Content

Particulate nature of matter...................................................................................................... 1

- Kinetic theory…..…………………………………………………………………………………2
- Heating and cooling curve………..………………………………………………………….….5
- Diffusion…………………………………………………………………………………….…….8
Atomic structure .................................................................................................................... 10
- Atoms………………………………………………………………………………………..….…11
- Isotopes………………………………………………………………………………………….…14
Elements, compounds and mixtures………………………...……………………………...……..19
- Pure substances……………………………………………………………………….……….20
- Separating technique…………………………………….……………………………….……22
Chemical bonding……………………………………………………………….…………………….33
- Ionic bonding……………………………………………………………………………….…..33
- Covalent bonding………………………………………………………………………………38
- Giant covalent structures…………………………………………………………………..….44
- Metaalic bonding………………………………………………………………………………..47
Stoichiometry……………………………………..……………………………………………………48
- Wring chemical formulae……………………………………………………………….……..48
- Valency table……………………………………………………………………………………50
- Writing equations………………………………………………………………..……………...51
Mole concept…………………………………………………………………………………………...53
- Relative atomic mass…………………………………………………….…………………….53
- Relative molecular mass………………………………………………………………………54
- % by mass……………………………………………………………………………………....54
- Calculating Moles from mass and volume………………………………………………..….56
- Determining empirical formula………………………………………………………………...57
- Determining molecular formula…………………………………………………..…………..58
- % purity and % yield…………………………………………………………………………..59
Electrolysis……………………………………………………………………………………………..60
- Electroplating……………………………………………………………………………………71
- Hydrogen fuel cell………………………………………………………………………………72
-
Chemical energetics………………………………………………………………………………….74
- Energy profile diagram………………………………………………………………………..76
- Calculating enthalpy change……………………………………………………………..…..77
- Fuel………………………………………………………………………………………………79
 -
Rates of reaction………………………………………………………………………………………81
- Rate……………………………………………………………………………………………..81
- Factors affecting rate of reaction…………………………………………………………….82
Reversible reaction and equilibrium……………………………………………………………….90
- Haber process…………………………………………………………………………………..96
- Contact process………………………………………………………………………………..99
Redox reaction…………………………………………………………………………………….....101
- Oxidizing and reducing agents…………………………………………………………..….107
- Test for oxidizing and reducing agents……………………………………..…………..….108
Acids and bases……………………………………………………………………………………...109
- Acids……………………………………………………………………………………………111
- Alkalis…………………………………………………………………………………………..112
- Neutralization………………………………………………………………………………….116
- Indicators…………………………………………………………………………………...….117
- Classification of oxides……………………………………………………………………….120
- Preparation of salts……………………………………………………………….…………..122
- Salt preparation……………………………………………………………………………….124
Periodic Table…………………………………………………………………………………………130
- Halogens……………………………………………………………………………………….139
- Transition metals……………………………………………………………………………...144
- Noble gases……………………………………………………………………………………148
- Metals and alloys……………………………………………………………………………...150
Alkali metals…………………………………………………………………………………...154
Extraction of metals………………………………………………………………………….……...160
- Extraction of Iron………………………………………………………………………………162
- Extraction of Aluminium………………………………………………………………………172
Reactivity Series of metals………………………………………………………………………..175
- Reaction of metals with Acids……………………………..………………………………..176
- Reaction of metals with water………………………..……………………………………..177
- Reaction of metals with Acids……………………………………………………………...178
- Displacement reaction of metals…………………………………………………………..179
-
Chemistry of environment ………………………………………………………………………..181
- Water and water pollution…………………………………………………………………..182
- Air and Air pollution
- Methods of gas collection…………………………………………………………………….188
Organic chemistry……………………………………………………………………………………197
- Alkanes…………………………………………………………………………………………203
- Fuels……………………………………………………………………………………………209
- Alkenes………………………………………………………………………………………...213
- Alcohols………………………………………………………………………………………..221
- Carboxylic Aicds………………………………………………………………………………226
- Organic macromolecules…………………………………………………………………….235
- Polymerization…………………………………………………………………………………236
- Natural macro molecuels…………………………………………………………………… 241
Notes - Particulate Nature of Matter

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

What is matter?

• All substances are matter.

Example: Sea, Earth, air, all living creatures, Sun, stars etc.
• Matter is anything that occupies space and has a mass. Matter exists in
three different forms; solid, liquid and gas. These three
• Properties of three states of matter

Solid

• Fixed shape
• Fixed volume
• High density
• Cannot be compressed

Liquids

• Shape not fixed, but take the shape of the container

• Fixed volume
• Moderate density
• Cannot be compressed

Gas

• Shape not fixed, but take the shape of the

container
• Volume not fixed. It has the same volume as that of
the container
• different forms of matter are called states of matter.
• Low density
•• Highly compressible

1
Notes - Particulate Nature of Matter

The kinetic particle theory of matter

The kinetic particle theory is a model used to explain the properties of matter.

o Matter is made up of tiny particles.

o The particles are always in constant motion.
o The kinetic energy of the particle increases with temperature.
o The higher the temperature, the faster the particles move.
o At a fixed temperature, lighter particles move faster than heavier
particles.

Particulate models of matter

The table below explains the particle models of the three states of matter in relation to
their arrangement and movement.

Properties Solids Liquids Gases

Arrangement of
particles

Loosely packed in a Random and very far

Closely packed in an
disorderly arrangement apart
orderly arrangement
Forces of
attraction
Very strong strong Very weak
between the
particles
Vibrates about a fixed
point; vibrations Move about at great
Movement of Roll and slide past each
increases with speeds in random
particles other
increase in motion
temperature.
More energy than
Energy of Less energy than More energy than
solids but less than
particles liquids solids or liquids
gases

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Notes - Particulate Nature of Matter 4

1.4 Interconversion of matter

Melting
Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid
Requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles
to move
Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point (m.p.)

Boiling
Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas
Requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid,
allowing for liquid particles to escape from the surface and within the liquid
Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point (b.p.)

Freezing
Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid
This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as
melting, hence the melting point and freezing point of a pure substance are the

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 Notes - Particulate Nature of Matter

same. Water, for example, freezes and melts at 0 ºC

Requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and
occurs at a specific temperature
Evaporation
Evaporation occurs when a liquid changes into a gas and occurs over a range of
temperatures
Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can
escape from the liquid's surface at low temperatures, below the b.p. of the liquid
The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid surface, the more quickly a
liquid can evaporate

Condensation
Condensation occurs when a gas changes into a liquid on cooling and it takes
place over a range of temperatures
When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other
they lack the energy to bounce away again, instead they group together to form a
liquid

• With increase in temperature, the particles in gas move faster as they gain kinetic energy, this increases gas
pressure and/or the volume of the container.
• If the volume of a sealed container is kept constant and the gas inside is heated to a higher temperature, the
gas pressure increases.

Determining the physical state of matter at room temperature

The following set of rules can be used to work out the physical state of matter at room
temperature.

o If a substance is a solid, its melting point and boiling point will be higher than
room temperature (25°C).
o If a substance is a liquid, its melting point is lower than room temperature but the
boiling point is higher than room temperature.
o If a substance is a gas, its melting point and boiling point will be lower than room
temperature.

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 Notes - Particulate Nature of Matter

Heating curves and cooling curves

Heating curve of a substance

Temperature °C

LIQUID &
GAS
GAS
Boiling point

SOLID &
LIQUID LIQUID

Melting point

SOLID

Time

• When a solid is heated, the particles gain heat energy and vibrate more.
• At the melting point substance starts to melt, a mixture of solid and liquid is
present.
• At this point the temperature remains constant, because the heat energy
absorbed by the particles is used to overcome the force of attraction holding them
together. Thus a substance turns into a liquid.
• As the temperature increases, kinetic energy of the particles in liquid increases.
Hence rate of evaporation increases with temperature.
• At the boiling point a mixture of liquid and gas is present.
• The temperature remains constant at the boiling point because heat energy
absorbed by the particles is used to weaken the bonds further, so the particles
move further.
• The substance completely turns to a gaseous state.

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Notes - Particulate Nature of Matter

1.7.2 Cooling curve of a substance

Temperature
GAS

Condensation
point
LIQUID LIQUID
& GAS
Freezing
point
SOLID & SOLID
LIQUID

Time
• When a solid is cooled, the particle loses kinetic energy and gas begins to
condense.
• At the condensation point, a mixture of gas and liquid is present.
• At this point the temperature remains constant because the particles would be
continuously losing energy which would slow down the movement and build up the
force of attraction between particles.
• Condensation point is same as the boiling point for a pure substance.
• When a liquid starts to freeze a mixture of liquid and solid is present.
• The temperature remains constant at freezing point because particles would be
continuously releasing energy which would slow down the movement and
strengthen the attractive forces between the particles.
• Therefore the substance turns completely into a solid.
• Freezing point is same as melting point for a pure substance.

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Notes - Particulate Nature of Matter

1.8 Diffusion

• Diffusion is the random movement of

particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
until they spread evenly.
• Diffusion takes place in liquids and gases.
• This process is an indirect way to prove
that matter is made up of particles.
• Diffusion of gas is faster than liquid because
gas particles are very energetic and move with great speeds while the liquid
particles have moderate energy.

1.8.1 Diffusion in liquids

• A small crystal of purple potassium manganate (VII) is dropped into a beaker of

distilled water.
• After two hours, the purple colour spreads through the water to give purple
solution.

Explanation based on kinetic particle theory

• Potassium manganate (VII) is a purple crystal which is made up of ions.

• When crystals dissolve in water ions are separated.
• The ions collide with water molecules and move out randomly in all directions.
• The ions move in between water molecules to produce a uniform purple solution

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Notes - Particulate Nature of Matter

1.8.2 Diffusion in gases

• 1 -2 drops of liquid bromine is dropped into a gas jar.

Volatile liquids;
• Place a gas jar full of air onto a gas jar of bromine liquids that evaporate
• After few hours, the gas jar is filled with a reddish brown vapor extremely quickly at
room temperature
Reddish
brown
vapour
spreads
evenly
throughout
the gas jar

Explanation based on kinetic particle theory

• Liquid bromine is made up of reddish brown molecules of bromine.

• The bromine molecules escape from the liquid in the form of gaseous molecules.
• The molecules move out randomly in all directions.
• The molecules move in between the air particles to produce a uniform reddish
brown vapour.

Page 8
Notes - Particulate Nature of Matter

1.8.3 Factors affecting diffusion

Temperature

• Temperature is directly proportional to diffusion rate. The higher the

temperature, the faster the diffusion.
• At higher temperature, the particles gain more kinetic energy and move with
greater speeds.

Molecular mass

• A piece of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid. The acid

gives off hydrogen chloride gas.
• Another piece of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated ammonia solution. The
solution gives off ammonia gas.
• Put both cotton wools in opposite ends of a dry long glass tube as shown.

White ring of
ammonium
chloride

• A white ring is formed after about five minutes.

• The white ring is located closer to the hydrochloric acid.

Explanation

• Ammonia particles(Mr = 17)are lighter than hydrogen chloride particles (Mr = 36.5)
• Ammonia particles can diffuse faster than hydrogen chloride particles.
• White ring is solid ammonium chloride

Ammonia (g) + hydrogen chloride (g) → ammonium chloride (s)

Page 9
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Objectives
At the end of the topic students should be able to;
• State the relative charges and approximate relative masses of protons, neutrons and electrons
• define proton number (atomic number) as the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
• define nucleon number (mass number) as the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom
• use proton number and thesimple structure of atoms to explain the basis of the Periodic Table (see section
9) with special reference to the elements of proton number 1 to 20
• define isotopes as atoms of the same element which have the same proton number but a different nucleon
number
• understand that isotopes have the same properties because they have the same number of electrons in
their outer shell
• state the two types of isotopes as being radioactive and non-radioactive
• describe the build-up of electrons in ‘shells’ and understand the significance of the noble gas
• electronic structures and of the outer shell electrons (The ideas of the distribution of electrons in s and p
orbitals and in d block elements are not required.)
• describe the formation of ions by electron loss or gain

Definitions:
Atom
The smallest part of an element that can take part in chemical
reaction.
Proton number The number of protons in one atom of an element
(atomic number)
Nucleon number The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in one atom of an
(mass number) element
Atoms of the same element containing the same number of protons
but different number of neutrons, or
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with the same proton number (atomic
number) but different nucleon number(mass number)
The regions at different distances from the nucleus where one or more
Electron shells
electrons are found
Electronic The number and arrangement of electrons in the electron shell s of
structure an atom

Page 10
ATOMS
An atom is the smallest unit of an element, having the properties of that element.

Atoms are made up of smaller particles, called subatomic particles. They are;

protons, which carries a positive charge,

neutrons, which has the same mass as a proton but carries no charge,

and

electrons, which carries a negative charge.

As the neutron has no charge, it is said to be neutral. The electron is much smaller and

lighter than the proton and neutron.

The atom has a small centre or nucleus. The nucleus consists of protons and

neutrons, together called nucleons. The nucleus has a positive charge because of

the protons.

Surrounding the nucleus is a ‘cloud’ of electrons. The electrons are arranged in

energy levels or shells around the nucleus.

particle relative mass Charge location in the atom

proton (p) 1 +1 in the nucleus
neutron (n) 1 0 in the nucleus
1 arranged in energy levels or
electron (e) −1
1840 shells around the nucleus

Almost all the mass of an atom is contained in its nucleus because the electrons have
a very tiny mass compared to the protons and neutrons.

Page 11
 In normal atoms, the number of protons (positively charged particles) is equal to the
number of electrons (negatively charged particles). Therefore, the overall atom is
neutral.
Atomic Number
Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is also known as
the proton number of the particular element.

Atomic number = number of protons

Each element has its own atoms and symbol and a fixed number of protons.
As the proton number for each element is fixed, it can be used to identify atoms of
different elements.
For example hydrogen has one proton. So its atomic number is 1. The atomic number
of carbon is 6, meaning that an atom of carbon has 6 protons.

Mass number
Mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in
one atom of an element.

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Mass of an atom includes mass of protons and neutrons present in that particular atom.
As protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom it is also known as
nucleon number.
Electrons are too small to affect the mass of an atom.
Structure of Atom in Symbol Form
The structure of an atom can be shown in symbol form as

Nucleon number

X
A
(mass number) Symbol of the element

Proton number Z
(atomic number)

Page 12
Example 1: the atomic number of calcium is 20 and mass number is 40. The structure of a
calcium atom can be represented as
Mass number 40

Atomic number Ca
20
Symbol of calcium

Example 2: The structure of a sodium atom can be represented as

Mass number 23

Atomic number 11
Na Symbol of sodium

From the atomic number and the mass number, we can work out the number of
protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom of sodium.

Number of protons = atomic number = 11

Number of neutrons = mass number − number of protons = 23 − 11 = 12
Number of electrons = number of protons = 11

Example 3: An atom of fluorine contains 9 protons, 9 electrons and 10 neutrons.

The atomic number of fluorine = number of protons = 9
The mass number of fluorine = number of protons + number of neutrons
= 9 + 10 = 19
The structure of a fluorine atom can be written in symbol form as
Mass number 19

Atomic number 9
F Symbol of fluorine

Atomic number = number of protons

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Page 13
ISOTOPES
All the atoms of the same element contain the same number of protons (atomic number).
However, different atoms of the same element can contain different number of neutrons.
Atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons are called isotopes.

Example 1: hydrogen has three isotopes.

_ _ _
+ + proton
+ + neutron
_ electron

1 2 3
1H 1H 1H
Number of protons 1 1 1
Number of neutrons 0 1 2
Number of electrons 1 1 1

Each of the three atoms has 1 proton, which shows that they are all atoms of hydrogen.
They have different number of neutrons; hence their mass numbers are different.
Example 2: chlorine consists of two isotopes. Chlorine-35, 35 37
17Cl and chlorine-37, 17Cl.
35
17Cl has 17 protons, 17 electrons and 18 neutrons.
37
17Cl has 17 protons, 17 electrons and 20 neutrons.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element having same proton number but
different neutron number.

Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties and form compounds with
the same formula. However, there are some small differences in their physical properties.
For example, the three isotopes of hydrogen have slightly different masses and boiling
points.

Page 14
 A few more examples of isotopes of different elements:
Chlorine-35 Chlorine-37
35 37

17 Cl 17
Cl
17 Proton 17 Proton
18 Neutron 20 Neutron
17 Electron 17 Electron
Carbon-12 Carbon-13 Carbon-14
12 13 14

6C 6 C 6C
6 Proton 6 Proton 6 Proton
6 Neutron 7 Neutron 8 Neutron
6 Electron 6 Electron 6 Electron

Radioactive Isotopes
All elements have one or more radioactive isotopes. Radioactive isotopes have unstable
nuclei which break up and emit radiation.
Isotopes with unstable nuclei which break up or disintegrate to give off one or more
types of radiation are known as radioactive isotopes.

Radioactive isotopes can emit:

alpha particles beta particles gamma rays
Examples of radioactive isotopes are: Hydrogen–3 (tritium), carbon-14 and uranium-235.

Uses of Radioactive Isotopes

Cobalt – 60 is used in the treatment of cancer.
Iodine-131 is used in the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorder.
Uranium-235 is used in power plants.
In industry, Na-24 is used to detect the leakage in oil pipes.
C-14 is used to detect the age of fossils
Electron arrangement in atoms
Electrons in an atom are arranged in shells or energy levels around the nucleus of an
atom.
This arrangement of electrons around the nucleus of an atom is called electronic
configuration.

Page 15
 Each shell is numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on, going outwards from the nucleus. Each
shell can hold a certain maximum number of electrons.
For the first 20 elements, the maximum number of electrons that can go into;
• the first shell (lowest energy level) is 2,
• the second shell is 8
• and the third shell is also 8.
The rest of the electrons go into the 4th shell.

*Note: For elements after calcium (atomic number 20), their third shell can hold up to 18
electrons.
The shell which is furthest away from the nucleus is called the outer most shell and
the electrons in this shell are referred to as the outermost electrons.

+ 1
2
3
4

2 electrons

8 electrons

8 electrons

Maximum number of
electrons in each shell
for the first 20
elements

Example 1

Page 16
 Calcium has atomic number 20. Therefore the total number of electrons in an atom
of calcium will be 20. 2 electrons will occupy the first shell. Out of the remaining 18
electrons 8 electrons will occupy the second shell and another 8 electrons will fill up
the third shell. The remaining 2 electrons will occupy the fourth shell.
Electronic configuration for calcium atom can be written as: 2, 8, 8, 2
electrons in the 1st shell

electrons in the 2nd shell

electrons in the 3rd shell

electrons in the 4th and outermost shell

The outermost shell of calcium contains 2 electrons; therefore atoms of calcium have
2 outermost electrons or valence electrons.
Example 2
Carbon has an atomic number of 6 which means that the number of electrons in a
carbon atom is also 6. Therefore 2 electrons will occupy the first shell and the
remaining 4 electrons would occupy the second shell.
The electronic configuration for carbon is 2, 4.

Figure below shows diagrammatic representations of electronic configuration for carbon

and calcium atoms:

Ca
C

Electronic structure of carbon Electronic structure of calcium

Page 17
Often only the outer electrons in the electronic structure are drawn. This is called the
outer electronic structure. For example, the outer electronic structure of calcium can be
shown as;

Ca

The outer electrons (or valence electrons) are the important electrons involved in
chemical reactions. These electrons are used to form bonds between atoms.
Atoms with completely filled outermost shells are the most stable. They are inert
(very unreactive) and do not take part in any chemical reactions.
For example, noble gases are inert since they have a full outermost shell of electrons.
Electronic configurations for some noble gases are given below:
Element Atomic number Electronic configuration
Helium 2 2
Neon 10 2, 8
Argon 18 2, 8, 8

Ar
Ne
He

Page 18
 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Matter

Pure substances Mixtures

Elements Compounds

3.1 Definitions
Atom: is the smallest particle of an element that can exist or take part in a chemical change.
Molecules: when two or more atoms which are joined by a chemical bond.
All elements are made up of atoms. In some gaseous elements (e.g. argon) single atoms move
around freely.
But in other gaseous elements, single atoms cannot exist on their own at ordinary
temperatures: in these elements the free-moving particles consist of pairs of atoms.

Diatomic Molecules consisting two atoms forming a pair which are joined together by a
chemical "bond". Examples ; hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2) and nitrogen N2).

Page 1 9
Pure substances
A substance is said to be pure if it is made up of one basic substance. A pure substance would be
chemically identical and have same chemical composition. It can be either an element or a
compound.
Example:

Sodium Sodium chloride Neon Carbon dioxide

Elements
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
methods. Elements are made up of one basic type of atoms.
Example: Chlorine, Sodium, aluminium, neon.

