load current = ΔIL
mV
and is expressed in mA

Example 4.7
The 6.8V zener diode in the circuit of Fig 4.19(a) is specified to have VZ = 6.8V at
IZ = 5mA, rZ = 20Ω, and IZK = 0.2mA. The supply voltage V + is nominally 10V but
can vary by ±1V .

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(a) Find VO with no load and with V + at its nominal value.

Solution

V + = 10V

V + = 10V

zener diode model is

VZ0 =?
As VZ = VZ0 + rZ IZ
⟹VZ0 = VZ − rZ IZ = 6.8 − 20 × 5m = 6.7V
now we can replace the zener diode with its model

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⟹
+
(a) Find VO with no load and with V at its nominal value.
Solution 4.7a

V + = 10V , IL = 0
By KVL
+
V = IR + VZ0 + I rZ
I (R + rZ )= V + − VZ0
V + −V10−6.7
orI = IZ = R+rZZ0 = 500+20 = 6.35mA
As VO = VZ = VZ0 + IZ rZ
VO = 6.7 +(6.35m)20 = 6.827V

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(b) Find the change in VO resulting from ±1V change in V +.

Solution 4.7b

ΔVO
Line Regulation =
ΔV +
=?
change in output voltage
Line Regulation = change in supply voltage
mV
and is expressed in V
for a ±1V change in V + , the corresponding change in output voltage is
(±1V )= ±38.5mV
rZ 20
ΔvO = rZ +R ΔV + = 20+500
ΔVO
⟹ Line Regulation = ΔV + = 38.5mV 1V
= 38.5 mV
V

(c) Find the change in VO resulting from connecting a load resistance RL that draws
current IL = 1mA.
Solution 4.7c

KCL ⟹I = Iz + 1m
10−Vo Vo −Vzo
500
= 20
+ 1m

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Multiply 500 on both sides

10 − Vo =(Vo − 6.7)25 + 0.5
10 − Vo = 25Vo − 167.5 + 0.5
10 − Vo = 25Vo − 167
10 + 167 = 25Vo + Vo
177
26
= Vo
Vo = 6.80769V
Vz = Vo = 6.80769V > Vzo ∵ Vzo = 6.7V
V −V 6.80769V−6.7
Iz = o rz zo = 20
= 5.3845mA > Izk
As Vz > Vzo and Iz > Izk ⟹Our assumption is correct i.e. Diode is indeed in Reverse
Breakdown region
ΔVO
Load Regulation = ΔI
L
=?
change in output voltage
Load Regulation = change in load current
mV
and is expressed in mA
when a load resistance RL that draws a load current of IL = 1mA is
connected,
ΔVo =(Vo obtained in this part(c))−(Vo f rom part(a))= 6.80769 − 6.927
ΔVo = −0.01931V = −19.31mV
ΔVO −19.31mV
Load Regulation = ΔI =
L 1mA
= −19.31 mV
mA

(d) Find the change in VO when RL = 2kΩ.

Solution 4.7d

KCL ⟹ I = IZ + IL
V + − VO VO −VZO V
or R
= rZ + ROL
V+ V VO VZO VO
R
− RO = rZ − rZ + RL
Rearranging
V+ VZO VO VO VO
R
+rZ = R
+ rZ + RL
= VO ( R1 + )
V+ VZO 1 1
R
+ rZ rZ + RL
VO =( VR rZ )/( R + rZ + RL )
+ VZO 1 1 1
+
VO =( 500
10
+ 20 ) ( 500
6.7
/ 1 + 20 1 1
+ 2000 )

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VO = 6.7619V

VO = 6.7619V
As VO > VZ0 = 6.7V , the diode is in breakdown region.
ΔVO = 6.7619 − 6.83 = −68.095mV

(e) Find the value of VO when RL = 0.5kΩ

Solution 4.7e

KCL ⟹ I = IZ + IL
V + − VO VO −VZO V
or R
= rZ + ROL
V+ V VO VZO VO
R
− RO = rZ − rZ + RL
Rearranging
V+ VZO VO VO VO
R
+rZ = R
+ rZ + RL
= VO ( R1 + )
V+ VZO 1 1
R
+ rZ rZ + RL
VO =( VR )/( R )
+ VZO 1 1 1
+ rZ + rZ + RL

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Handout 2 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

VO =( VR + )/( R + )
+ VZO 1 1 1
rZ rZ + RL
here R = 500Ω , rZ = 20Ω, V + = 10V , VZ0 = 6.7V , RL = 500Ω
VO =( 500
10
20 ) ( 500
+ 6.7 / 1 + 20 1 1
+ 500 )
VO = 6.5741V
Note that VO = VZ < VZ0
for a zener diode to operate in the breakdown region VZ > VZ0
⟹ the zener diode is cut off (is operating in reverse bias region)
R 500
⟹VO = R+RL L V + = 500+500 V + = 12 V +
1
or VO = 2 V + = 5V

(f) What is the minimum value of RL for which the diode still operates in the
breakdown region?
Solution 4.7f

for the zener diode to be in the breakdown region

IZ > IZK , VZ > VZ0
thus the lower limit of breakdown region operation is
VZ = VZ0 = 6.7V
and IZ = IZK = 0.2mA
KCL ⟹ I = IZ + IL = 0.2m + IL

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Handout 2 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

V + − VO
Ohm's Law⟹ I= 500

KCL ⟹ I = IZ + IL = 0.2m + IL
V + − VO
Ohm's Law⟹ I= 500
As V + = 10 ± 1V and its minimum value is 9V
V + − VO
I= 500
= 0.2m + IL
V + − VO
IL = 500
− 0.2mA
9−6.7
IL = 500 − 0.2mA = 4.4mA
V 6.7
⟹RL = ILL = 4.4m = 1.52kΩ

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