Compounds

A compound is a substance containing two or more elements chemically combined together in a

fixed proportion.
Example:

o Water (H2O) is made up of two elements hydrogen and oxygen.

o Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is made up of three elements – calcium, carbon and
oxygen. Chalk is one form of calcium carbonate.
o Sugar (C12H22O11) is made up of three elements – carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Mixtures
Mixtures consist of two or more pure substances physically mixed together. The components of a
mixture are not chemically joined together. Mixtures can consist of elements, compounds or both.
Also, the substances in a mixture may be solids, liquids or gases.
Example: Brass, a solid, is a mixture of elements copper and zinc.

Sea water is a mixture of compounds including water and sodium chloride and other salts.

Air is a mixture of gases. It contains nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Nitrogen, oxygen and argon are elements while carbon dioxide and water vapour are compounds.

Page 20
The percentage of each element or compound in a mixture is not always the
same. For example a gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen can contain any
amount of each element. In brass, the percentage of zinc in most brass samples
varies between 10% and 60%.

Types of Mixtures
Solid/ solid mixture Iron and sulphur
Solid/ liquid mixture Sand and water
Liquid/ liquid mixture Crude oil, juice
Liquid/ gas mixture Fizzy drinks
Gas/ gas mixture Air

Distinguishing a Mixture from a Pure Substance

A good way of distinguishing a mixture from a pure substance (element or compound) is by its
melting and boiling points. For example pure water (a pure compound) always boils at 100C and
melts at 0C. Mixtures are impure substances and do not have fixed boiling and melting points. For
example butter (a mixture of compounds) melts over the range of 30C to 50C. Similarly, the
kerosene fuel used for je aircraft is a mixture and boils over the range 170C to 250C.

3.2 Differences between Mixtures and Compounds

Compounds Mixtures
Consists of a single substance Contains two or more pure substances
Has a fixed composition Has a variable composition
Has its own physical and chemical properties Does not usually have its own properties; it
which are different from its elements retains the properties of its components
Has fixed melting and boiling points Melts and boils over a range of temperature
Cannot be separated into its elements by Can be easily separated into its components by
physical means; a chemical reaction is needed to physical means without a chemical reaction
separate the elements

page 21
3.3 Seperation techniques
❖ In nature very few substances occur in their pure forms. Most substances are impure and are
in the form of mixtures. Mixtures can be easily separated into pure substances using physical
methods (without involving chemical reactions). This process is called purification. Different
separating techniques can be used to obtain the useful substances from mixtures such as
distillation, evaporation, crystallization, fractional distillation, chromatography, use of
separating funnel, use of magnet. etc.
❖ The right technique to separate the mixture depends on two factors;
1. The nature of the substances in the mixture, e.g.: the physical states, melting and boiling
point, volatility, miscibility.etc
2. Which substance needs to be obtained from the mixture , e.g. To separate salt or water
from a salt solution

a) Filtration
Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.
Example: Separating sand and water from a mixture of sand and water.

Mixture of
Filter paper sand and water

Residue (sand) Filter funnel

Filtrate (water)

Procedure:
• Place the folded filter paper inside the funnel and set the apparatus as shown.
• Pour the mixture carefully through the funnel.
• Sand gets trapped in the filter as the residue.
• Water passes through the filter paper as the filtrate.
• Other examples:
• A mixture of glass and water can be separated using filtration. Glass will be collected in the
filter paper as the residue and the water will be collected in the flask as the filtrate.

Page 22
 • In some reactions a solid substance (called a precipitate) is formed when two solutions are
mixed. This precipitate can be removed from the mixture using filtration. For example, when
aqueous barium nitrate is reacted with dilute sulphuric acid, barium sulphate is precipitated
out. Filtration can be used to separate barium sulphate from the mixture.

b) Evaporation

Used to separate a soluble solid (solute) from a solution

Example: Separating salt from seawater.

STEP 1 STEP 2

Water evaporating

Evaporating dish Water bath

Sea water

bunsen burner

Procedure:
• Initially heat seawater under direct flame, as shown in step 1.
• Water would evaporate leaving salt behind.
• Final heating is carried out as shown in step 2 using a water bath (this is to avoid loss of salt by
spitting).
Other examples:
This method is used to obtain many salts from their solution. Other examples include sodium
sulphate, sodium nitrate and magnesium chloride.
Application:
This method is used to obtain salt from seawater in large scales in many parts of the world.
Disadvantage:
If there are any impurities dissolved in the solution, evaporating out all the solvent would produce
solid with impurities present in them.

Page 23
c) Crystallisation

Used to obtain a pure solute from solution

Example: Obtaining copper(II) sulphate crystals from copper(II) sulphate solution.

Copper (II) sulfate

Solution Glass rod

White tile

Step 1 Step 2

Copper (II) sulfate

crystals

Copper (II) sulfate

crystals

Copper (II) sulfate

Solution
Step 4 Step 3

Step 5

Procedure:
• The solution is evaporated to crystallisation point (the point at which crystals of the solute will
form on cooling the solution to room temperature).
• Crystallisation point is identified by removing drops of solution at intervals to a white tile or
microscope slide using a glass rod.

Page 24
 • The formation of crystals in one of these drops tells you that the solution has reached
crystallisation point.
• This solution is known as a saturated solution (a saturated solution is one in which no more
solute would dissolve in the amount of solvent used)
• The solution is then allowed to cool and crystallise.
• Once crystals form, they are filtered (this is to remove the soluble impurities) before drying
with filter paper.

NOTE:
o If crystals are dried by direct heating a powder will be obtained instead of crystals.
o If a water bath (or steam bath) is used, many small crystals will be obtained.
o If the solution is allowed to dry out on its own, few large crystals would be obtained.

powder many small crystals few large crystals

Crystallisation from a solution is the most common method used by chemists to purify solids. Pure
sugar is obtained this way. Other salts that can be obtained by this method include cobalt(II)
chloride, zinc nitrate and copper(II) nitrate.

Note: salt (sodium chloride) is unusual in that the water must be completely evaporated from the
solution to obtain the crystals of salt.

In crystallisation, any impurities that are dissolved in the solution will remain in the solution. So the
solid obtained will be free from impurities, unlike the evaporation method.

Page 25
d) Distillation
Used to separate a pure solvent out of a solution
Example: Separating pure water from salt water

Procedure:
• The apparatus is setup as shown in the diagram above.
• The solution is heated in the flask and allowed to boil.
• Steam rises in to the condenser.
• When steam reaches the cold condenser, it cools and forms pure liquid water and this pure
water drips in to the receiver as the distillate.
• Salt is left behind in the flask.
Application:
In countries with few rivers or lakes to provide an adequate source of water, pure water is obtained
from seawater. This is called desalination. The distillation of seawater is one way of obtaining pure
water.

IMPORTANT!
❖ Always discard the first few drops of the distillate collected. This is done to make sure that no
impurities are present in the distillate
❖ Make sure that the condenser is tilted downwards to prevent any backflow of the liquid.
❖ The bulb of the thermometer should be placed in level with the opening of the condenser. This
is done to accurately measure the temperature of the vapor that enters the condenser.
❖ Condenser is used to change the vapour back into liquid.
❖ Never heat a closed system as an increase in pressure may lead to breakage of glass.
❖ Use a water bath to heat if a flammable liquid is present in the mixture.

Page 26
e) Fractional distillation

Used to separate two or more miscible liquids with different boiling points
Miscible liquids are liquids that mix completely with each other.
Example: Separating water (boiling point: 100°C) and ethanol (boiling point: 78°C)

thermometer

condenser
fractionating
column
outlet

flask cold water out

receiver
mixture of cold water in
ethanol and
water ethanol
(distillate)
bunsen burner

Procedure:
• The apparatus is setup as shown in the diagram
• As the mixture is heated both ethanol and water vaporises and the vapour rises to the
fractionating column and condenses back many times as the temperature continues to
increase.
• The liquid with the lower boiling point (more volatile) will vaporise more readily (in this case
ethanol).
• When the temperature reaches the boiling point of ethanol (78°C), ethanol starts to boil and
all of the ethanol would change to vapour.
• The vapour will rise through the fractionating column.
• The fractionating column allows the separation of one liquid at a time. A typical fractionating
column contains glass beads to increase the surface area for condensation.

Page 27
 • When the ethanol vapour enters the condenser the vapour is converted back to liquid ethanol
and collected as the distillate.
• As the temperature is below the boiling point of water (100°C) water vapour only travels as far
as the fractionating column where it is condensed back.
• The temperature stays constant at 78°C until all ethanol has been distilled.
• When all the ethanol has distilled the temperature starts to rise again. When the temperature
reaches 100C water starts to boil and can be collected in a different container.

temperature
100

water distills
78

ethanol distills

time

Application:
▪ To separate pure oxygen and pure nitrogen from liquid air.
▪ Separation of crude oil in to petrol, paraffin, etc.
▪ To produce alcoholic drinks.

IMPORTANT
In both simple distillation and fractional distillation;
• The thermometer has to be placed such that the bulb of the thermometer is level with the entrance
to the condenser (in order to measure boiling points accurately).
• If the mixture used is flammable, a water bath should be used to heat the mixture.
• Fractionating column allow the separation of one liquid at a time.
• fractionating column contains glass beads to increase the surface area for condensation.
• The receiver that collects the distillate should not be fixed to the apparatus OR if fixed should have
an outlet. This is to prevent pressure build up inside the receiver. Pressure build up may send the
vapour into the heated mixture instead of being liquefied and collected.
• The condenser is placed in such a way that the ‘water in’ is at the bottom and at the end furthest
from the reaction mixture (close to the receiver) to ensure the condensation of any uncondensed
vapour left near the outlet at the distillate collector.
• Anti-bumping granules can be added to the solution in order to prevent frothing up of the mixture.

page 28
f) Separating funnel

Used to separate two immiscible liquids

Immiscible liquids do not mix with each other but form layers.
Example: Separating water and oil

stopper
oil (less
dense liquid)
separating
oil
funnel oil
water (denser
liquid) tap

water water

STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3

Procedure:
• The mixture is added to a separating flask and allowed to stand.
• The oil and water form two separate layers, with the less dense liquid (oil) being on top.
• The stopper is removed and tap slowly opened.
• The bottom layer is carefully run off and collected in a container placed under the tap.
• The tap is quickly closed as all the water leaves the separating funnel.
• The top layer (oil) remains and can be collected in a separate container.
Other examples:
▪ A mixture of paraffin and water
▪ A mixture of petrol and water
g) Sublimation
Used to separate a mixture of two solids where one solid sublimes when heated
Example: Separating iodine and sand.

Page 29
 evaporating dish cold water

violet iodine vapour crystals of iodine

mixture of iodine
and sand

heat gently

Procedure:
• The apparatus is set up as shown above
• The mixture is gently heated; iodine turns straight to vapour and rises up.
• The vapour changes back to solid directly on the cold surface.
• The sand is not affected by the heat and remains in the beaker.

Other substances that sublime include solid carbon dioxide (‘dry ice’) and ammonium chloride. As
only a few solids sublime, this method of separation has limited application.

h) Using a magnet

Used to separate a mixture of two solids where one solid is magnetic (can be attracted by a
magnet)
Example: Separating iron filings and sulphur powder.

mixture of powdered
sulphur and iron filings
magnet

iron filings

sulphur

Procedure:
• A strong magnet is brought near the mixture
• All the iron filings will be attracted to the magnet while the sulphur will remain.

Page 30
i) Chromatography
Used to separate a mixture of substances which are usually coloured
Simplest method of chromatography is called paper chromatography and is mainly used to identify
substances and to find the purity of a substance. It was originally used to separate mixtures of
coloured substances (hence its name). Today both coloured and colourless mixtures are separated.
A big advantage of paper chromatography is that it can be used with just very small amounts of
mixtures.
Example: Separating the colours in ink

solvent front
filter paper
spot of
coloured separated colours
dye

solvent

Procedure:
• A pencil line is drawn near one end of the filter paper or chromatography paper strip.
• A drop of ink is placed on the pencil line, allowed to dry and another ink drop is placed on the
same spot to make a concentrated drop.
• The paper is carefully placed in the beaker of solvent taking care not to submerge the drop in
the solvent.
• Solvent moves up the paper taking the different components along with it at different rates
• When the solvent is almost at the top end of the paper, remove the strip and carefully draw a
line in order to identify the ‘solvent front’. That is the distance moved by the solvent.
• The paper would show the different components or colours of ink separated out at different
positions. The result is called a chromatogram.
Rf Value:
• In chromatography, a value known as the Rf values are often used for identification purposes.
• The Rf value is a measure of the solubility of the substance in the solvent used. And it varies
from substance to substance.
• It is calculated using the following formula;

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

R𝑓 =
Example: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Page 31
 5
Y 2
distance moved
R𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 = = 0.4
4 5
by solvent
(solvent front)
3
4.5
2
R𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑌 = = 0.9
X distance moved 5
distance moved by Y
by X
1

start line 0

Application:
Chromatography has a variety of uses. Some examples include;
• Separating and identifying mixtures of coloured substances found in food in food and in dyes.
• Separating substances in drugs, urine and blood.
• Testing urine from athletes for the presence of banned drugs.

IMPORTANT
• Start line should be drawn using a pencil instead of a pen. Pencil lead doesn’t have any soluble
dyes whereas pen Ink contains different soluble dyes which could separate with the sample and
hence make the result inaccurate.
• At the end of the experiment, the solvent front should be near the top end of the paper to ensure
complete separation of the components.
• The initial spot of the sample (or dye) should be small and concentrated, as large drops produce
poor separations where spots spread sideway or overlaps.
• In cases where invisible components are to be separated, a locating agent is used. The locating
agent is sprayed on the finished chromatography strip and allowed to dry. The locating agent is
known to bind on to the invisible component to produce a coloured compound. This makes the
separated spots visible.

Page 32
 Chemical bonding
When elements react they form compounds. They react to attain a stable electronic configuration
as the noble gases. There are two main ways of forming bonds between atoms
1. Ionic bonding
2. Covalent bonding

Ionic bonding
• Ionic bonding is found in compounds that contain metals and non-metals.
• Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of electrons from the outer shell of a metal to non
metal.
• When metals transfer electrons, they form positively charged cations and when non metals
gain electrons they form negatively charged anions.
• These oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force of
attraction which results in the formation of an ionic bond.

Ions are charged particles. They are charged because they contain
unequal number of protons and electrons.

Features of ionic bonding

• Metal atoms always lose their outermost electrons to form cations(positive ions).
• The number of positive charges on a metal ion is equal to the number of electrons lost.
• Non-metal atoms (with the exception of hydrogen), always gain electrons to form anions
(negative ions).
• The number of negative charges on a non-metal ion is equal to the number of
electronsgained.
• Ionic bonds result from the attraction between the oppositely charged ions.
Key; Sodium Chlorine
Dot and Cross Diagram To Show Ionic Bonding
(In all the diagrams electrons from the metal are shown as a ‘•’ and the
electrons from non-metal shown as an ‘x’ but remember that all electrons are
exactly the same.)

Page 33
Formation of Sodium Chloride
The electrons in the outer most shell are used when bonds are formed.

Sodium has one electron in the outer most shell, while chlorine has seven
electrons in the outermost shell. Sodium needs to lose one electron to become
stable and chlorine needs to gain one electron to become stable.

When these two elements react, the electron from the outer most shell of
sodium is transferred to the outer most shell of chlorine. Sodium ion (Na+) and
chloride ion (Cl−) are formed. In this way both the atom obtain filled outer shells
and become stable by achieving the electronic configuration of the nearest noble
gas.
These two ions form the ionic compound sodium chloride (NaCl).

Key; Sodium Chlorine

Na Cl Na Cl

Na, 2, 8, 1 Cl, 2, 8, 7 Na , 2, 8 Cl , 2, 8, 8

Formation of ionic bond showing all electrons

Na Cl Na Cl

Na, 2, 8, 1 Cl, 2, 8, 7 Na , 2, 8 Cl , 2, 8, 8

Formation of ionic bond showing outer most electrons only

Magnesium chloride

Page 34
Magnesium has two electrons in its outermost shell. Chlorine has seven
electrons in its outermost shell. To obtain stable electronic configuration a
magnesium atom must lose two electrons and a chlorine atom must gain one
electron. Therefore when magnesium reacts with chlorine, each magnesium
atom reacts with two chlorine atoms. A magnesium ion (Mg2+) and two chloride
ions (Cl−) are formed. These ions form the compound magnesium chloride
(MgCl2).

Cl
2

Mg 2 Cl
Mg

Mg,2+,2,8
Cl Cl , 2, 8, 8

Mg, 2. 8. 2 Cl, 2, 8, 7

Calcium Oxide
Calcium has two electrons in its outermost shell. Oxygen has six electrons in its
outer most shell. When the two elements react calcium loses the two electrons
in the outer most shell to oxygen. Calcium ion (Ca2+) and oxide ion (O2−) are
formed which have obtained the stable electronic configuration of the nearest
noble gas. These two ions form the compound calcium oxide (CaO).

2
2
Ca O

Page 35
Lithium Oxide
Lithium has one electron in its outermost shell. Oxygen has six electrons in its
outermost shell. To obtain stable electronic configuration lithium must lose one
electron and oxygen must gain two electrons. Therefore when lithium reacts
with oxygen, two lithium atoms reacts for every oxygen atom. Two lithium ions
(Li+) and an oxide ion (O2−) are formed. They form the compound lithium oxide
(Li2O).

2 Li O

Aluminium fluoride
Aluminium has three electrons in the outermost shell. Fluorine has seven
electrons in its outermost shell. To obtain stable electronic configuration
aluminium must lose three electrons and fluorine must gain one electron.
Therefore when aluminium reacts with fluorine, each aluminium atom reacts
with three fluorine atoms. An aluminium ion (Al3+) and three fluoride ions (F−)
are formed which have obtained the stable electronic configuration of the
nearest noble gas. These ions form the compound aluminium fluoride (AlF3).

3
Al 3 F

Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium has three electrons in its outermost shell. Oxygen has six electrons
in its outermost shell. To obtain the stable electronic configuration aluminium
must lose three electrons in its outer most shell and oxygen must gain two
electrons. Therefore when aluminium reacts with oxygen, two aluminium atoms

Page 36
react with three oxygen atoms. Two aluminium ions (Al3+) and three oxide ions
(O2−) are formed. They form the compound aluminium oxide (Al2O3).

3
2 Al 3 OF

Ionic lattice
• The alternative positive and negative ions in an ionic compound are arranged in a regular
arrangement in a giant lattice.
• The anions are larger than cations and the ions are packed together in a crystal.
• The oppositely charged ions are held together in fixed positions by the strong electrostatic
force of attraction between them.
• The strong bonding makes the structure hard and has high melting and causes it to have a
high melting and boiling point.
• The bigger the charges on the ions, the stronger the electrostatic force of attraction. Eg:
Magnesium oxide has a higher melting point than Sodium chloride because the charges on
Mg2+ and O2- ions are higher than the charges on Na+ ions and Cl- ions.

Properties of ionic bonding

• Ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature.

• They are hard but brittle, when stressed the bonds are broken along the plane of ions.
• Generally ionic compounds are soluble in water.

Page 37
 • In solid state the ionic compounds do not conduct electricity because the ions are not free to
move, to carry an electric current. However in the molten (melted) state or aqueous
(dissolved in water) state, ionic compounds conduct electricity as they have free mobile ions.

Covalent bonding
• Covalent bonding is found in betweennon-metalsonly.
• Covalent bonds are formed bysharing of electronsin the outermost shell.

Single Covalent Bond – Two Atoms Share One Pair of Electrons

Chlorine molecule (Cl2)

Cl Cl Cl Cl

There are two chlorine atoms in a chlorine molecule. A chlorine atom needs one
electron to obtain a filled outer shell. By sharing one electron with another
chlorine atom, both atoms will gain a stable electronic configuration. Each
chlorine atom contributes one electron to the shared pair, therefore two chlorine
atoms bond covalently by a single bond.

Methane (CH4)

Page 38
 H
H

H C H
H C H

Methane is formed by one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Carbon atom
has four electrons in its outer most shell. It needs four more electrons to
completely fill its outer most shell. Hydrogen requires one electron to attain the
stable electronic configuration of helium (2 electrons in the outer most shell).
Therefore carbon atom shares electrons with four hydrogen atoms, forming
single covalent bonds with each hydrogen atom. Hence both hydrogen and
carbon atom obtain stable electronic configuration.

Ammonia (NH3)

H N H N H

H
H

Ammonia contains one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms. Nitrogen atom
has five electrons in its outer most shell. It needs three more electrons to
completely fill its outer most shell. Hydrogen needs one electron to gain a filled
outer shell. Therefore nitrogen atom shares electrons with three hydrogen
atoms, forming single covalent bonds with each hydrogen atom. Hence both
hydrogen and nitrogen atom obtain stable electronic configuration.

Page 39
Water (H2O)

O O
H H H H

Water contains one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Oxygen atom has
six electrons in its outer most shell. It needs two more electrons to completely
fill its outer most shell. Therefore oxygen atom shares two electrons with two
hydrogen atoms, forming single covalent bonds with each hydrogen atom.
Hence both hydrogen and oxygen obtain stable electronic configuration.

Double Bond – Two Atoms Share Two Pairs of Electrons

Oxygen (O2)

O O O O

Oxygen molecule contains two oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom has six
electrons in its outer most shell. Each oxygen atom needs two more electrons to
obtain a stable electronic configuration. Therefore each oxygen atoms shares
two electrons forming a double bond.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

O C O O C O

Page 40
Carbon dioxide contains one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Carbon atom
has four electrons in its outer most shell and it needs four more electrons to
obtain the full outer most shell. Oxygen atom has six electrons in its outer most
shell and it needs two more electrons to obtain full outer most shell. Therefore
carbon atom shares two electrons with each oxygen atom forming two double
bonds.

Triple Bond – Two Atoms Share Three Pairs of Electrons

Nitrogen (N2)

N N N N

Nitrogen molecule contains two nitrogen atoms. Each nitrogen atom has five
electrons in its outer most shell. Each nitrogen atom needs three more electrons
to obtain a full outer most shell. Therefore each nitrogen atoms shares three
electrons forming a triple bond.

Simple molecular structures

• Simple molecular structures are formed from only few atoms.
• They have strong covalent bonds between the atoms, within a molecule. These bonds are
called intramolecular bonds.
• But they have weak bonds between the molecules. These bonds are called intermolecular
bonds.

Covalent bond
(Intramolecular bond)

Intermolecular bond

Page 41
Properties of covalent substances

• They are often liquid or gases at room temperature. These substances are made up of simple
molecules.
• They have low melting and boiling points. Due to weak intermolecular force ( the force of
attraction between the molecules). Less energy is required to move molecules further apart.
• They are usually insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
• They do NOT conduct electricity. Because they do not have charge particles to carry the
current.

Page 42
IONIC COMPOUNDS COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Property Reason Property Reason

They are crystalline solids • There is a regular They are often liquids or • These substances
at room temperature. arrangement of gases at room are made up of
ions in a lattice. temperature. simple molecules.
• Ions of the opposite • The atoms are
charge are next to joined together by
each other held by covalent bonds.
strong electrostatic
force of attraction.

They have high melting • Ions are attracted They have low melting • The forces between
and boiling points. to each other by and boiling points. the molecules are
strong electrostatic very weak.
forces of attraction Weak intermolecular bonds (Intermolecular
• Large amounts of forces are weak).
energy are needed • Less energy is
to separate them. needed to move
molecules farther
apart.

They are often soluble in • Water molecule can They are usually NOT • Covalent molecular
water. attract the charged soluble in water. Very substances dissolve
ions and dissolve few are soluble in water. in organic solvents.
the solid so that the
ions from the
compound can
move about in it.

They conduct electricity • In molten or They do NOT conduct • There are no free
when molten or dissolved aqueous state, the electricity. mobile ions present
in water but NOT when ions are free to to carry the current.
they are in solid state. move towards the
electrodes when a
voltage is applied.

Page 43
Giant covalent structures
• Giant covalent structure consists of very large number of atoms joined together by covalent
bonds forming a net work of structure. Eg: diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide.
• Both diamond and graphite is made up of carbon atoms. Carbon occurs naturally in more than
one crystalline form. These forms are called allotropes.
• Allotropes are different physical forms of the same element in the same physical state. Eg;
diamond and graphite.

Diamond
• In diamond each carbon atom uses four electrons in the outer shell (all the valence electrons),
to form a strong covalent bonds with four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement.

Properties
• Very hard- due to the strong covalent bonds that connect all the carbon atoms together
within its structure.
• Have a very high melting point due to strong covalent bonds through out the structure.
• Electrical insulator – because there are no mobile electrons to carry the charge.

Uses
Since it is very hard, it is used to
• Cut glass and as a drilling equipment.
• It is also used to make jewellery.

Page 44
Graphite
• Graphite is also made from carbon. However the structure of graphite is very different from
that that of diamond.
• In graphite, carbon atoms form flat hexagonal layers.
• Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds. There is
one free electron for each carbon atom, which is not used for bonding.
• The layers of graphite are held together by weak forces called Vander Waal’s force. This weak
force allows the layers of graphite to slide over each other.

Properties
• Conducts electricity- as the mobile electrons (delocalised electrons) can move between the
layers carrying an electrical charge.
• Soft and slippery as the weak forces between the layers of graphite allows the layers to slide
over each other.
• Have a high melting and boiling point– The atoms within the layers are held together by
strong covalent bonds.

Uses
• As a lubricant- due to weak forces held by the layers, the layers of graphite slide over
• In pencil lead- the layers of graphite shear off and mark the paper
• As electrodes in batteries

Differences between diamond and graphite

Page 45
Diamond Graphite

One of the hardest mineral Very soft

Good insulator Good conductor of electricity

Abrasive Good lubricant

Transparent Opaque

*Scientists have recently discovered another form of carbon. This form of carbon, called
buckminsterfullerene, does not have a giant structure. It is a football shaped molecule
made up of 60 carbon atoms.

Page 46
Metallic bonding
• In a metal atoms are packed together in a regular structure called a lattice.
• The electrons in the highest energy level of a metal (the valence electrons) are relatively easily
removed, with the formation of metal cations.
• The valence electrons are no longer located in a outer shell of one particular metal atom but
are attracted by a number of the surrounding positively charged nuclei. These delocalised
electrons are free to move throughout the metal lattice.

• Metallic bond is defined as the electrostatic force of attraction between the regular
arrangement of positively charged metal ions and the mobile sea of electrons.

Properties of metallic bonding

Metal are
• Good conductors of electricity- as they have free mobile electrons to move throughout the
metal structure.
• Have a high melting and boiling point- as high temperature is needed to provide enough
energy to pull an atom away from the attractive forces of the positive cations and the
delocalised electrons.
• Malleable (can be hammered into flat sheets)and ductile(can be drawn into wires) –This is
because the charges on the ions and electrons holding the structure together allows the ions
to slide over each other without breaking the bond.
• Hard- because of the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the metal ions and the
delocalized electrons holding the metallic lattice together.
• Shiny appearance- This is because when light falls on metal, the electrons are excited
(Jumping into a higher energy level). As electrons return to lower energy level, light is emitted,
which makes the metals shine.

Page 47
 Stoichiometry
Objectives
At the end of the topic students should be able to;
 Determine the formula of an ionic compound from the charges on the ions present
 Use the symbols of the elements and write the formulae of simple compounds
 Deduce the formula of a simple compound from the relative numbers of atoms present.
 Deduce the formula of a simple compound from a model or a diagrammatic representation
 Construct word equations and simple balanced chemical equations

Writing Chemical Formula and Naming compounds

A chemical formula is shorthand way to represent compounds using symbols.
Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are made up of positive (metal) ions and negative (non-metal) ions.
In an ionic compound;
 Total number of positive charges must equal total number of negative charges. (The
total sum of charges in an ionic compound must equal to zero)
 Positive ion should be written first, followed by the negative ion
 The name of the non-metallic element ends in –ide
eg : Calcium Chloride
Valency : Is the number of electrons gained, lost or shared during bond formation.

Steps to write the formula of ionic compounds:

1. Write down the correct chemical symbols of each element (metal first)
2. Write the valency (oxidation states) of each element as superscripts above the respective
chemical symbol.
+3 -2

eg: Al O
3. To obtain the proper subscript, interchange their valencies by dropping their algebraic sign.
eg: Al O becomes Al2O3
+3 -2
3 2
Note : If the subscript is 1, it is not written eg : Na1Cl1 becomes NaCl

Page 48
 4. When the oxidation numbers of both elements are numerically equal but greater than 1, it

should be simplified(reduced)

eg: Calcium oxide - Ca2O2 becomes CaO

5. If a poly atomic ion(compound ion) is treated as a unit. ie, never change the subscripts of

the atoms within the ion and keep the polyatomic ion in brackets.

eg : Magnesium phosphate – Mg3 (PO4)2

Ammonium sulfate-- (NH4)2SO4

Example 1 Potassium bromide Example 2 Aluminium fluoride

Formula of ions K+ Br- Formula of ions Al3+ F-

Valency 1 1
Formula of compound KBr Valency 3 1
Formula of compound Al1F3 = AlF3

Example 3 Sodium phosphate

Formula of ions Na+ PO43-

Valency 1 3
Formula of compound Na3PO4

 Where compound ions are concerned, brackets are used.

Example 1 Magnesium phosphate

Formula of ions Mg2+ PO43-
Valency 2 3
Formula of compound Mg3(PO4)2
Here the bracket shows that the 2 refers to the whole phosphate ion and not just to the
oxygen atom.

page 49
Valencies of some common ions
Valency
1 2 3
Magnesium (Mg2+)
Lithium (Li+) Calcium (Ca2+)
Sodium (Na+) Copper (II) ion (Cu2+)
Aluminium (Al3+)
Metals Potassium (K+) Zinc (Zn2+)
Iron (III) ion (Fe3+)
Silver (Ag+) Iron(II)ion (Fe2+)
Copper(I)ion (Cu+) Lead (Pb2+)
Barium (Ba2+)
Fluoride (F-)
Chloride (Cl-) Oxide (O2-)
Non metals Nitride (N3-)
Bromide (Br-) Sulfide (S2-)
Hydrogen (H+)
Ammonium (NH4+)
Carbonate (CO32-)
Compound Hydroxide (OH-)
Sulfate (SO42-) Phosphate (PO43-)
ions Nitrate (NO3-)
Sulfite (SO32-)
Hydrogen carbonate (HCO3-)

Simple covalent compounds

Simple covalent compounds are made up of two non-metallic elements.

 The name of the second element ends in -ide

 Prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms

Number of atoms Prefix Example

1 mono- CO carbon monoxide

2 di- CO2 carbon dioxide

3 tri- SO3 sulfur trioxide

4 tetra- CCl4 carbon tetrachloride

5 penta- P2O5 di phosphorus pentoxide

Page 50
 Chemical equation

A chemical equation is chemist’s shorthand expression for describing a chemical

reaction by using symbols and formulae. This shows the chemicals that react (called
the reactants) on the left-hand side, and the chemicals that they produce (called the
products) on the right-hand side.
A chemical reaction can be described in two types of equations.
 A word equation ( using the names of the chemicals)
Sodium + Chlorine sodium chloride + hydrogen

 A chemical equation (using the symbols and chemical formulas of the

chemicals)
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
Reactants product
Steps to write and balance a chemical equation:
 In a balanced chemical equation the number of atoms of different elements in
the reactant side should be equal to the number of atoms in the product side.
STEPS
 Write the equation using the correct chemical formulas.
eg: sodium hydroxide reacts with sulfuric acid to form sodium sulfate and water
NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O

Note: Never, ever change anything inside the boxes. If you do you are guaranteed to
get the answer wrong.
 Count the number of atoms of each element on both the product and reactant
side.
 Determine which atoms are not balanced.

Reactants side Products side

Na = 1 Na = 2
O=5 O=5
H=3 H=2
S=1 S=1

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  Balance one atom at a time using coefficients. Write numbers in front of each of
the boxes until the inventory for each element is the same both before and after
the reaction.
(Start with atoms that appear only once in the reactants and only in the product
side. Usually leave hydrogen atoms followed by oxygen until last.)
2 NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

Reactants side Products side

Na = 2
Na = 2 O=6
O=6
H=4
H=4
S=1 S=1

 After you have successfully balanced the equation, repeat step 1 to make sure
that mass conservation has been achieved.
NOTE : Do not change subscripts in a molecular formula.
(ie, 2NaCl --- Na2Cl2 )

Formula of some common acids

Hydrochloric acid HCl
Nitric acid HNO3
Sulfuric acid H2SO4
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Phosphoric acid H3PO4
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH

Page 52
 STOICHIOMETRY AND Mole concept
Objectives
At the end of the topic students should be able to;
 Define relative atomic mass, Ar,as the average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element
 on a scale where the 12C atom has a mass of exactly 12 units
 Define relative molecular mass,Mr, as the sum of the relative atomic masses (relative formula mass
or Mr will be used for ionic compounds)
 Calculate the percentage by masses of different elements in a compound
 Calculate the relative molecular mass of different compounds from relative atromic masses.
 Define the mole and the Avogadro constant
 Use the molar gas volume, taken as 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure
 Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses and volumes of gases and solutions, solution concentrations
expressed in g/dm3 and mol/dm3.
 (Calculations involving the idea of limiting reactants may be set. Questions on the gas laws and the
conversion of gaseous volumes to different temperatures and pressures will not be set.)
 Calculate empirical formulae and molecular formulae
 Calculate % yield and % purity

Relative atomic mass(RAM Or Ar) :

Relative atomic mass(Ar) : The average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element on a scale where
carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units.

eg: Relative atomic mass (Ar) of Carbon is 12, oxygen is 16, Chlorine 35.5

Note: use the periodic table to find out the relative atomic masses while doing calculations

Calculation of relative atomic mass of chlorine:

The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5. which is not a whole number . This is because Chlorine has
two isotopes with masses Cl35 and Cl37. Consider a sample of chlorine that contains the isotopes of Cl35
and Cl37 in the ratio of 3:1 , meaning that for every one atom of chlorine 37, there are 3 atoms of chorine 35.

So, Ar = 35 X ¾ + 37 X ¼ = 35.5
Relative molecular mass (RMM Or Mr):

Relative molecular mass (Mr) of a substance is the average mass of a molecule of a compound compared
with one-twelfth (1/12) the mass of one atom of carbon 12.

Or Sum of the relative atomic masses of each element in the compound

Page 53
Calculation of Relative molecular mass of a compound

a) Mr of CaCO3 = atomic masses of Ca + atomic masses of C+3x (atomic masses of O)

= 40 + 12 + 3 x 16 = 100

b) Mr of CO2 = 12 + 16 x 2 = 44
H2O = 1 x 2 + 16 =18

c) Mr of (NH4)2SO4 = 2x (14+4x1) + 32 + 4 x 16 = 132

d) CuSO4 . 5 H2O = 64+32+ 4x16 +5x(2x1+16) = 250
Molar mass:

Relative molecular mass (Mr) of the substance in gram is called molar mass.

Molar mass of CO2 = 44 g

Molar mass of H2O = 18g

Relative formula mass(RFM)

Relative formula mass (RFM) is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the elements in the formula of
an ionic compound.

RFM of CaCl2 = 40 + 35.5 x 2 = 111

Percentage by mass of an element in a compound

number.of atoms of the element X RAM of element

X 100
Percentage by mass=
RMM /RFM of the compound

eg: a) calculate the percentage by mass of Oxygen in calcium carbonate (CaCO3)?

RMM of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + 3 x 16 = 100

no.of atoms of the element X RAM of element

Percentage by mass=
X 100
RMM /RFM of the compound

3 X 16
% by mass of oxygen = X 100
100
= 48 %

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 b) Calculate the percentage by mass of water (H2O) in CuSO4 . 5 H2O

RMM of CuSO4 . 5 H2O = 64+32+ 4x16 +5x(2x1+16) = 250

5 X 18
X 100
% by mass of water (H2O) = = 36%
250

In chemistry, Mole represents the amount of atoms, molecules or ions in a substance. The actual

particle number is known as the Avogadro Constant and is equal to 6.02 x 1023 .

This means that;

A mole is similar to a Dozen. A
1 mole of Ca would have 6.02 x 1023 atoms dozen consist of 12 pieces. Eg. A
dozen of eggs are 12 eggs or a
1 mole of H2O would have 6.02 x 1023 molecules
dozen of pens refer to 12 pens.
1 mole of NaCl would have 6.02 x 1023 ions. However, in chemistry even a
small amount of an element
Similarly, scientists have also found out that the mass of contains billions of atoms or
molecules. Therefore in
1 mole of any substance is equal to its Relative Atomic mass chemistry, moles are used as a
unit to measure the amount of a
(for elements) or Relative molecular mass (for compounds)
substance as 1 mole is equal to
and if the substance is a gas at room temperature and pressure, 6.02 x 1023 particles.
1 dozen = 12 pieces
it would occupy 24 dm3 or 24000 cm3. 1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 particles

All these relationships can be summarized as given below

6.02 x 1023 particles

(Avogadro Constant)

R.A.M (of 1 Mole

24 dm3 / 24000 cm3
(gases in R.T.P)
any element)

R.M.M (of any

molecule or compound)

Page 55
Molar mass:The mass of one mole of a substance expressed in grams is called molar mass.
eg: molar mass of CO2 is 44 g
Molar Volume:The mass of one mole of any gas at r.t.p is called molar volume.
eg: molar mass of volume of CO2 is 24dm3
Moles from mass and relative molecular mass
Number of moles = Mass Molar mass is mass of one
Molar mass or RMM mole in expressed in gram
Mass = moles X RMM (ie:-RMM in g)

Moles from volume and molar volume (For Gas)

moles = given volume in dm3 Molar volume of a gas at r.t.p is 24dm3

molar volume (24dm3)
or

moles = given volume in cm3

molar volume(24000cm3)

Moles from concentration and volume (solution)

Moles(n) = Concentration(C) in mole/dm3 X Volume(V) dm3

Moles (n) = Concentration(C) in mole/dm3 X Volume(V) cm3

1000
Concentration(C) moles/dm3 = Moles(n)
Volume(V) in dm3
Volume (dm3 ) = moles
concentration

Page 56
Concentration mol/dm3 to g/dm3

Concentration mol/dm3 x Relative molecular mass (Mr) = concentration in g/dm3

DETERMINING EMPIRICAL FORMULA.

Step 1:Write the symbols of the elements present.

Step 2: Write the mass composition given for each element present respectively.

Step 3: Write the relative atomic mass of each element present respectively.

Step 4: Find the number of moles of each element present and write them down respectively.

 Divide the mass composition (Step 2) by the relative atomic mass (Step 3) of each
element and write them down respectively.
Step 5: find the ratio of elements present and write down respectively.

 Divide each number of moles of the elements by the smallest number of moles
obtained from Step 4.
Step 6: If the ratios obtained are not whole numbers make them whole numbers

Multiply the ratios with a suitable number to obtain whole number ratios.

Step 7: Write the ratios obtained from step 6 as a subscript near the respective element present to
get the empirical formula for the compound.

Page 5 7
DETERMINING MOLECULAR FORMULA

Find the empirical formula if not given.

 Use steps given in determining empirical formula.

Step 8: Find the total mass of elements in the empirical formula

Step 9: Use the equation below to find the integer “n”

n ( mass of elements in empirical formula)  relative molecular mass

Step 10: Multiply the integral n obtained in step 3 by the subscript numbers in the empirical formula
to get the molecular formula.

Example 1:- A compound has the composition by mass; 87.42% nitrogen and 12.58% hydrogen. One mole
of the compound has a mass of 32g. Calculate its molecular formula.

Step 1: Find the empirical formula.

Steps 1 Symbol of elements present N H

Step 2 Given masses 87.42 12.58

Step 3 Relative atomic masses (Ar) 14 1

Step 4 Number of moles = given mass/Ar 87.42/14 12.58/1

= 6.24 = 12.58

Step 5 Ratio of elements present = number 6.24/6.24 = 1.00 12.58/6.24

of moles/smallest number of the = 2.01
moles

Step 6 Simplest whole number ratio 1 2

Step 7 Empirical formula NH2

Step 8: Total mass of elements in empirical formula = 14 + 2(1) = 16

Step 9 : n(16) = 32 (this is the given molar mass)

n = 32/16

n=2

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Step 4: (NH2)n where n = 2

(NH2)2 = N2H4

Percentage Yield:

The percentage yield can be calculated from the following expression:

actual yield
% yield = X 100
Theoretical(expected) yield

Percentage purity:

 Percentage purity indicates the amount of pure substance present in a sample of chemical
substance.
 The % purity of a sample can be calculated from the following formula:

% purity = mass of pure substance in sample

X 100
Mass of sample

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 ELECTROLYSIS
Candidates should be able to:

 Define electrolysis as the decomposition of an ionic compound, when molten or in aqueous solution, by the
passage of an electric current
 Identify in simple electrolytic cells:
 the anode as the positive electrode
 the cathode as the negative electrode
 the electrolyte as the molten or aqueous substance that undergoes electrolysis
 Identify the products formed at the electrodes and describe the observations made during the electrolysis of:
 molten lead(II) bromide
 concentrated aqueous sodium chloride
 dilute sulfuric acid using inert electrodes made of platinum or carbon / graphite
 State that metals or hydrogen are formed at the cathode and that non-metals (other than hydrogen) are formed
at the anode
 Predict the identity of the products at each electrode for the electrolysis of a binary compound in the molten
state
 State that metal objects are electroplated to improve their appearance and resistance to corrosion
 Describe how metals are electroplated
 Describe the transfer of charge during electrolysis to include:
 the movement of electrons in the external circuit
 the loss or gain of electrons at the electrodes
 the movement of ions in the electrolyte
 Identify the products formed at the electrodes and describe the observations made during the electrolysis of
aqueous copper(II) sulfate using inert carbon / graphite electrodes and when using copper electrodes
 Predict the identity of the products at each electrode for the electrolysis of a halide compound in dilute or
concentrated aqueous solution
 Construct ionic half-equations for reactions at the anode (to show oxidation) and at the cathode (to show
reduction)
 State that a hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity with water as the only
chemical product
 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells in comparison with gasoline /
petrol engines in vehicles

Electricity is the flow of charged particles. In a metal the particles are free
electrons. However, if a current is to pass through a solution or a molten
compound, there must be ions that are free to move.
Conductors: Substances that allow the flow of electricity without undergoing
any chemical change. E.g. Metals like silver, copper etc., alloys like bronze, and
non-metals like graphite.
Insulators or non-conductors: Substance that do not conduct electricity since
there are no free electrons. E.g. plastics, paper, wood, diamond, sulfur etc.

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Electrolyte: The molten or aqueous compound which conducts electric current by
the flow of ions, and undergoes decomposition. E.g.: molten lead (II) bromide,
sodium chloride solution, hydrochloric acid, ethanoic acid, sodium hydroxide
solution
Electrolytes are usually the following substances:
1. Molten ionic compounds or salts
2. Aqueous solutions of ionic compounds
3. Aqueous solutions of acids
Non-electrolytes: The molten or aqueous substances which do not conduct
electricity since there are no free mobile ions. E.g. distilled water, ethanol,
propanol, sugar solution.
ELECTROLYSIS: The decomposition of molten or aqueous ionic compounds into
its elements on passing electricity through it.
Electrodes: terminals through which electrons enters and leaves the electrolyte.
Anode: The electrode connected to the positive terminal of d.c source. Oxidation
occurs here.
Cathode: The electrode connected to the negative terminal of d.c source. Reduction
occurs here.
Electrolytic cell:

Note: Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity, as their ions are held in
fixed positions by strong electrostatic forces of attraction. But when molten or
aqueous, they conduct because the force of attraction breaks and the ions are free
to move.

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What happens during electrolysis in the electrolyte?
During electrolysis:
The anions (negative ions) are attracted to the anode and get oxidised by losing
electrons. [An Ox] Anode- Oxidation)
The cations (positive ions) are attracted to the cathode and get reduced by gaining
electrons. [Red Cat] (Reduction- Cathode)
Note: Oxidation Is Loss of electrons (OIL) and Reduction Is Gain of electrons [RIG]
Difference between metallic conduction and electrolytic conduction:
Metallic conduction Electrolytic conduction
 Electrons flow  Ions flow
 A property of elements (metals
 A property of ionic compounds
and graphite) and alloys
 Takes place in liquids and solutions
 Takes place in solids and liquids
not solids.
 No chemical change takes place.  Chemical decomposition takes place

Electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide using carbon (graphite) electrodes:

Solid Lead (II) bromide doesn’t conduct electricity as the ions are not free to move
to carry the charge where as molten or aqueous Lead (II) bromide conducts as the
ions are free to move to carry the charge.

Electrolyte: Molten lead (II) bromide, PbBr2

Electrodes: Graphite anode and Graphite cathode
Ions present in the electrolyte: Lead (II) ions Pb2+ ,and bromide ions, Br –

Page 62
 At the anode At the cathode

Half equation 2Br–(l) Br2(g) +2e- Pb2+(l) +2e- Pb(s)

Reddish brown gas liberated Shiny globules of lead metal

Observation
at the anode deposited at the cathode.

Overall reactions

2Br–(l)  Br2(g) + 2e- (oxidation)

Pb2+(l) + 2e-  Pb(s) (reduction)

Pb2+(l) + 2Br–(l)  Pb(s) + Br2 (g)

That is: PbBr2(l)  Pb(s) + Br2(g)

Electrolysis of some molten ionic compounds

Electrolyte Anode Cathode Overall equation

Half equation:
Name:
2Cl-(l) Cl2 + Half equation:
Sodium
2e - Na+(l) +1e- Na(s)
chloride
Observation: Observation: 2NaCl(l)
Formula:
Greenish yellow gas silvery deposit at the 2Na(s)+Cl2(g)
NaCl
produced. cathode
Ions present:
Product :Chlorine Product : sodium metal
Na+ ,Cl-
gas(Cl2)
Half equation:
Name:
Half equation:
Potassium K+(l) +1e- K(s)
iodide 2I-(l) I2 + 2e-
Observation:
Observation: 2KI(l) 2K(s) +I2(g)
Formula: KI Silvery
Purple vapour formed deposit/globules at the
Ions present: cathode
K+, I- Product :Iodine gas
Product :Potassium metal
Name: Half equation:
Half equation:
Sodium
Na+(l) +1e- Na(s)
bromide 2Br-(l) Br2 + 2e-
Observation: 2NaBr 2Na(s)
Formula: Observation: (l)
Silvery +Br2(g)
NaBr Reddish brown vapour
deposit/globules at the
formed
Ions present: cathode
Na+ ,Br- Product :Bromine gas
Product : sodium metal

Page 62
 Half equation:
Name: Half equation:
Pb2+ (l) +2e- Pb(s)
Lead(II) iodide
2I-(l) I2 + 2e-
Observation:
Formula: PbI2 Observation: 2PbI2(l) Pb(s) +I2(g)
Silvery
Ions present: Purple vapour formed deposit/globules at the
Pb2+ ,I- cathode
Product :Iodine gas
Product :Lead metal
Name: Half equation:
Aluminium Half equation:
Al3+(l) +3e- - Al(s)
oxide
2O2- (l) O2 + 4e-
Observation:Silvery 2Al2O3 (l)
Formula: Observation: deposit/globules at the 4Al(l)+3O2(g)
Al2O3 cathode
Colourless gas formed
Ions present: Product :
Product: Oxygen gas
Al3+ , O2- Aluminium metal

Electrolysis of aqueous solution:

An aqueous solution is formed when a substance is dissolved in the water.

Aqueous electrolytes are mixtures of two electrolytes- the compound and water.

Water ionizes, to a small extent, to give H+ ions and OH- ions as follows.

H2O (l)  H+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

As more than one type of cations and anions are present, preferential discharge
(selective discharge) is carried out based on the following factors:

Preferential discharge is carried out based on the following factors.

a) Position of the ion in the electrochemical series.

b) Concentration of ions.
c) Nature of the electrodes used.
a) Position of the ion in the electrochemical series
The ions lower (less reactive) in the electrochemical series will be discharged in
preference to any other ion present.

Page 64
 Electrochemical Series

Cations Anions

The ease of discharge of ions increases down the series

K+
These ions are not discharged in the aqueous

These ions NEVER get

Na+ SO42–

discharged
Ca2+ NO3–

Mg2+ CO32–

Al3+
solution

Zn2+ OH–

Fe2+ F–

Sn2+ Cl–

Pb2+ Br-

H+ I-

Cu2+

Ag+

Example:
Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid using carbon electrodes. (Acidified water):
few drops of sulfuric acid is added to pure water to increase the conductivity
and speed of electrolysis.
Electrolyte (s): sulfuric acid, water
From sulfuric acid - hydrogen ions, H+(aq), sulfate ions, SO42–(aq)
From water - hydrogen ions, H+(aq), hydroxide ions, OH–(aq) Hydrogen
Apparatus used for electrolysis and to collect the products:

Oxygen

As the electrolysis proceeds

solution remained in the beaker
gets more concentrated with
sulfuric acid as water molecules
are removed

Page 65
 Note: The electrolysis of aqueous sulfuric acid is the electrolysis of water, with hydrogen and
oxygen gas being given off in a ratio of 2 : 1

At the anode At the cathode

Half equation 4 OH–(aq) 2 H2O(l) +O2(g)+ 4 e- 2 H+ (aq)+ 2 e - H2(g)
OH– ions lose its electron faster
than SO42– ions and is placed
Only one type of cations
Reason lower in the electrochemical
present.
series so it is discharged in
preference to SO42– ions.
Bubbles of colourless gas
Bubbles of colourless gas formed
formed.
Volume of oxygen gas collected is
Observation Volume of hydrogen gas
half that of hydrogen gas
collected is twice that of
collected.
oxygen gas collected.
Overall reaction:

Water is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen gas.

2H2O (l) 2 H2 (g) +O2 (g)

Note: During the electrolysis of aqueous solutions of dilute acids or alkalis, the
volume of hydrogen given off at the cathode is roughly twice that of the oxygen
gas at the anode (2: 1).
b) Concentration of ions
 The ions present in higher concentration tend to crowd out other ions and
hence gets discharged at the electrodes.
 The following ions are not discharged even if they are present in high
concentration in solutions since they are very stable ions.
Anions: SO42–, NO3– and CO32–
Cations: K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+
1. Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride

Electrolyte: concentrated sodium chloride

NaCl Na+ + Cl-

(aq) (aq) (aq)

H2O H+ + OH- The ions present are: Na+, Cl- , H+ and OH-
(aq) (aq) (aq)

Page 66
Electrode: platinum or carbon anode and cathode

At the anode At the cathode

Half
2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) +2e- 2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2(g)
equation
OH- and Cl- ions migrate to the H+ ions are lower in the
anode and the Cl- ions are electrochemical series hence
discharged as the concentration of discharged in preference to
Reason Cl- is higher. Na+ ions. Each H+ ion gains 1
Each Cl- ions loses 1 electron and electron and is reduced to
is oxidized to form chlorine gas form hydrogen gas.
Bubbles of greenish-yellow chlorine Bubbles of hydrogen gas
Observation
gas. collected.

Note: Na+ and OH- ions left behind in the solution combine together to form sodium
hydroxide which is alkaline, so the pH increases from 7 to 13 which can be shown
adding an indicator to the solution.

The products – hydrogen, chlorine and sodium hydroxide, are very important
chemicals industrially as they are the basis of chlor-alkali

Overall reaction: Hydrogen and chlorine are formed; sodium hydroxide is left
behind in the electrolyte.
2 NaCl (aq) +2 H2O (l)  2 NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)

 The electrolysis of sodium chloride solution produces hydrogen at the cathode

and chlorine at the anode. Sodium ions and hydroxide ions accumulate in the
solution.

 Gradually, the sodium chloride solution changes into a solution of sodium

hydroxide

Page 67
 2. Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution

Ions in electrolyte: Na+, H+, OH-, Cl-

At the anode At the cathode

Half
4OH-(aq) 2H2O(g) +O2(g) +4e- 2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2(g)
equation
OH- ions will surround the
H+ ions are lower in the
anode since the electrolyte is
electrochemical series hence
Reason very dilute the concentration of
discharged faster in
OH- ions is greater than that of
preference to Na+ ions.
Cl- ions.
Bubbles of hydrogen gas
Observation Bubbles of oxygen gas collected.
collected.

Overall reaction: 2 H2O  2H2 + O2

3. Electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid using carbon electrodes:

Ions in the electrolyte: hydrogen ions, H+(aq), chloride ions, Cl–(aq) , hydroxide
ions, OH–(aq)

At the anode At the cathode

Half
2Cl–(aq) Cl2(g) +2e- 2H+(aq)+2e- H2(g)
equation
Cl– ions concentration is higher
than that of OH– ions and it is also
Only one type of cations
placed lower in the electrochemical
Reason present.
series. Hence it loses electron faster
than OH– ions
Greenish yellow gas of chlorine Bubbles of hydrogen gas
Observation
collected. collected.

c) Nature of electrodes used

The type of electrodes used can control the discharge of ions. Certain electrodes
can take part in the electrode reactions. These electrodes are known as reactive
electrodes. (Non inert)

Page 68
Electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulfate solution using carbon electrodes
(inert electrodes)

Ions in the electrolyte: copper (II) ions Cu2+(aq), sulfate ions, SO42– (aq),
hydrogen ions, H+(aq), hydroxide ions, OH–(aq)

At the anode At the cathode

Half
4OH–(aq) 2H2O(l) +O2(g)+ 4e- Cu2+(aq) +2e-  Cu(S)
equation

OH– ion lose its electron faster than SO42–

Cu2+ ion is discharged instead
ion and is placed lower in the
Reason of H+ ion as it is lower in the
electrochemical series so it is discharged
electrochemical series
in preference to SO42– ion.

Bubbles of colourless gas collected at the Pink or brown solid deposited

Observation
anode. Anode does not dissolve. on the cathode.

General observation: The blue colour of the copper (II) sulfate solution fades away.
Reason: This is due to the loss of Cu2+ ions from the solution.
Note: when all the Cu2+ ions are removed from the electrolyte, the solution left is
sulfuric acid (H+ ion, SO42- ions) which on further electrolysis to form hydrogen at
the cathode and oxygen at the anode.
Electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulfate solution using copper electrodes
(non inert electrodes)

Ions in the electrolyte: copper (II) ions Cu2+(aq), sulfate ions, SO42– (aq),
hydrogen ions, H+(aq),hydroxide ions, OH–(aq)

+ Copper electrode
Copper
electrode

CuSO4 (aq)

Page 69
 At the anode At the cathode
Half equation Cu(s) Cu2+ (aq) +2e- Cu2+(aq)+2e- Cu(S)
Neither OH- nor SO42 –ion is Cu2+ ions are lower in
discharged. The copper anode lose the electrochemical
Reason
electrons more readily than the series hence discharged
anions.so copper anode dissolves. in preference to H+ ions.
Pink or brown solid
Anode dissolves and decreases in
Observation deposited on the
size.
cathode.

General observation: The blue colour of the copper (II) sulfate solution remains
unchanged.
Reason: The Cu2+ ions discharged at the cathode are continuously being replaced
by the Cu2+ ions formed at the anode.
Applications of electrolysis
Electrolysis has many varied industrial applications.
The major applications of electrolysis in industry are: -
1. Extraction of Metals
2. Manufacture of chemicals,
3. Purification of Metals
4. Electroplating
1. Purification of Copper
 Since pure copper is a metal with excellent
electrical conductivity, it is used in electrical
circuits. But even small amounts of impurities
greatly reduce its conductivity. Hence, the
copper used to make cables need to be very pure.
 When aqueous copper (II) sulfate is electrolysed
using copper electrodes, the copper anode
dissolves and pink copper metal deposits at the
cathode. This principle is used to purify copper by electrolysis.
 Impure copper is used as the anode and pure copper as the cathode.

Page 70
  The electrolyte used is aqueous copper(II)sulfate solution.(a solution
containing Cu2+ ions).
Ionic equation at the cathode: (pure copper)
 Cu2+ ions are discharged forming copper atoms.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s) (reduction)
Observation: pink solid deposited on the cathode and the cathode increases in
size.
Ionic equation at the Anode: (impure copper)
 Copper atoms in the impure copper electrode lose electrons and form copper
ions(Cu2+)
Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
Observation: anode decreases in size/ dissolves away.
Note:
 Impurities in the anode fall to the bottom of the beaker and collect below the
anode in the form of slime. The impurities contain traces precious metals such
as gold and silver.
 The colour of the solution remains blue.
2. Electroplating
Electroplating involves the coating of an electrically conductive object with a
layer of metal using electrolysis.
Electroplating is commonly carried out to:
 Enhance a metal’s appearance
 Prevent corrosion of the metal
 The most commonly used metals for electroplating are copper, chromium,
silver and tin.
The basic rule for electroplating an object is:
1. Cathode: object to be electroplated
2. Anode: metal X to be plated (metal used to plate)
3. Electrolyte: solution of a salt of metal X

Example: electroplating a spoon with silver

Electrolyte: Aqueous silver nitrate.
Electrodes: silver anode and spoon as the cathode

Page 71
Anode reaction:
 The anode dissolves.
 Each silver atom loses 1 electron from the anode to form Ag+ ion and moves to
the solution.
Ag(s)  Ag+ (aq) + 1e-
Cathode reaction:
 Both H+ and Ag+ ions migrate towards the cathode but only Ag+ ions are
preferentially
discharged.
 Silver metal gets deposited on the surface of the spoon.(silvery deposit)
Ag+ (aq) + 1e-  Ag(s)
Note : the object electroplated must be completely immersed in the electrolyte.
Uses of electroplating:
1. Tin-plating steel cans to prevent them from rusting.
2. Chromium- plating articles such as car bumpers, kettles, bath taps etc.

Note: For nickel plating aqueous solution of Nickel(II) sulfate, and for copper plating
aqueous copper (II)sulfate are used as electrolytes.

Hydrogen – oxygen fuel cell:

Fuel cells can be used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy more
efficiently. These cells operate continuously and no need to recharge. The diagram
below shows a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.

External wire

Hydrogen in Oxygen in

Electrolyte
(aq.NaOH)
Porous graphite
anode (– ve) Porous
graphite
cathode (+
Water out

Page 72
 The electrolyte can be aqueous solution of an acid such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
or hydrochloric acid (HCl) or alkali such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or
potassium hydroxide (KOH).
If the electrolyte is acidic
Anode: H2 (g)  2H+ + 2e- (Oxidation)
Cathode: 4 H+(aq) + O2(g) + 4e-  2H2O(g) (Reduction)
Thus overall reaction: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2H2O (g)

If the electrolyte is an alkali

Anode: H2 + 4 OH-  2 H2O + 4 e- (Oxidation)

Cathode: 2 H2O + O2 + 4 e- 4 OH- (Reduction)

Thus overall reaction: 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2 H2O (g)

Advantages
1. Zero pollution as the only product is water
2. More energy efficient
3. Supply water for the astronauts
4. Can provide continuous power supply without replacing the electrolyte.
Disadvantages
1. Fuel cells are expensive
2. Hydrogen is flammable so it is difficult to store and transport.
3. If fossil fuels are used to produce hydrogen gas it cannot be recycled.

Page 73
 Chemical Energetics
Objectives:
 Describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic reactions.
 Describe bond breaking as an endothermic process and bond forming as an exothermic process.
 Draw and label energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions using data provided.
 Calculate the energy of a reaction using bond energies.
 Describe the release of heat energy by burning fuels
 State the use of hydrogen as a fuel.
 Describe the use of hydrogen as a fuel reacting with oxygen to generate electricity in a fuel cell.
(Details of the construction and operation of a fuel cell are not required.)

ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 Some reactions are capable of giving out large amounts of energy. Usually energy is
given out in the form of heat.
 Chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out to the surrounding are known
as EXOTHERMIC reactions.
Examples
1. Neutralization reaction between an acid and alkali
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O

2. Combustion of fuels.
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O

3. Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + heat energy

4. Precipitation reactions
NaCl + AgNO3  AgCl + NaNO3

5. Diluting concentrated acids with water.

6. Dissolving sodium hydroxide pellets in water.

7. Rusting.

8. Displacement reactions of metals.

Fe + CuSO4  FeSO4 + Cu

Page 74
 Chemical reactions in which heat energy is absorbed from the surrounding are known
as ENDOTHERMIC reactions.
Examples
1. Photosynthesis.
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2

2. Thermal decomposition of compounds.

CaCO3  CaO + CO2
3. Salts such as ammonium chloride, ammonium nitrate, potassium nitrate dissolving
in water.
4. Reaction of nitrogen with oxygen.
N2 + O2  2NO
5. Electrolysis.

ACTIVATION ENERGY

 Very few reactions are spontaneous. For most reactions to start, some energy is
needed from the surrounding or an energy source in order to start off the reaction.
 Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required by the reactants in
order to start a reaction.
 For examples, when fuels are burnt, it requires energy to start the reaction and ignite
the fuel. This energy may come from a spark, a match or even sunlight.

ENTHALPY CHANGE
 The energy change in going from reactants to products in a chemical reaction is
known as the Heat of Reaction or Enthalpy change of reaction.
 It is given the symbol H (delta H)
 H is negative for exothermic reaction and positive for endothermic reactions.

EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
 Chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out to the surrounding are known
as EXOTHERMIC reactions.
 The total energy of the products is less than the total energy of the reactants as heat
energy is given out.
 Products are energetically more stable than the reactants.
 H is negative for exothermic reactions.

Page 75
Energy profile diagram for an exothermic reaction:

E.g.: CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS

 Chemical reactions in which heat energy is absorbed from the surrounding are

known as ENDOTHERMIC reactions.

 The total energy of the products is greater than the total energy of the reactants as

heat energy is absorbed from the surrounding.

 Reactants are energetically more stable than the products.

 H is positive for endothermic reactions.

Page 76
Energy profile diagram for an endothermic reaction:

E.g.: N2(g) + O2(g)  2NO(g)

BOND BREAKING AND BOND MAKING

 For any chemical reaction to take place bonds in the reactants need to be broken
and new bonds in the products need to be made.
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
Reactants Products
Bonds need to be broken Bonds need to be made
 Breaking bonds takes in (absorbs) energy from the surrounding. Therefore, it is an
endothermic process.
 Making bonds releases energy to be surrounding. Therefore, it is an exothermic
process.
 If heat energy absorbed during bond breaking is less than heat energy given out
during bond makng, the reaction is overall exothermic.
If Energy of bond breaking < Energy of bond making  Exothermic reaction
(H is –ve)
 If heat energy absorbed during bond breaking is greater than heat energy given out
during bond making, the reaction is overall endothermic.
If Energy of bond breaking > Energy of bond making  Endothermic reaction
(H is +ve)

Page 77
CALCULATING H USING BOND ENERGY VALUES:

 Bond energy is the amount of energy in kJ associated with the breaking or making of
one mole of a chemical bond.
 It is a measure of the strength of a bond.
Bond Energies of Some Covalent Bonds

Covalent bond Bond energy (kJ/mol)

H-H 436
Cl-Cl 242
C-C 346
C-H 412
O-H 464
H-Cl 431
N-H 391
O=O 498
C=O 743
C=C 838
N=N 946
 ENTHALPY CHANGE , H for a reaction can be calculated using individual bond
energy values:
E.g. Calculate H for the burning of methane in oxygen.
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + H2O

Bonds to be broken Bonds to be made

4 × (C-H) bonds = 4 × 412 = 1648 kJ 2 × (C=O) bonds = 2 × 743 = 1486 kJ
2 × (O=O) bonds = 2 × 498 = 996 kJ 4 × (O-H) bonds = 4 × 464 = 1856 kJ

E bond breaking = 1648 + 996 E bond making = 1486 + 1856

= 2644 kJ = 3342 kJ

H = Energy of bond breaking – Energy of bond making

= 2644 – 3342 = -698 kJ/mol
H is negative, so reaction is Exothermic.

Page 7 7
FUELS
 Fuels are substances which undergo combustion readily, to give out a large amount
of energy.
 Coal, petroleum and natural gas are examples of fossil fuels which are widely used
as sources of energy.
 Complete combustion of fossil fuels results in the formation of carbon dioxide and
water.
E.g.: CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
 Combustion of fuels is an exothermic process.

Natural Gas
 The main constituent of natural gas methane, CH4.
 Together with petroleum, natural gas is formed in the ground. Over many million
years the action of high pressure and temperature coverts fossil remains of marine
animals and plants into natural gas and petroleum.
 Methane burns with a blue, non-luminous flame that liberates a lot of heat energy.
Hence, methane is an important source of energy

Hydrogen as a Fuel

 Hydrogen is obtained industrially from steam and methane.

CH4(g) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + 3H2(g)
Conditions: 10 - 50 atm, 800 - 1000C
 Cracking of hydrocarbons also produces large quantities of hydrogen.
 Electrolysis of water produces hydrogen as well. However, this process is costly and
only small quantities of hydrogen are formed each time.
 Combustion of hydrogen produces water and release heat energy.
2H2 + O2  2H2O H = -286 kJ
 Hydrogen can therefore be used as a fuel.

Page 79
 The main advantage of using hydrogen as a fuel is that it produces more energy per

gram than any other fuel. It also burns cleanly producing water as the only product

which is non-polluting.

 The main disadvantage is of this cell is hydrogen has a very low density and so it is

difficult to store and transport.

 At the moment the only vehicles that run on hydrogen are the rockets of the

American space program, NASA. Here the gas is condensed to a liquid at about -

253oC. But keeping hydrogen in liquid form requires low temperature and high costs.

Page 80
 RATES OF REACTIONS
What is Rate?
Rate of a chemical reaction is the rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds or it is the speed at
which a chemical reaction takes place.

Chemical Reaction

Fast reactions Slow reactions

Eg: potassium with water Eg: rusting of iron

Rate is a measure of a change that happens in a single unit of time. Rate of a reaction may be
defined as change in amount of reactants or products in unit time.

rate of reaction = change in amount of reactants or products

time taken for the reaction
Rate is inversely proportional to time.

Rate  1/Time
Collision Theory
For a reaction to occur:
 particles should collide with each other
 particles should have enough energy to overcome the activation energy* of the reaction.
 particles should collide with the correct orientation.

*Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to break the bonds in order
to start a chemical reaction.

Acid particle

Water
molecule

Magnesium
atoms
If the collision has If the collision does not
enough energy, reaction have enough energy, no
takes place. reaction occurs. The acid
particle bounces away.
Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction
1. Concentration
 When concentration increases, the number of particles per unit volume increases.
 Therefore frequency of collisions increases, increasing the chances of successful
collisions.
 Hence rate of reaction increases.

page 81
2. Surface Area
 When surface area increases, the number of particles exposed for a reaction
increases.
 Therefore the frequency of collisions increases and the chances of successful
collisions also increase.
 Hence the rate of reaction increases.

3. Temperature
 When the temperature increases particles gain more kinetic energy and move faster.
 Particles collide more often with greater energy.
 Chances of successful collisions increase.
 Rate of reaction increases.

4. Pressure
 When pressure increases, the particles are forced closer together (the number of
particles per unit volume increases).
 Therefore frequency of collisions increases, increasing the chances of successful
collisions.
 Hence rate of reaction increases.

5. Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction but is chemically
unchanged at the end of the reaction.
 A catalyst provides an alternative route for the reaction with lower activation energy.
 In the presence of a catalyst, a collision needs less energy in order to be successful.
 The result is that more collisions become successful, so the reaction goes faster.

Methods of Measuring the Rate of Reaction

1. By measuring the volume of a gas evolved at different intervals of time.
2. By measuring the decrease in mass.
3. By measuring the time for a coloured substance to appear or disappear.

Analysing Graphs
50

40
Volume of hydrogen/ cm3

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time/minutes

Pagee 82
 The rate changes throughout the reaction. It is greatest at the start, but gets less as the
reaction proceeds.
This is because the concentrations of the reactants are greatest at the start of a reaction.
As the reaction proceeds, the reactants change to products and hence there are less
reactant particles available. So the reaction becomes slower.
 The curve is steepest in the first minute when the reaction is fastest. The curve gets less
steep as the reaction gets slower.
 After five minutes, no more hydrogen gas is produced. The reaction is over and the curve
goes flat. The reaction stops when one or more of the reactants gets used up. The one that
gets used up is called the limiting reagent.

Average rate for the reaction = Total volume of hydrogen e = 40 cm3 t

Total time taken for the reaction 5 minutes

= 8 cm3 of hydrogen per minute

Determining How Different Factors Affect the Rates of Reactions

Experiment 1: The Effect of Changing Concentration

Aim: to determine how changing the concentration of a reactant affects the rate of a reaction.

Reagents
 Magnesium ribbon
 Hydrochloric acid

Reaction: Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq)  MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below (experiment A).

50 cm3 of 0.5M hydrochloric acid (excess)

0.06 g of magnesium

2. Tilt the flask and allow the contents to mix

3. Note down the volume of gas collected at regular intervals of time, (e.g. every 30 seconds),
until there is no change in the volume of gas collected.
4. Repeat the experiment with a different concentration of the acid (experiment B). Only the
concentration of the acid is changed. Everything else (volume of acid used, the temperature
and the mass of magnesium) is kept the same.

Page 83
 B

0.06 g of magnesium 50 cm3 of 1.0M hydrochloric acid

(excess)
Results
Plot the results obtained for experiments A and B on a graph as shown below.
70

60
B (1.0 M acid)

50
Volume of hydrogen/ cm3

A (0.5 M acid)
40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Time/ seconds

Notice these things about the curves:

1. Curve B is steeper than curve A, which shows that the reaction is faster in experiment B
than experiment A.
2. In A, the reaction lasts for 120 seconds while in B it lasts for 60 seconds.
3. Both reactions produce 60cm3 of hydrogen gas (as magnesium is the limiting reagent and
the same mass of magnesium is used), though experiment B produces it faster.
4. Average rate for experiment B is 1cm3 of hydrogen per second and the average rate for
experiment A is 0.5cm3 of hydrogen per second.

Conclusion
The above results show that:
A reaction goes faster when the concentration of a reactant is increased.
Doubling the concentration of a reactant doubles the rate of reaction.

Page 84
Experiment 2: The Effect of Changing Temperature
Aim: to determine how changing the temperature of the reactants affects the rate of a reaction.

Reagents
 Sodium thiosulphate
 Dilute hydrochloric acid

Reaction: Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq)  2NaCl (aq) + S (s) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Apparatus add dilute

hydrochloric acid and
start timing

view from
sodium above the flask
thiosulphate
solution

cross
drawn on
paper

Procedure
1. A cross is marked on a piece of paper.
2. A flask containing 20cm3 of sodium thiosulphate solution is placed on top of the paper. The
cross should be easy to see through the solution, when viewed from above.
3. 20cm3 of hydrochloric acid is added quickly, and a stopwatch started at the same time. The
cross grows fainter as the precipitate (of sulphur) forms.
4. The stopwatch is stopped the moment the cross can no longer be seen from above.
5. The experiment is repeated several times at different temperatures. Each time the volume
and concentration of each reactant are kept exactly the same. Only the temperature of the
reactants is changed.
6. After each experiment, the temperature of the reaction mixture and the time taken for the
cross to disappear are noted down.

Results
Page 85
Plot the results obtained from all the experiments on a graph as shown below.
140

120
Time taken for cross to disappear/ s

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Temperature/°C

Importance points about the graph:

1. The cross disappears quicker at higher temperatures. The shorter the time needed for the
cross to disappear, the faster the reaction.
2. The graph is not a straight line, which shows that the rate of the reaction is not directly
proportional to the temperature. Doubling the temperature does not double the rate.
3. When the temperature rises by 10 C, the rate approximately doubles.

Conclusion
Increasing the temperature increases the rate of a reaction.

Experiment 3: The Effect of Changing Surface Area

Aim: to determine how changing the surface area (by changing particle size) of a reactant affects
the rate of a reaction.

Reagents
 Marble chips (calcium carbonate)
 Dilute hydrochloric acid

Reaction: CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Apparatus light plug of

cotton wool
P age 86 Page 6 of 9
 dilute hydrochloric
acid (excess)
marble chips

78.95
Procedure
1. The marble chips and the acid are placed in a flask and plugged with cotton wool. This
allows the gas formed to escape but prevents any liquid from splashing out during the
reaction.
2. Next the flask is weighed.
3. Then the flask is tipped to mix the reactants. A stopwatch is started at the same time.
4. The mass is noted at regular intervals, until the reaction is complete (mass remains
constant). The loss in mass* is calculated from these readings.
5. The experiment is repeated with smaller pieces (or powdered) marble chips. The initial mass
of the marble chips and the volume and concentration of the acid used are kept the same.
Only the size of the marble chips is changed.

*Note: The loss in mass is calculated by subtracting the mass at different time intervals from the
initial mass. For example, the initial mass (at 0 minutes) is 78.95g. If the balance shows a mass
of 78.40g after 1 minute, then the loss in mass after 1 minute is 0.55g (78.95g – 78.40g).
Results
Plot the results obtained for both experiments on a graph as shown below.
2

(small chips)

(large chips)
Loss in mass / grams

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time / minutes

Importance points about the graph:

Page 87
1. The curve for the smaller chips is steeper than curve for the larger chips. This shows that
carbon dioxide is being produced faster with smaller chips.
2. For both curves reaction is fastest at the start.
3. In both experiments the final loss in mass is 2.0 g. This is because the total volume of gas
released is same for both experiments. (The mass loss is due to CO2 gas escaping from the
flask).
4. For the small chips, the reaction is completed in 4 minutes but for the larger chips it lasts for
6 minutes.

Conclusion
The rate of a reaction increases when the size of the solid reactant decreases. This is because
the surface area of a solid reactant increases as the size decreases.

Experiment 4: The Effect of Using a Catalyst

Aim: to determine how a catalyst affects the rate of a reaction.

Reagents
 Hydrogen peroxide
 Manganese (IV) oxide (catalyst)

Reaction: 2H2O2 (aq)  2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

Apparatus

50 cm3 of oxygen

hydrogen peroxide solution

Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above (experiment A).
2. Measure the volume of oxygen produce at regular intervals of time until 50 cm3 of oxygen is
formed.
3. Repeat the experiment using 1g of manganese(IV) oxide as a catalyst (experiment B). The
volume of hydrogen peroxide used and the temperature of the reactants are kept the same
as the first experiment.

B
50 cm3 of oxygen

hydrogen peroxide solution

manganese (IV) oxide

Note: after the reaction, the black powder is removed by filtering. It is then dried, weighed and
tested. It is still manganese(IV) oxide and still weighs 1 gram.
Page 88
Results
Plot the results obtained for experiments A and B on a graph as shown below.
60
B (with catalyst)
50
volume of oxygen/cm3

40

30 A (without catalyst)

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
time/minutes

Importance points about the graph:

1. The curve for experiment B is much steeper than the curve for experiment A. This shows that
oxygen is being produced faster in experiment B.
2. In experiment A 50 cm3 of oxygen is produced in 60 minutes. In experiment B, the same
volume of oxygen is produced in only 12 minutes.

Conclusion: A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction.

Catalysts in Industry
Catalysts have been found for a wide range of reactions. They are useful because a small
amount of a catalyst can produce a large change in the rate of a reaction. Over 90% of industrial
processes use catalysts. Some examples include;
synthesis of catalyst
ammonia iron
sulphuric acid vanadium pentoxide (V2O5)
ethanol phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
margarine nickel

Biological Catalysts
Living cells also produce catalysts. They are protein molecules called enzymes. Enzymes are
used to speed up reactions inside the body and each enzyme works only for a particular reaction.
Eg: The enzyme amylase in saliva catalyses the breakdown of starch (from bread and other food)
into sugar.

Page 89
 REVERSIBLE REACTIONS AND EQUILIBRIUM

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to
1 State that some chemical reactions are reversible as shown by the symbol ⇌
2 Describe how changing the conditions can change the direction of a reversible reaction for:
(a) the effect of heat on hydrated compounds
(b) the addition of water to anhydrous compounds limited to copper(II) sulfate and cobalt(II) chloride
3 State that a reversible reaction in a closed system is at equilibrium when:
(a) the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction
(b) the concentrations of reactants and products are no longer changing
4 Predict and explain, for a reversible reaction, how the position of equilibrium is affected by:
(a) changing temperature
(b) changing pressure
(c) changing concentration
(d) using a catalyst using information provided
5 State the symbol equation for the production of ammonia in the Haber process,
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
6 State the sources of the hydrogen (methane) and nitrogen (air) in the Haber process
7 State the typical conditions in the Haber process as 450 °C, 20000 kPa / 200 atm and an iron
Catalyst.
8 State the symbol equation for the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in the Contact
process, 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
9 State the sources of the sulfur dioxide (burning sulfur or roasting sulfide ores) and oxygen (air) in
the Contact process.
10 State the typical conditions for the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide in the Contact
process as 450 °C, 200 kPa/ 2atm and a vanadium(V) oxide catalyst.
11 Explain, in terms of rate of reaction and position of equilibrium, why the typical conditions stated
are used in the Haber process and in the Contact process, including safety considerations and
economics.

Reversible Reactions
In reversible reactions, the reactant molecules react to form products (forward reaction)
and the product molecules decompose back to form the reactant molecules again.
(backward reaction)
Eg : manufacture of ammonia by Haber’s process
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

Page 90
Chemical equations for reversible reactions
When writing chemical equations for reversible reactions, two arrows are used to
indicate the forward and reverse reactions

 The sign indicates that the reaction is reversible.

eg: NH4Cl(s) ⇌ NH3(g) + HCl(g)

CuSO4·5H2O(s) ⇌ CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)

Hydrated and anhydrous salts

 Hydrated salts are salts that contain water of crystallisation which affects their
molecular shape and colour.

 Water of crystallisation is the water that is stoichiometrically included in the

structure of some salts during the crystallisation process.

 A common example is copper(II) sulfate which crystallises forming the salt copper(II)
sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4 .5H2O

 Water of crystallisation is indicated with a dot written in between the salt mole-
cule and the surrounding water molecules.

 Anhydrous salts are those that have lost their water of crystallisation, usually by
heating, in which the salt becomes dehydrated.

Dehydration of hydrated cobalt (II) chloride:

hydrated cobalt(II) chloride ⇌ anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride + water
CoCl2 .6H2O (s) ⇌ CoCl2 (s) + 6H2O(l)

Hydration of cobalt (II) chloride

 When anhydrous blue cobalt(II) chloride crystals are added to water they turn pink
and the reaction is reversible.
 When the cobalt(II) chloride crystals are heated in a test tube, the pink crystals turn
back to the blue colour again as the water of crystallisation is lost.

Page 91
 The form of cobalt(II) chloride in the crystals that are pink is known as hydrated
cobalt(II) chloride because it contains water of crystallisation.
 When hydrated cobalt(II) chloride is heated, it loses its water of crystallisation and
turns into anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride:

CoCl2 .6H2O (s) ⇌ CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l)

Dynamic equilibrium: A reversible reaction in a closed system is at equilibrium when

the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the backward (reverse) reaction
and the concentrations of the reactants and products are no longer changing.

FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM POSITION

Changing the reaction conditions would affect the equilibrium position of a system. The
likely effect on the equilibrium position can be predicted using the Le Chatelier’s
Principle.

Le-Chatelier’s Principle: states that if a system in dynamic equilibrium is subject to

a change, processes will occur to minimize this change and to restore equilibrium.

The equilibrium position of the system may be altered by the following changes.

 Changing the temperature.

 Changing the pressure (applies to a reaction with one or more gaseous reactants or
products).

 Changing the concentration of reactants or products.

The Effect of Temperature

The effect of temperature on the equilibrium position and the yield of the product depend
on the type of reaction (ie: exothermic or endothermic).

For a system in dynamic equilibrium;

 Increasing the temperature favours the endothermic process. [ITEN]

 Decreasing the temperature favours the exothermic process. [DTEX]

Page 92
Note: In any reaction the H is given for the forward reaction. In a reversible reaction if the
forward reaction is exothermic then the backward reaction is endothermic and vice versa.
The amount of energy released in the exothermic reaction is the same as the amount of
energy absorbed in the endothermic reaction.
Examples:

1. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) H = -ve

Increasing the temperature; Decreasing the temperature;

 Favours the endothermic reaction.  Favours the exothermic reaction.

 Hence the backward reaction is  Hence the forward reaction is

favoured and the equilibrium shifts to favoured and the equilibrium shifts to
the left. the right.

 The yield of sulphur trioxide decreases.  The yield of sulphur trioxide

increases.

2. O2(g) + N2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g) H = +ve

Increasing the temperature; Decreasing the temperature;

 Favours the endothermic reaction.  Favours the exothermic reaction.

 Hence the forward reaction is favoured  Hence the backward reaction is

favoured and the equilibrium shifts to
and the equilibrium shifts to the right.
the left.
 The yield of nitrogen monoxide  The yield of nitrogen monoxide
increases. decreases.

The Effect of Pressure (Applicable only for gaseous reactants/products)

Changing the pressure of a system in equilibrium could alter the equilibrium position of
a system involving one or more gaseous reactants or products.

The direction favoured depends upon the total number of gas molecules on each side of
the reaction.

Page 93
 Increasing the pressure favours the side of the reaction with the least number of
gaseous molecules (moles of gas) as shown by the balanced equation. [IPL]

 Decreasing the pressure favours the side of the reaction with the most number of
gaseous molecules (moles of gas) as shown by the balanced equation.

Examples:

1. N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

Increasing the pressure; Decreasing the pressure;

 Favours the reaction that produces  Favours the reaction which produces
the less gas molecules. the more gas molecules.

 Hence the forward reaction is favoured  Hence the backward reaction is

and the equilibrium shifts to the right. favoured and the equilibrium shifts

 The yield of ammonia increases. to the left.

 The yield of ammonia decreases.

2. CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Increasing the pressure; Decreasing the pressure;

 Favours the backward reaction as this  Favours the forward reaction as this
produces less gas molecules (no gas in produces more gas molecules.
this reaction).

 Equilibrium shifts to the left and less  Equilibrium shifts to the right and
carbon dioxide and lime (calcium more carbon dioxide and lime
oxide) is formed. (calcium oxide) is formed.

3. H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)

There is no net change in the moles of gas (2 moles of reactants  2 moles of

product). Therefore pressure has no effect on the yield of hydrogen chloride

Page 94
Effects of Concentration
 If the concentration of a reactant is increased, then some of it must change to
products to maintain a balanced equilibrium position. Hence the forward reaction
is favoured.

 If the concentration of a reactant is decreased, then some of the products must

change back to reactants to maintain a balanced equilibrium position. Hence the
backward reaction is favoured.

 If the concentration of a product is decreased, then some of the reactants must

change to products to maintain a balanced equilibrium position. Hence the forward
reaction is favoured.

Example

1. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

 Increasing the concentration of nitrogen or hydrogen favours the forward reaction,

increasing the yield of ammonia.

 Decreasing the concentration of nitrogen or hydrogen favours the backward

reaction, decreasing the yield of ammonia.

 Decreasing the concentration of ammonia favours the forward reaction, increasing

the yield of ammonia.

The Effect of Catalyst

 A catalyst does NOT affect the position of equilibrium. The reaction reaches
equilibrium faster as a catalyst speeds up both the forward and backward reactions.
It does not influence the final yield of the product.

 The importance of a catalyst lies with economics. A catalyst reduces the cost of
production as it reduces the time and energy required for a reaction.

Page 95
The Haber Process ( Ammonia manufacture)
Ammonia is manufactured using The Haber process which occurs in five stages:
Stage 1: H2 and N2 are obtained from natural gas and the air respectively and are
pumped into the compressor through pipe.
Stage 2: The gases are compressed to about 200 atmospheres inside the compressor.
Stage 3: The pressurised gases are pumped into a tank containing layers of catalytic
iron beds at a temperature of 450 °C. Some of the hydrogen and nitrogen react to form
ammonia:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
Stage 4: Unreacted H and N and the product ammonia pass into a cooling tank.
The ammonia is liquefied and removed to pressurised storage vessels.
Stage 5: The unreacted H2 and N2 gases are recycled back into the system and
start over again.

Page 96
Explaining the Conditions in the Haber Process
 Reaction conditions such as temperature and pressure affect the rate of a reaction.

 If the reaction is reversible then the position of equilibrium is also affected by

Changes in these conditions and often we must consider a trade-off between the
rate of reaction and product yield.

 The graph below illustrates the effects of changing temperature and pressure on the
yield of ammonia obtained.

 By following any of the curved lines on the graph it can be seen that as the pressure
increases, so too does the yield at any given temperature.

 By following any vertical line upwards from the x-axis, the graph shows that as the
temperature decreases, the yield actually increases.

 The actual conditions used must be chosen depending on a number of economical,

chemical and practical considerations.

The yield of ammonia produced changes with changes made to temperature and pressure

Economic Considerations
 Like all industries, companies that manufacture and sell chemical goods do so to
make a profit. Part of the industrial process is the economic decision on how and
where to design and implement a manufacturing site.

Page 97
  In the Haber Process the raw materials are readily available and inexpensive to
purify:
 Nitrogen - from the air by the fractional distillation of liquid air.
 Hydrogen- from natural gas (by cracking or the reaction between methane and
steam)

 If the cost of extraction of raw materials is too high or they are unavailable then
the process is no longer economically viable.

 Many industrial processes require huge amounts of heat and pressure which is
very expensive to maintain.

 Production energy costs are also a factor to be considered carefully and alongside
the raw materials issue.
Temperature: 450 ºC

 A higher temperature would favour the reverse reaction as it is endothermic (takes

in heat) so a higher yield of reactants would be made.

 If a lower temperature is used it favours the forward reaction as it is exothermic

(releases heat) so a higher yield of products will be made.

 However at a lower temperature the rate of reaction is very slow. So 450ºC is a

compromise temperature between having a lower yield of products but being
made more quickly.
Pressure: 200 atm

A lower pressure would favour the reverse reaction as the system will try to
increase the pressure by creating more molecules (4 molecules of gaseous
reactants) so a higher yield of reactants will be made.

A higher pressure would favour the forward reaction as it will try to decrease the
pressure by creating less molecules (2 molecules of gaseous products) so a higher
yield of products will be made. However high pressures can be dangerous and very
expensive equipment is needed. So 200 atm is a compromise pressure between a
lower yield of products being made safely and economically.

Page 9 8
 Catalyst: Iron

 The presence of a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium but it does
increase the rate at which equilibrium is reached.

 This is because the catalyst increases the rate of both the forward and backward
reactions by the same amount (by providing an alternative pathway requiring
lower activation energy). As a result, the concentration of reactants and
products is nevertheless the same at equilibrium as it would be without the
catalyst. So a catalyst is used as it helps the reaction reach equilibrium quicker. It
allows for an acceptable yield to be achieved at a lower temperature by lowering
the activation energy required.

 Without it the process would have to be carried out at an even higher

temperature, increasing costs and decreasing yield as the higher temperature
decomposes more of the NH3 molecules.

The Contact Process (Sulfuric acid manufacture)

Sulfuric acid is synthesised by process known as Contact process.
Concentrated sulfuric acid is used in car batteries, making fertilisers, soaps and
detergents.
Stage 1
The first stage is the production of sulfur dioxide, either by burning sulfur to oxidise the
sulfur (equation shown below), or roasting sulfide ores.
S + O2 → SO2
Stage 2
The main stage in the Contact process is the oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulphur
trioxide using a vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5, catalyst:
2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3
The oxygen used in this stage is obtained by the fractional distillation of liquid air.
The conditions for this main stage of production are:
 A temperature of 450 ºC
 A pressure of 2 atm (200 kPa)
 vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5, catalyst

Page 99
Once sulfur trioxide is formed, it undergoes more processes to produce sulphuric acid.
Stage 3

Sulfur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid to form oleum (fuming sulfuric acid)

SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)

Stage 4

Water is then carefully added to the oleum to produce concentrated sulfuric acid (98%).

H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Explaining the Conditions in the Contact Process

Similar to the Haber process, the pressure and temperature used need to been
considered.
The equation for the main stage of the Contact process is:
2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3
Temperature: 450ºC

 The forward reaction is exothermic, so increasing the temperature shifts the

position of equilibrium to the left in the direction of the reactants.

 Therefore the higher the temperature, the lower the yield of sulfur trioxide.
 The optimum temperature is a compromise between a higher rate of reaction at
a higher temperature and a lower equilibrium yield at a higher temperature.

Pressure: 2 atm

 An increase in pressure shifts the position of equilibrium to the right in the

direction of a smaller number of gaseous molecules.

 However the position of equilibrium lies far to the right (the equilibrium mixture
contains about 96% sulfur trioxide). So the reaction is carried out at just above
atmospheric pressure because:
 High pressures can be dangerous and very expensive equipment is needed.
 A higher pressure causes the sulfur dioxide to liquefy.

Page 100
 REDOX REACTIONS
Candidates should be able to:
 define redox reactions as involving simultaneous oxidation and reduction
 define oxidation in terms of: gain of oxygen, loss of electrons, an increase in oxidation number (c) define reduction in
terms of: loss of oxygen, gain of electrons, an decrease in oxidation number
 describe the rules for assigning oxidation numbers of different elements in a compound.
 define an oxidising agent as a substance that oxidises another substance and is itself reduced
 define a reducing agent as a substance that reduces another substance and is itself oxidised
 describe the use of aqueous potassium iodide, and acidified potassium manganate (VII)) in testing for oxidising
and reducing agents from the resulting colour change

A redox reaction is one where oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.

OXIDATION
Oxidation reaction involves:
 Addition of oxygen.
Example: Combustion reactions like carbon burning in oxygen to form carbon
dioxide.
C + O2 2CO2
Carbon is oxidised as it gains oxygen.

 Removal of hydrogen.
Example: When chlorine reacts with hydrogen sulphide, it removes the hydrogen
from hydrogen sulphide.
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g) + S(s)
H2S is oxidised as it loses hydrogen.

 Loss of electrons.
Example: When magnesium ribbon reacts with oxygen magnesium oxide is formed.
Mg + O2 MgO
In this reaction magnesium atoms lose two electrons to oxygen and become
magnesium ions. Magnesium is oxidised.
Mg Mg2+ + 2e-

 Increase in oxidation number.

Mg + O2 MgO

Page 101
 Example: In the above reaction, the oxidation number of magnesium increases
from 0 (in Mg) to +2 in (MgO).
Therefore magnesium is oxidised.

REDUCTION
Reduction reaction involves:
 Removal of oxygen.
Example: Oxygen can be removed from copper(II) oxide by heating with hydrogen.
2CuO + H2 2Cu + H2O
CuO is reduced as it loses oxygen

 Addition of hydrogen.
Example: When chlorine reacts with hydrogen sulphide, it removes the hydrogen
from hydrogen sulphide.
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g) + S(s)
Cl2 is reduced as it gains hydrogen.

 Gain of electrons.
Example: When magnesium ribbon reacts with oxygen magnesium oxide is formed.
Mg + O2 MgO
In this reaction oxygen atoms gain two electrons from magnesium and become
oxide ions. Oxygen is reduced.
O2 + 4e- 2O2-

 Decrease in oxidation number.

Mg + O2 MgO
In the above reaction, the oxidation number of oxygen decreases from 0 (in O 2)
to -2 in (MgO).
Therefore oxygen is reduced.

Page 102
 OXIDATION REDUCTION

Addition of oxygen Removal of oxygen

Removal of hydrogen Addition of hydrogen

Loss of electrons Gain of electrons

Increase in oxidation number. Decrease in oxidation number.

RULES TO CONSIDER IN ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBER

1. In free elements (that is, in uncombined state), each atom has an oxidation number
of zero. E.g. In O2, the oxidation number of each oxygen atom is zero.

2. For ions composed of only one atom, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on
the ion.
E.g. The oxidation number of Ca2+ is +2.

3. All alkali metals (group 1) in compounds have an oxidation number of +1. (The
oxidation number of Li, Na and K will always be +1).

4. All alkaline earth metals (group 2) in compounds have an oxidation number of +2.
(Mg, Ca and Ba will all have oxidation number +2).

Page 103
5. The oxidation number of aluminium is always +3

6. The oxidation number of oxygen in most compounds (such as H 2O and CO2) is -2.
In hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) oxygen has an oxidation number of -1.

7. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 when it is combined with non-metals and -

1 when it is combined with metals.
E.g. in H2O, the oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 but in NaH, the oxidation
number of hydrogen is -1.

8. When halogens form negative ions, they will have an oxidation number of -1.
E.g. in both NaCl and CaCl2, the oxidation number of chlorine is -1.

9. In a neutral molecule, the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms must be
zero.
E.g. in H2O, each hydrogen is +1 and the oxygen is -2.
2× (+1) + (-2) = 0

10. In a polyatomic ion, the sum of oxidation numbers of all the elements in the ion
must be equal to the net charge on the ion.
E.g. in the polyatomic ion known as hydroxide (OH -), the oxygen is -2 and the
hydrogen is +1.
(-2) + (+1) = -1, which is the same as the charge on the hydroxide ion(OH-)
Example 1:
Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
Oxidation no. of Na = +1
Oxidation no. of O = -2
Oxidation no. of C = x
Since compound is neutral:
2(+1) + (x) + 3(-2) = 0 (Rule 9)
x = +4

Page 104
 Example 2:
Potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7
Oxidation no. of K = +1
Oxidation no. of O = -2
Oxidation no. of Cr = x
Since compound is neutral:
2(+1) + 2(x) + 7(-2) = 0 (Rule 9)
x = +6

Example 01:
When hydrogen is passed over heated copper(II) oxide, copper and water vapour will be
formed.
 Copper oxide is losing oxygen = reduction
 Hydrogen is gaining oxygen = oxidation
Therefore this is a redox reaction.
oxidation

CuO(s) + H2(g)  Cu(s) + H2O(g)

reduction

Example 02:
This reaction can also be explained in terms of oxidation number.
Oxidation number of copper decreases from +2 (in CuO) to 0 (in Cu) = reduction.
Oxidation number of hydrogen increases from 0 (in H2) to +1 (in H2O) = oxidation.
Oxidation

4CO (g) + Fe3O4 (s) 3Fe (s) + 4CO2 (g)

reduction

 CO is oxidized as it gains oxygen.

 Fe3O4 is reduced as it loses oxygen.
 As both oxidation and reduction takes place in the same reaction, the reaction is said to
be a redox reaction.

Page 105
Example 03:

When an iron nail is placed in a solution of copper(II) sulfate, copper metal and iron(II)
sulfate are formed.
 Copper is gaining 2 electrons = reduction
 Iron is losing 2 electrons = oxidation
Therefore this is a redox reaction.
CuSO4(aq) + Fe(s)  Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq)

Fe →Fe2+ +2e-

oxidation

Cu2+(aq) + Fe(s)  Cu(s) + Fe2+(aq)

reduction
Cu2+ +2e-
→Cu
 This reaction can also be explained in terms of oxidation number.
 Oxidation number of copper decreases from +2 to 0 = reduction.
 Oxidation number of iron increases from 0 to +2 = oxidation.

Example 04:

Oxidation

FeSO4 (aq) +Zn (s) ZnSO4 (aq) + Fe (s)

Reduction
 Fe2+ is reduced to Fe as the oxidation number decreases from +2 to 0
 Zn is oxidized as its oxidation number is increased from 0 to +2.
 This is a redox reaction as both oxidation and reduction occurs in the same chemical
reaction.

Page 106
Example 05:

Reduction

2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) 2NaCl (s)

Oxidation

 Na increases oxidation number from 0 to +1, hence it is oxidized.

 Cl2 decreases in oxidation number from 0 to -1 and hence reduced.

OXIDISING AGENTS

 Oxidising agents are substances that bring about oxidation and are themselves
reduced in the process.
Example: Chlorine can act as an oxidising agent in this way.
H2S(g) + Cl2(g)  2HCl(g) + S(s)
When Chlorine removes hydrogen from hydrogen sulphide, it is acting as an
oxidising agent. In this process chlorine is getting reduced.
 Examples of commonly used oxidizing agents:
 Acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) (KMnO4)
 Acidified aqueous potassium dichromate(VI) (K2Cr2O7)
 Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
REDUCING AGENTS
 Reducing agents are substances that bring about reduction and are themselves
oxidized in the process.
 Example: In the following reaction carbon monoxide is a reducing agent as it
reduces iron(III) oxide to iron. In this process carbon monoxide is getting itself
oxidised.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g)  2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
 Examples of commonly used oxidizing agents:
 Aqueous potassium iodide (KI)
 Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

Page 107
TEST FOR OXIDISING AGENTS
 Test for oxidising agents can be done using a reducing agent such as potassium
iodide solution.
 TEST: Add oxidising agent into potassium iodide solution.
 OBSERVATION: colourless solution turns brown.
2I- I2 + 2e-
Colourless brown

TEST FOR REDUCING AGENTS

 Test for reducing agents can be done using a oxidising agent such as acidified
potassium manganate(VII).
 TEST: Add reducing agent into solution of acidified aqueous potassium
manganate (VII), (KMnO4)
 OBSERVATION: KMnO4 solution turns from purple to colourless.
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e-  Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
purple colourless

Non redox reactions

1. Neutralisation HNO3 + KOH(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

2. Precipitation NaCl(aq)+ AgNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)

3. Synthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

4. Decomposition CaCO3(s) → CaO(s)+CO2(g)

Page 108
 ACIDS AND BASES
Objectives:

ü Describe the characteristic properties of acids in terms of their reactions with:

(a) Metals
(b) Bases
(c) carbonates
ü Describe acids in terms of their effect on:
(a) litmus
(b) thymolphthalein
(c) methyl orange
ü State that bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals and that alkalis are soluble bases
ü Describe the characteristic properties of bases in terms of their reactions with:
(a) acids
(b) ammonium salts
ü Describe alkalis in terms of their effect on:
(a) litmus
(b) thymolphthalein
(c) methyl orange
ü State that aqueous solutions of acids contain H+ ions and aqueous solutions of alkalis
contain OH– ions
ü Describe how to compare hydrogen ion concentration, neutrality, relative acidity and
relative alkalinity in terms of colour and pH using universal indicator paper
ü Describe the neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali to produce water,
H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) → H O (l )
2
ü Define acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors
ü Define a strong acid as an acid that is completely dissociated in aqueous solution and a
weak acid as an acid that is partially dissociated in aqueous solution
ü State that hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, as shown by the symbol equation,
HCl (aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
ü State that ethanoic acid is a weak acid,

CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

Page 109
Meaning of Important Terms
Acids – Acid is a proton doner

A substances that dissolve in water to produce hydrogen ions ( H+ )

Bases – Base is a proton accepter.

A substance that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH-).

Alkalis– A soluble base that produce OH- ions in water.

Strong Acids - An acid that is completely dissociated in aqueous solution

Weak Acids - An acid that is partially dissociated in aqueous solution

Neutralisation reaction - Reaction between an acid and an alkali to produce water,

H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) → H2O (l)

Page 110
 ACIDS
M Acids are proton doners

M An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) in water.

M Acids have a sour taste.

M Acids have pH less than 7.

M Common acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H 2SO 4) and nitric acid (HNO 3)

are inorganic acids. Ethanoic acid (CH 3COOH) found in vinegar and citric acid found in
lemon juice are some examples of organic acids.

M A solution is said to be acidic when there are more hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxide ions
(OH-).

M An acid has the general formula HX. When dissolved in water it dissociates into ions:
𝐻𝑋 ⟶ 𝐻! + 𝑋"
Example: 𝐻𝐶𝑙 ⟶ 𝐻! + 𝐶𝑙 "

acid reaction with water basicity

! "
Hydrochloric acid 𝐻𝐶𝑙($%) ⟶ 𝐻($%) + 𝐶𝑙($%) monobasic
! '"
Sulfuric acid 𝐻' 𝑆𝑂(($%) ⟶ 2𝐻($%) + 𝑆𝑂(($%) dibasic
! )"
Phosphoric acid 𝐻) 𝑃𝑂(($%) ⟶ 3𝐻($%) + 𝑃𝑂(($%) tribasic

BASES
M Base is a proton accepter

M Bases are the chemical opposites of acids. When a base is added to an acid, it neutralises

or cancels out the acidity.

M Metal oxides and metal hydroxides are examples of bases. Example: copper(II) oxide,
sodium hydroxide.

Page 111
 ALKALIS
M Only some bases are soluble in water. Alkalis are those bases which are soluble in water.

M Several alkaline substances can be found in cleaners like toilet cleaners, metal polish and

oven sprays.

alkalis formula
sodium hydroxide NaOH

potassium hydroxide KOH

calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2

aqueous ammonia NH3 (aq)

M In water all alkalis produce hydroxide ion.

! "
𝐾𝑂𝐻($%) ⟶ 𝐾($%) + 𝑂𝐻($%)

M A solution is said to be alkaline when there are more hydroxide ions (OH-) than hydrogen
ions (H+).

𝐻! 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 > 𝑂𝐻" 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ⟶ 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐻! 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑂𝐻" 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ⟶ 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐻! 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 < 𝑂𝐻" 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ⟶ 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

STRONG AND WEAK ACID

M Acids are classified as strong or weak.

M A strong acid is one that completely ionises in water, whereas a weak acid is one that

partially ionises in water. For a weak acid most of the molecules remain unionised in

solution.
Example: Hydrochloric acid (a strong acid) ionises completely to form hydrogen ions and
chloride ions.
HCl (aq) ® H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Ethanoic acid (a weak acid) ionises partially when dissolved in water. Only few molecules of
ethanoic acid ionise to form hydrogen ions. Most of the molecules remain unchanged.
Page 112
 CH 3COOH (aq) ® CH 3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

M Many weak acids occur naturally, such as citric acid (found in oranges and lemon) and
ascorbic acid (vitamin C).

Note: to say an acid is strong does not mean it is concentrated. The strength of an acid tells
you how easily it ionises to produce hydrogen ions. The concentration of an acid indicates the
proportion of water and acid present in aqueous solution.

Page 113
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
Reaction with metals

M Acids react with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas.

𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 + 𝐀𝐜𝐢𝐝 ⟶ 𝐒𝐚𝐥𝐭 + 𝐇𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧
𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑐 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 ⟶ 𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑍𝑛(*) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙($%) ⟶ 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙'($%) + 𝐻'(+)

Ionic equation: 𝑍𝑛(*) + !

2𝐻($%) ⟶ '!
𝑍𝑛($%) + 𝐻'(+)

Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

M Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon

dioxide gas.
𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐞 + 𝐀𝐜𝐢𝐝 ⟶ 𝐒𝐚𝐥𝐭 + 𝐂𝐚𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐨𝐱𝐢𝐝𝐞 + 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 ⟶ 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂)(*) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙($%) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙'($%) + 𝐻' 𝑂(,) + 𝐶𝑂'(+)

𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐞 + 𝐀𝐜𝐢𝐝 ⟶ 𝐒𝐚𝐥𝐭 + 𝐂𝐚𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐧 𝐝𝐢𝐨𝐱𝐢𝐝𝐞 + 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫

𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 ⟶ 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂)(*) + 𝐻' 𝑆𝑂(($%) ⟶ 𝑁𝑎' 𝑆𝑂(($%) + 2𝐻' 𝑂(,) + 2𝐶𝑂'(+)

Reaction with metal oxides and hydroxides

M Acids react with metal oxides and hydroxides to produce salt and water.
𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐨𝐱𝐢𝐝𝐞 + 𝐀𝐜𝐢𝐝 ⟶ 𝐒𝐚𝐥𝐭 + 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫
𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟(𝐼𝐼)𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 ⟶ 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟(𝐼𝐼)𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐶𝑢𝑂(*) + 𝐻' 𝑆𝑂(($%) ⟶ 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂(($%) + 𝐻' 𝑂(,)

𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐱𝐢𝐝𝐞 + 𝐀𝐜𝐢𝐝 ⟶ 𝐒𝐚𝐥𝐭 + 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫

𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 ⟶ 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(*) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙($%) ⟶ 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙($%) + 𝐻' 𝑂(,)

Ionic equation: 𝑂𝐻" + 𝐻! ⟶ 𝐻' 𝑂

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 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS
M Mainly, all alkalis take part in two types of reactions reaction with acids and reaction with

ammonium salts. Reaction of alkali with acid is shown above.

Reaction with ammonium salts

M All alkalis (except aqueous ammonia) react with ammonium salts to liberate ammonia gas.
𝐀𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐬𝐚𝐥𝐭 + 𝐀𝐥𝐤𝐚𝐥𝐢 ⟶ 𝐒𝐚𝐥𝐭 + 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 + 𝐀𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐚
𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 ⟶ 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑎
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻($%) + 𝑁𝐻( 𝐶𝑙(*) ⟶ 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙($%) + 𝐻' 𝑂(,) + 𝑁𝐻)(+)

M This reaction is used to make ammonia in the laboratory.

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 NEUTRALISATION
M A neutralisation reaction can take place between an acid and a soluble base (alkali) such as

sodium hydroxide or between an acid and an insoluble base such as copper(II) oxide.

HNO 3(aq) + NaOH (aq) ® NaNO 3(aq) + H 2O (l)

2HCl (aq) + CuO (s) ® CuCl 2(aq) + H 2O (l)

Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and

a base to form salt and water only.

M When acids and alkalis react, hydrogen ions from the acid and hydroxide ions from the

alkali combine together to form water:

! "
𝐻($%) + 𝑂𝐻($%) ⟶ 𝐻' 𝑂(,)

What Happens When an Acid is added to an Alkali?

M The pH changes to 7 (neutral).

M The conductivity of the solution decreases, as the H+ ions and OH- ions form water
molecules.

M The temperature of the solution increases.

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 INDICATORS
M Some natural substances change colour when they are put into acids or alkalis.

M Example: black berries, black currents and red cabbages (which is purplish), all changes to

red in acidic solutions.

M Indicators are chemicals which produce a colour change in acidic or alkaline medium.

M Chemists usually use a natural substance called litmus to test for acids and alkalis.

M Litmus solution is purple in colour. Litmus paper can be red or blue.

[ Blue litmus is used to test for acids since it turns red in acidic solutions.
[ Red litmus is used to test for alkalis since it turns blue in alkaline solutions.
[ In addition to litmus, methyl orange, phenolphthalein, methyl red and many more

indicators are used in the laboratory to identify acids and alkalis.

Some Common Indicators and Their Colour Changes

Indicator acid neutral alkali

Litmus solution Red Purple Blue

Red litmus Paper Red Red Blue

Blue litmus Paper Red Blue Blue

Methyl orange Red Orange Yellow

Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink

Thymolphthalein Colourless Colourless Blue

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 pH SCALE
M Simple indicators, such as litmus, tell whether a solution is an acid or an alkali. However,

there are indicators that can tell how acidic or alkaline a solution is. The acidity or alkalinity

of a solution can be determined from the pH of a solution.

pH is measured as the concentration of H+ ions in a solution.

M The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.

M A pH of 7 is neutral. This is the pH of pure water.
M Acids have pH lower than 7. The smaller the pH, the more acidic the solution is and the

more hydrogen ions it contains. A solution with a pH of 2 has more hydrogen ions than

a solution of pH 5.
M Alkalis have pH greater than 7. The bigger the pH, the more alkaline the solution is and

the more hydroxide ions it contains. A solution with a pH of 12 has more hydrogen ions

than a solution of pH 9.

pH OF SOME COMMON SUBSTANCES

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The pH of a solution can be measured using;

M Universal Indicator: This is a mixture of several dyes. It can be used as a solution or as

paper. It is sensitive over the full range of pH values and shows a different colour at

different pH values. A paper showing the colour changes is supplied with the indicator.

The pH can be read out by comparing the colour of the indicator to this paper.

M pH meter: This is an electrical instrument that measures the pH value of a solution. The

pH meter uses an electrode to measure pH electrically. This is the most accurate method

of measuring pH.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF OXIDES
Objectives:
✓ Classify oxides as acidic, including SO2 and CO2, or basic, including CuO and CaO,

related to metallic and non-metallic character

✓ Describe amphoteric oxides as oxides that react with acids and with bases to
produce a salt and water

✓ Classify Al2O3 and ZnO as amphoteric oxides

Oxygen is a colourless, neutral gas. Oxygen reacts with almost all metallic and non-metallic

elements to form an oxide. Oxides are formed when an element chemically combine with
oxygen. Oxides can be classified into four types.

OXIDES

METALLIC NON-METALLIC
OXIDES OXIDES

AMPHOTERIC NEUTRAL
BASIC OXIDES ACIDIC OXIDES
OXIDES OXIDES

ACIDIC OXIDES
Most non-metallic oxides are acidic oxides. They are called ‘acidic’ oxides because they

react with water and produce acids. For example,

𝑆𝑂2(𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) ⟶ 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3(𝑎𝑞)

sulfur dioxide sulfuric acid

Other examples are given in the table below.

acidic oxide formula acid produced with water

sulfur trioxide SO3 sulfuric acid, H2SO4

carbon dioxide CO2 carbonic acid, H2CO3

phosphorous(V) oxide P4O10 phosphoric acid, H3PO4

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Acidic oxides react with alkalis to form salts and water. For example, the salt sodium

carbonate Na2CO3 is formed when carbon dioxide gas is bubbled into a dilute solution of
sodium hydroxide.
𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

BASIC OXIDES

Most metal oxides are basic oxides. Copper(II) oxide, CuO, magnesium oxide, MgO and
calcium oxide, CaO are some examples of basic oxides. Some of them dissolve in water to

produce alkalis.
𝑁𝑎2 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) ⟶ 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
sodium oxide sodium hydroxide
Basic oxides react with acids to form salts and water. For example, calcium oxide reacts
with hydrochloric acid to form calcium chloride and water.
𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

AMPHOTERIC OXIDES
Some metallic oxides are amphoteric oxides. This means they can behave as an acidic oxide

or a basic oxide. Some examples are given in the table below.

amphoteric oxide formula

aluminium oxide Al2O3

lead(II) oxide PbO

zinc oxide ZnO

Amphoteric oxides react with both acids and alkalis to form salts. For example, aluminium

oxide acts as a basic oxide by reacting with hydrochloric acid and acts as an acidic oxide
by reacting with aqueous sodium hydroxide.

aluminium oxide + hydrochloric acid → aluminium chloride + water

aluminium oxide + sodium hydroxide → sodium aluminate + water

Al2O3 + NaOH → NaAlO2 + H2O

NEUTRAL OXIDES

Some non-metal oxides do not react with either acids or bases. Therefore they do not form
salts. Examples include water, H2O, carbon monoxide, CO, and nitrogen monoxide, NO.

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 Preparation of salts
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a)Describe the techniques used in the preparation, separation and purification of salts (methods of
preparation should include precipitation and titration together with reactions of acids with
metals, insoluble bases and insoluble carbonates)
(b)Describe the general rules of solubility for common salts including nitrates, chlorides (including
silver and lead), sulfates (including barium, calcium and lead), carbonates, hydroxides, Group I
cations and ammonium salts
(c) Suggest a method of preparing a given salt from suitable starting materials, given appropriate
information
(d)Describe the preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation
(e) Describe the meanings of the term hydrated, anhydrous and water of crystallization

What is a Salt?
A salt is a compound formed when a metal ion (or ammonium ion) replaces one or more
hydrogen ions (H+) of an acid.
When all the hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced by a metal ion (or ammonium ion),
the salt formed is called a normal salt.
Example
ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 ⟶ 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Sodium chloride is a normal salt as it is formed by replacing all the hydrogen (in this case
also the only hydrogen) by sodium.
When some, but not all of the hydrogen ions of an acid are replaced by a metal ion (or
ammonium ion), the salt formed is called an acid salt. Acids salts will contain
replaceable hydrogen/s and can react further.
Example
When sulfuric acid (H2SO4) reacts with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), it is possible for the
replacement of H+ ions to occur in stages.
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ⟶ 𝐻+ + 𝐻𝑆𝑂4−

𝐻𝑆𝑂4− ⟶ 𝐻+ + 𝑆𝑂42−

If only one H+ ion is replaced by sodium ions (Na+) then the salt formed will be sodium
hydrogen sulfate (NaHSO4), which is an acid salt as it contains replaceable hydrogen.

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 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 ⟶ 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂

When the two H+ ions in H2SO4 are replaced by Na+ ions the salt formed will be sodium
sulfate (Na2SO4), a normal salt.
𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 ⟶ 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Solubility of Salts

The solubility of a solute in water, at a given temperature, is the maximum amount of

solute that will dissolve in 100g of water at that temperature.

Mass of solute
Solubility =  100
Volume of water
Unit of solubility: g/100g of water

 Different substances have different solubility in water. But for all solids there is a
limit to how much will dissolve.
 A solution is said to be saturated when it contains as much as dissolved solids as
possible at a particular temperature.
OR a saturated solution is one that can dissolve no more solute at that
temperature.
 Solubility curve is a graph showing how the solubility of a substance in a solvent
changes with temperature.
Measuring the Solubility of Solids in Water:
1. Put a weighed amount of salt in a test tube of measured volume of water.
2. Heat the test tube gently until water is hot (not boiling).
3. Add more water, (measured amounts), if necessary until all the solid dissolves.
4. Let the solution cool while stirring it with thermometer.
5. Note the temperature at which the first crystal appears.
6. Calculate the solubility using the mass of the solid and the volume of water used.
The solubility of a salt can be calculated using the formula,

Page 123
e.g: Determining the solubility of potassium sulfate in water
thermometer

water

first crystals
appearing
potassium sulfate heat

SALT PREPARATION
The method of preparation of a salt largely depends on:
1. It’s solubility in water.
2. The reactivity of the metal in the salt.

The Pattern of Solubility for Various Types of Salts

Salts Soluble Insoluble

all group 1 and
all are soluble none
ammonium salts
nitrates all are soluble none

chlorides most are soluble silver chloride, lead(II) chloride

barium sulfate, lead(II) sulfate,

sulfates most are soluble
calcium sulfate
group 1 and ammonium
carbonates all other carbonates are insoluble
carbonates
group 1, strontium and
hydroxides all other hydroxides
barium hydroxides

Preparation of any salt involves three main steps:

1. Preparation – mixing of the required chemicals
2. Separation – removing the salt from the reaction mixture
3. Purification – usually involves crystallisation

Page 124
PREPARING SOLUBLE SALTS
I Crystallisation:
1. Acid + Metals
 This method is suitable for moderately reactive metals such as Magnesium,
Aluminium, Zinc, Iron and Tin (MAZIT).
 It is very dangerous with reactive metals such as sodium, potassium and calcium.
 The reaction of lead is too slow, and copper, silver and gold do not react at all.

Preparation of Zinc Sulfate:

Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq)  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

1. Add some zinc into dilute sulfuric acid. Zinc will dissolve giving out bubbles of
hydrogen gas.
2. Add excess zinc until no more bubbles are formed i.e. until all the acid has been
used up.
3. Collect the aqueous solution of zinc sulfate by filtering out excess zinc.
4. Heat the resulting solution to crystallization point and leave it to cool. Crystals of
zinc sulfate will be formed. Filter to obtain the crystals and dry them between
filter papers.

unreacted zinc

zinc crystals start

to form
dilute aqueous solution
sulphuric acid of zinc sulphate

2. Acid + Metal Oxide (Insoluble Base)

 This method is suitable when the metal reacts too slowly like lead, or is
unreactive like copper.
 For example; copper does not react with dilute sulfuric acid but copper(II) oxide
reacts with dilute sulfuric acid.

Page 125
 ’

Preparation of Copper(II) Sulfate:

CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq)  CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

1. Add copper(II) oxide into dilute sulfuric acid. Warm gently to dissolve the solid to
form a blue solution.
2. Add excess copper(II) oxide until no more dissolves.
3. Remove the excess solid by filtration, and collect the blue copper(II) sulfate
solution.
4. Heat the resulting solution to crystallization point and leave it to cool. Blue crystals
of copper(II) sulfate will be formed. Filter to obtain the crystals and dry them
between filter papers.

excess
copper(II) oxide
undissolved
copper(II) oxide blue crystals
start to form
aqueous solution
blue solution of copper(II) sulphate

heat
3. Acid + Insoluble Carbonate
This method can be used with any insoluble metal carbonate and any acid, provided
the salt produced is soluble.
The procedure followed for this method is similar to the one used for the reaction of
acid with metals.
copper(II) carbonate + nitric acid  copper(II) nitrate + carbon dioxide + water

CuCO3 (s) + 3HNO3 (aq)  Cu (NO3)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Important :
 Saturated solution: A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a given
temperature.
 If the solution is in crystallisation point (saturated), crystals can be seen on the tip of a
glass rod withdrawn from the solution.
 In crystallisation method, if the metal/metal carbonate is in excess, no more
effervescence will be produced and the solid (metal/metal carbonate) remains
undissolved.

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II.Titration
Acid + Alkali (Soluble Base)
 To prepare salts of very reactive metals such as sodium and potassium and
ammonium, titration method is generally used.
 Since it is dangerous to add these metals directly to acids, we indirectly use an
alkali that contains that particular metal.
 Titration method is a method of qualitative analysis using solutions. A volume of
one solution is slowly added to a known volume of another solution using a
burette until an end-point is reached. If an acid and alkali are used, then an
indicator is used to show that the end-point has been reached.

Preparation of Sodium Sulfate:

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)  Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Both reactants are soluble in water and no gas is formed in this reaction, hence it
is difficult to see when the reaction is over and we need to use an indicator.

1. Using a pipette 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide is added to a conical flask.

2. A few drops of phenolphthalein are added to the conical flask and the solution
turns pink.
3. The burette is filled with dilute sulfuric acid.
4. Slowly add sulfuric acid from the burette and swirl to allow the acid and alkali
to mix.
5. When all the alkali has been used up (at the end-point) the colour of the
indicator changes (phenolphthalein becomes colourless). At this point stop the
titration and record the burette reading. This is volume of acid needed to
neutralise the alkali.
6. The process is carried out again, BUT without the indicator, because the salt
will then be impure. 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide is added to the conical flask
and the correct volume of acid is added from the burette.

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 Grade 9

7. The neutral solution obtained is heated to crystallisation point and left to cool
and form crystals.
8. Filter the crystals and dry them between filter papers.

acid added
from burette

phenolphthalein

indicator
turns pink
solution turns
solution colourless at
sodium hydroxide still pink end-point
solution

start

acid added
from burette

finish

crystals of
sodium sulphate
colourless solution
(no indicator)

Page 128
PREPARING INSOLUBLE SALTS

Precipitation
 To precipitate an insoluble salt we have to mix a solution that contains its positive ion
with one that contains the negative ion.

Preparation of Barium Sulfate:

 To precipitate barium sulfate (BaSO4), aqueous barium chloride (a solution containing

barium ions, Ba2+) and aqueous magnesium sulfate (a solution containing sulfate
ions, SO42-) are mixed together. Barium sulfate is formed as a white precipitate.

BaCl2 (aq) + MgSO4 (aq)  BaSO4 (s) + MgCl2 (aq)

Ionic equation: Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)  BaSO4 (s)

Procedure
1. Mix the solutions of magnesium sulfate and barium chloride.
2. A white precipitate (barium sulfate) will be formed in a colourless solution
(magnesium chloride).
3. The mixture is filtered and the precipitate is collected in the filter paper
(residue).
4. Wash the precipitate (barium sulfate) with distilled water and leave it to dry.

Page 129
 Periodic Table (Arrangement of Elements)
Learning objectives:

Arrangement of Elements

✓ Describe the Periodic Table as an arrangement of elements in periods and groups and in order

of increasing proton number/ atomic number

✓ Describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period

✓ Describe the relationship between group number and the charge of the ions formed from

elements in that group

✓ Explain similarities in the chemical properties of elements in the same group of the Periodic

Table in terms of their electronic configuration

✓ Explain how the position of an element in the Periodic Table can be used to predict its

properties

Page 130
The Periodic Table of elements is a table displaying all the chemical elements.

In the modern periodic Table, the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
The elements are arranged in periods and groups.

Periods
A horizontal row of elements in the Periodic Table is called a period. Each period is numbered 1, 2,
3 etc. The first period contains only 2 elements, hydrogen and helium.

The number of shells an element has corresponds to the period it is found in. Hence, any element
found in period 2 will have 2 shells and any element found in period 4 will have 4 shells.

Ca
C

Carbon (6C) is in Period 2 and has 2 shells Calcium (20Ca) is in Period 4 and has 4 shells

Page 131
Groups
A vertical column of the Periodic Table is called a group. The groups are numbered from I to VII (1
– 7) and then Group 0 or Group VIII (8). Some groups have names as shown in the table.

Group Group name

number
I Alkali metals
II Alkaline earth metals
VII Halogens
0 Noble gases

The group number corresponds to the number of electrons in the outer most shell of an element.
For example any element in Group I will have 1 electron in its outer most shell and any element in
Group VII will have 7 electrons in its outer most shell. As a result of this, elements in the same group
have similar chemical properties.

Na
Li

Lithium (3Li) and sodium (11Na) are in Group 1 and have 1 electron in the outer most shell.

Metals and Non–Metals

Elements can be classified as metals or non-metals. The dividing line between metals and non-metals
run diagonally through the Periodic Table. The elements on the left side of this line are metals while
the elements on the right side of this line are non-metals. Elements which are close to this line have
some properties of metals and some properties of non-metals and are called metalloids.

Metalloids
• Metalloids are elements which have the properties of both metals and non metals
• They often look like metals but are brittle like non metals
• There are 8 metalloids; they are boron, silicon, germanium, antimony, tellurium, polonium and
astatine

Page 132
Transition metals
• Transition metals are found between group II and III
• These are referred to as d-block elements
• Transition metal compounds are coloured Eg Cu2+ - blue, Fe2+ - green, Cr3+ - orange

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

By 1869, a total of 63 elements have been discovered. As the number of elements grew and their
properties became known, scientists tried to devise ways to classify the elements. Although many
scientists came up with different forms of ‘periodic tables’, Siberian born-Russian chemist, Dmitri
Ivanovich Mendeleev is credited as the father of the modern Periodic Table.

Mendeleev collected a huge amount of data about the elements. He arranged the elements first in
order of increasing atomic mass, then into groups with similar behaviour, resulting in the Periodic
Table, published in 1869. He left gaps in his table for elements that were not yet discovered at that
time. Part of Mendeleev’s original Periodic Table is shown below.

Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 4 Period 5

Group 1 H Li Na K Cu Rb Ag

Group 2 Be Mg Ca Zn Sr Cd

Group 3 B Al * * Y In

Group 4 C Si Ti * Zr Sn

Group 5 N P V As Nb Sb

Group 6 O S Cr Se Mo Te

Group 7 F Cl Mn Br * I

The (*) show gaps Mendeleev deliberately left .

Today the Periodic Table has grown a lot since Mendeleev. The current standard table contains 118
elements. But not all are found in nature. Out of the 118, 94 are naturally occurring and the rest made
artificially in nuclear reactions.

Page 133
Differences between Mendeleeve’s periodic table and modern periodic table

Mendeleev’s periodic table Modern periodic table

Elements arranged in order of increasing mass Elements arranged in order of increasing atomic
number number

There were about 63 elements There are about 117 elements

Gaps were left. No gaps are left

Groups are horizontals rows and periods are Periods are horizontals rows and groups are
vertical columns vertical columns

Periodic Trends

Across the Periods

Going across the Periods, from left to right,
• Atomic size decreases
• Metals get less reactive
• Non-metals get more reactive

Page 134
 ▪ Proton number increases.
Left side Right side
▪ Number of electrons in the outer most shell increases.
Metals ▪ Metallic nature decreases. Non-metals
▪ Changes from good electrical conductors to poor ones.

Down the group

Going down the Groups,
• The number of shells increases
• hence atomic size increases
• Metals become more reactive while, non-metals become less reactive

Why does the reactivity of metals increase down the group?

Metals react by losing electrons.
• Down the group, the size of atoms increases (as there are more shells of electrons).
• The electrostatic force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus and
the outer most electrons become weaker.
• Hence it becomes easier to lose the outer shell electrons.

Why does the reactivity of non-metals decrease down the group?

Non-metals react by gaining electrons.
• Down the group, the size of atoms increases. (As there are more shells of electrons).
• The electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged nuclues and the outer most
electrons become weaker
• Hence it becomes more difficult to attract electrons into the outer shell.

Page 135
 Periodic Table (Alkali Metals)
Learning objectives:

Group I (Alkali Metals) properties

✓ Describe the Group I alkali metals, lithium, sodium and potassium, as relatively soft metals

with general trends down the group, limited to:

(a) decreasing melting point

(b) increasing density

(c) increasing reactivity

✓ Predict the properties of other elements in Group I, given information about the elements

Page 136
All the elements in this group are Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb),
Caesium (Cs) and rare, radioactive Francium (Fr). All these elements are very reactive metals.

7 23 39 85 133
Li
Li Na K Rb Cs Fr
3
3 11 19 37 55 87

Physical Properties
• Unlike most metals alkali metals are soft and are easily cut with a knife.
• When freshly cut, the surface shows a silvery metallic luster which quickly tarnishes (becomes
dull) on exposure to air.
• Low density compared to other metals. Lithium, sodium and potassium float on water.
• Low melting points compared to other metal.

Alkali metals are very reactive. They are stored under oil to prevent them from reacting with
oxygen and water vapour in the air.

melting point softness density reactivity

Li

Na

Rb

Cs

Fr

decreases increases increases increases

Page 137
Chemical Properties
Reaction with water
Alkali metals react vigorously with water giving the metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The
reaction becomes more vigorous down the group as ne reactivity of the metals increase.
When added to water,
▪ Lithium: Floats on the surface and gives off bubbles.
Lithium + water → lithium hydroxide + hydrogen
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)

▪ Sodium: Melts into a silvery ball, fizzes and darts about on the surface. Yellow sparks can be
seen.
Sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

▪ Potassium: Cracks/ 'pops' and burns with a lilac flame.

Potassium + water → potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2(g)

Reaction with air or oxygen

Alkali metals exhibit a distinct gradation in reactivity, reacting vigorously to produce the metal
oxide.
Lithium + oxygen → lithium oxide
4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2LiOH(aq) + 2Li2O(s)

Page 138
 Periodic Table (Halogens)
Learning objectives:

Group VII (Halogen) properties

✓ Describe the Group VII halogens, chlorine, bromine and iodine, as diatomic non-metals with

general trends down the group, limited to:

(a) increasing density

(b) decreasing reactivity

✓ State the appearance of the halogens at r.t.p. as:

(a) chlorine, a pale yellow-green gas

(b) bromine, a red-brown liquid

(c) iodine, a grey-black solid

✓ Describe and explain the displacement reactions of halogens with other halide ions

✓ Predict the properties of other elements in Group VII, given information about the elements

Page 139
The halogens are the elements in group VIl of the Periodic Table – fluorine (F: 2, 7), chlorine (Cl: 2,

8, 7), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At).

The halogens comprise the most reactive group of non-metals. The halogens are so reactive that they

cannot exist free in nature. In fact, fluorine is the most reactive element in the periodic table. It can

combine directly with almost all the known elements including some of the noble gases.

1. The halogens consist of small molecules. Each molecules contains two atoms and so are

describes as diatomic, such as Chlorine

2. The halogens have low melting points and boiling points. The melting points and 0oiling

points increase down the group as the strength of the intermolecular force increase.

Element Molecular Formula State at r.t.p Colour

Fluorine (F) F2 Gas Pale yellow

Chlorine (Cl) Cl2 Gas Yellowish Green

Bromine (Br) Br2 Liquid Reddish Brown

Iodine (I) I2 Solid Shiny Grey

3. The group VIl elements all have seven electrons in their outer shell and are one short of the

electronic structure of a noble gas. They have a valency of 1.

4. They all gain one electron to form negative ions with a charge of -1. They are collectively

known as the halides. E.g. chloride, Cl-; bromide, Br-; iodide, I-.

5. The halogens react vigorously with metals to form salts. For example, sodium burns in

chlorine with a bright flame to produce sodium chloride.

Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium chloride

2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Page 140
Physical properties – Down Group 7
 Colour becomes darker, from pale yellow to black.
 State changes from gas to liquid to solid
 Melting point and boiling point increases. Fluorine has the lowest melting and boiling point
while astatine has the highest melting and boiling point.

Chemical properties
Reactivity trend in group VII
 Halogens react by gaining electrons.
 Reactivity decreases down the group.
 Fluorine is the most reactive element because the atomic size of fluorine is the smallest in the
group. Therefore, the electrons in the outer most shell are closer to the nucleus. Hence the
electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron in the outer shell is stronger,
as a result it becomes easier for Fluorine to gain the electron compared to other elements in the
group.
 Down the group the size of atoms increases. As a result, the electrostatic force of attraction
decreases, decreasing the ease of attracting an extra electron. Hence the reactivity decreases
down the group.

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS OF HALOGENSS

The more reactive halogen displaces the less reactive halogen

from a solution of its ions.
Cl2 > Br2 > I2

Example 1

Add aqueous chlorine or pass chlorine gas into aqueous potassium bromide solution (colourless).

The solution turns orange as bromine is formed.

As chlorine is more reactive than bromine, chlorine displaces bromide ions from potassium bromide

and form potassium chloride. The bromide ions become bromine molecules which turn the solution

orange.

Chlorine + potassium bromide → potassium + chloride bromine

Cl2 + KBr → 2KCI + Br2

Page 141
Example 2

Add aqueous iodine into aqueous potassium bromide solution. No reaction is seen to

occur.

lodine cannot displace bromide ions from potassium bromide as iodine is less reactive

than bromine. So, no reaction occurs between iodine and potassium bromide.

Iodine + potassium bromide → no reaction

l2 + KBr → no reaction

The table below summarizes the results of the displacement reactions of the halogens.

Chloride Bromide Iodide

Chlorine Colourless to reddish brown Colourless to brown

Bromine No reaction Colourless to brown

Iodine No reaction No reaction

Test for halide ions

Halide Test Observation
ion Acidify with dilute nitric acid and then add aqueous silver nitrate.
White precipitate
Cl - KCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) AgCl (s) + KNO3(aq)
is formed
(white ppt)

Acidify with dilute nitric acid and then add aqueous silver nitrate
Cream precipitate
Br - KBr (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) AgBr (s) + KNO3(aq)
is formed
(cream ppt)

Acidify with dilute nitric acid and then add aqueous lead (II) nitrate Yellow
I- 2KI (aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3(aq) precipitate is
(yellow ppt) formed

Page 142
Uses of Halogens
Fluorine
 Fluorine is used to make a wide range of fluorocarbon compounds for use as refrigerants, aerosol
propellants, anesthetics and fire extinguishers fluids.
 Fluorine is used to make poly(tetrafluoroethene) , PTFE used as a surface
coating on non-stick cooking pans.

Chlorine
 Chlorine is used in the manufacture of plastics such as PVC, Hydrochloric acid, insecticides and
many other chlorinated compounds.
 Chlorine gas is used for sterilizing water and for making ‘bleach’.

Bromine
 Used for the preparation of bromides, drugs and dyes.

Iodine
 Iodine is used in medicine because of its antiseptic properties. It is also used in dyes and in
photographic films.

Page 143
 Periodic Table (Transition Elements)
Learning objectives:

Transition elements
✓ Describe the transition elements as metals that:

(a) have high densities

(b) have high melting points

(c) form-coloured compounds

(d) often act as catalysts as elements and in compounds

✓ Describe transition elements as having ions with variable oxidation numbers, including iron

(II) and iron (III)

Page 144
Transition metals are the elements found in between group 2 and group 3 of the periodic table.

Transition Metals

General Physical Properties

• They are hard and strong.
• They have high tensile strength.
• They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
• They are much less reactive than group 1 and group 2 metals.
• They are malleable (can be bend) and ductile (can be drawn into wires).
• They have high melting points (due to strong metallic bonds).
• They are much denser than group 1 and group 2 metals.
• They are much less reactive than group 1 and group 2 metals.

In addition to this transition metals also have some distinctive properties, which make them more
useful for specific purpose. These include;
• Many of them form coloured compounds.
• They can have variable oxidation states (valency) in their compounds.
• The metals or their compounds can be used as catalysts.
• They can form complex ions.
• A few of them have magnetic properties.

Page 145
Coloured Compounds

Salts of groups 1, 2 and 3 are usually white and form colourless solutions. But many of the transition
metals form coloured compounds. These compounds when dissolved in water forms coloured
solutions.
Examples
Colours of Some Transition Metal Ions in Solution

Metal ions in solution Colour

Name of ion Formula
Copper (II) Cu2+ Blue
2+
Iron (II) Fe Green
3+
Iron (III) Fe Reddish brown
Chromium (III) Cr3+ Dark green
2+
Cobalt (II) Co Blue
MnO4- Purple
Manganate (VII)
Chromate (VI) CrO42- Yellow
Dichromate (VI) Cr2O72- Orange
Cu2O Orange red
CuO Black solid
Cu (OH)2 Blue gelatinous
CuSO4 Blue crystalline solid
ZnO White solid
Zn (OH)2 White precipitate
ZnSO4 White crystalline solid
PbO Yellow
PbO2 Dark brown
PbI2 Bright yellow precipitate
PbSO4 White precipitate
FeSO4 Green crystals
Fe2O3 Red powder
Fe (OH)2 Green precipitate
Fe (OH)3 Red brown precipitate
FeCl2 Green solid
FeCl3 Dark red solid

Page 146
Variable Oxidation States
Metals in group 1, 2 and 3 only show one valency. Group 1 metals always show a valency of 1 only
(Na+, K+). Group 2 metals like Mg, Ca always show a valency of 2 as Ca2+, Mg2+. Similarly
Aluminium has a valency of 3. However, the transition metals can form ions of more than one
valency.
Example
Iron atoms can lose either 2 electrons to give iron (II) ions, Fe2+ or it can lose 3 electrons to give
iron (III) ions, Fe3+. Fe2+ and Fe3+ compounds have different colours and different properties.

Catalytic Activity
A catalyst is a substance which speeds up a chemical reaction without getting used up in the
reaction. In industry a lot (over 90%) of process use catalysts. Many of these catalysts are either
transition metals themselves or their compounds. Using a catalyst saves time and energy of the
manufacture.
Examples
• Iron is used as a catalyst in the Harber process (production of ammonia).
• Nickel is used in the production of margarine.

Some Uses of Transition Metals

• A lot of transition metals and their compounds are used as catalysts.
• Making alloys: Stainless steel is made by mixing iron, nickel and chromium (all transition
metals). Since they don’t go rusty, they are used to produce a lot of goods. E.g.: Knives.
• Titanium has a very great strength, very high melting point and comparatively low density. It
is also corrosion resistant. Hence it is used for the construction of supersonic aircrafts, space
vehicles etc.
• Tungsten is used as filaments in light bulbs because of its very high melting point.

Page 147
 Periodic Table (Noble Gases)
Learning objectives:

✓ Describe the Group VIII noble gases as unreactive, monatomic gases and explain this in
terms of electronic configuration

Noble Gases
o Group VIII elements in the periodic table are called noble gases or inert gases or zero group
elements.
Elements Electronic configuration
Helium 2
Neon 2 ,8
Argon 2, 8, 8
Krypton
Xenon
Radon (a radioactive element)
o In group 8, all the elements have completely filled shells. So they have stable electronic
configurations.
o Except helium all other elements in the group have 8 electrons in the outer most shell(Helium has
2 electrons).

Physical properties
 Exist as mono atomic molecules. Eg ; He , Ne
 All are colourless gases
 The elements have extremely low melting and boiling points. This is because the forces between
the atoms are very weak.

Chemical properties
 They are highly unreactive as they have stable electronic configuration. Hence, they are also
known as inert gases.

Page 148
Uses of Noble gases

Helium
 To provide an inert atmosphere for welding
 As a coolant in nuclear reactors
 As a breathing gas used by deep sea divers, by mixing with oxygen.
 Used to fill weather balloons and airships
 Used in the Helium –Neon laser

Neon
 Used in advertising sign boards and fog beacons. When electricity is passed through it ,it glows
red.
 Used in Helium –Neon laser
 In Geiger Muller tubes, which are used for detection of radioactivity

Argon
 Used to fill in electric bulbs. The bulbs have tungsten filament and argon prevents the filament
from getting burned.
 To provide an inert atmosphere:
✓ in the production of Titanium metal.
✓ in arc welding
 Used in industrial manufacture of steel

Krypton
 It produces intense white light when a current is passed through it.
 Used in airport runway lighting and light house lamps
 Used in special bulbs such as those used in miners lamp

Xenon
 It also produces intense white light when a current is passed through it.
 In lamps
 Used in photographic flash units, in stroboscopic lamps

Radon
 Used to trace gas leakages and treating some forms of cancer

Page 149
 Notes – Metal Alloys

METALS AND ALLOYS

H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
• A
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cu Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lw
c

Metals Non – metals

• Metal atoms have few electrons in their outer shells.

• When they are packed together, each metal atom loses its outer electrons into a ‘sea’ of
free mobile electrons.
• The atoms become positive ions because they have lost electrons.
• The structure of a metal is made up of positive ions packed together. These ions are
surrounded by electrons which move freely between the ions.
• The delocalised electrons form a kind of electrostatic glue holding the ions together.

A metallic bond is formed due to the electrostatic forces of attraction between

delocalised electrons and the positive metal ions.

e- e- e- e- e-
e- e-
+ e- + + e- + e- + + e- + + e- Positive ions
-
‘Sea’ of delocalised e + + -+ + + -+ + + -
electrons -
e e- e e- e
e + + + + + + + + e-
e- e- e- e- e-

e-
+ - + e- + - + - + e- + +- + e-
e e e e

Page 150
 Notes – Metal Alloys

General Physical Properties of Metals

• Shiny metallic lustre: because metals are crystalline and their flat crystals can reflect
light. Also surface mobile electrons can absorb and re-emit light energy.
• Solids at r.t.p. (except mercury): because of the strong electrostatic force of attraction
between the positive ions and the delocalised electrons.
• Conducts heat and electricity: because they have delocalised electrons.
• Malleable (can be bent) and ductile (can be drawn into wires): because the layers of
ions can slide over each other.
• Usually high density: because the ions are closely packed in a very regular manner.
• High boiling point and melting point: because of the strong forces of attraction
between the positive metal ions and the free mobile electrons.
Chemical properties
Metals have few electrons in their outer shells hence they react by losing electrons to form
positive ions.
Na → Na+ + e-

• Most metals react with acids to produce hydrogen gas.

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

NOTE:
1. Highly reactive metals like sodium and potassium also react with acids but the
reaction is very violent.
2. Less reactive metals like copper and silver do not react with acids.

• Metals react with non-metals to form ionic compounds.

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

• Metals react with oxygen to form basic or amphoteric oxides.

2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s) – basic oxide
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s) – amphoteric oxide
• Metals are easily oxidised.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

0 +1

Oxidation number increased → sodium is oxidised

[Page 151
 Notes – Metal Alloys

ALLOYS
• Alloys are mixtures of metals designed to have the properties useful for a particular
purpose, for example solder (an alloy of tin and lead) has a low melting point.
• Alloys are formed by mixing metals. Molten metals are thoroughly mixed and allowed to
cool to form a solid mixture.
• Making alloys is one common way of changing the properties of metals.
• Alloying usually results in a product that is stronger than the original metal.
• Pure metals contain atoms of the same size so the layers of atoms slide past each other
easily when a force is applied.

Force

Metal: layers of atoms slide over each other easily

• Alloys contain atoms of different sizes. Thus it is more difficult for the layers of atoms to
slide past each other when a force is applied.

Force

Alloys: layers of atoms cannot slide over each other easily

• Strength is not the only property we have to think about when making an alloy.
eg : Brass can be used to give a gold finish.

Page 152
 Notes – Metal Alloys

SOME IMPORTANT ALLOYS

parent
alloy typical composition particular properties and uses
metal
Harder than pure copper, ‘gold’
Copper 70%
Copper Brass coloured.
Zinc 30%
Used to make musical instruments.
Harder than pure copper.
Copper 90%
Copper Bronze Used to make statues, ornaments and
Tin 10%
church bells.
Stronger and harder than pure iron.
Iron 99.7%
Iron Mild steel Used in the construction of buildings,
Carbon 0.3%
bridges, ships and car bodies.

Iron 70% Harder than pure iron, does not rust.

Stainless
Iron Chromium 20% Used to make cutleries, car parts and
steel
Nickel 10% kitchen sinks.

Has a lower melting point than both

Tin and Tin 50%
Solder tin and lead.
lead Lead 50%
Used to make electrical connections.

Aluminium
Light and strong.
Aluminium Duralumin Copper 4%
Used to make aircraft body parts.
Other metals

153]
 Notes – Metal Alloys

ALKALI METALS (GROUP 1)

GENERAL PROPERTIES

• Soft silvery metals and all are easily cut with a knife. When freshly cut, the surface
shows a metallic silvery luster which quickly tarnishes on exposed to air.
• Good conductors of heat and electricity.
• Low density and float on water.
• Low melting points compared to other metals (hence they float).
• Alkali metal compounds are soluble in water.
• Generally very reactive (found at the top of the reactivity series).
- Hence they tarnish when exposed to air.
- They are stored in oil.

Melting point Softness Density Reactivity

Li

Na

Rb

Cs

Fr

Increases increases increases

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. REACTION WITH WATER

Alkali metals react vigorously with water

giving the metal hydroxide and
hydrogen gas. The trend in reactivity is
demonstrated by the vigor of the reaction
of these metals with water.

[154]
 Notes – Metal Alloys

OBSERVATIONS:

• Lithium: Floats on the surface, moves around and reacts giving off hydrogen gas.
2Li(s) + 2H2O (l) → 2LiOH (aq) + H2 (g)

• Sodium: Floats on the surface, darts around and melts forming yellow sparks and
giving off hydrogen gas.
2Na(s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

• Potassium: Floats on the surface, darts around, melts and forms a lilac flame giving
off hydrogen gas.
2K(s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)

2. REACTION WITH AIR OR OXYGEN

Alkali metals exhibit a distinct gradation in reactivity

when exposed to air or oxygen. The surface of
freshly cut lithium quickly tarnishes in air, but the
metals need to be warmed before. It will react quite
vigorously to produce lithium oxide.

4Li(s) + O2 (g) → 2Li2O (s)

[155]
 Notes – Metal Alloys

TRANSITION METALS

Transition metals are the elements found in between group 2 and group 3 of the periodic
table.

Transition metals

GENRAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

• They are hard and strong.

• They have high tensile strength.

• They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

• They are much less reactive than group 1 and 2 metals.

• They are malleable (can be bend) and ductile (can be drawn into wires).

• They have high melting points (due to strong metallic bonds).

• They are much denser than group 1 and 2.

In addition to this transition metals also have some distinctive properties, which make them

more useful for specific purpose. These include;

• Many of them form coloured compounds.

o Cu (ii) – Blue
o Fe (ii) – Dirty green
o Fe (iii) – Reddish brown

Page 156]
 Notes – Metal Alloys

• They can have variable oxidation states in their compounds.

• The metals or their compounds can be used as catalysts.
• A few of them have magnetic properties.

COLOURED COMPOUNDS

Salts of group 1, 2 and 3 are usually white and form colourless solutions. But many of the
transition metals are coloured compounds and forms coloured solutions. Transition metals
are the major contributors of colours in our lives.

• Vanadium compounds in solution can be yellow, blue, green or purple.

• The coloured stones on the beach are probably caused by transition metals. Iron
• makes them brown and copper makes them green.
• Impressive colours on glass stained windows are produced by transition metals.
Transition metals produce the colours in gem stones such as sapphire and ruby. These
stones are naturally occurring as colourless crystalline form of aluminium oxide.
- Traces of titanium and iron make sapphire blue.
- Traces of chromium as Cr3+ makes ruby red.
COLOURS OF SOME TRANSITION METAL IONS IN SOLUTION

Metal ions in solution

Colour
Name of ion Formula
Copper(ii) Cu2+ Blue
Iron(ii) Fe2+ Green
Iron(iii) Fe3+ Reddish brown
Chromium(iii) Cr3+ Dark green
Cobalt(ii) Co2+ Blue
Manganate(vii) MnO4- Purple
Chromate(vi) CrO42- Yellow
Dichromate(vi) Cr2O72- orange
Cu2O Orange red
CuO Black solid
Cu(OH)2 Green gelatinous
CuSO4 Blue crystalline solid
ZnO White solid
Zn(OH)2 White precipitate
ZnSO4 White crystalline solid
PbO Yellow
PbO2 Dark brown
PbI2 Bright yellow precipitate
PbSO4 White precipitate
Page !57]
 Notes – Metal Alloys

FeSO4 Green crystals

Fe2O3 Red powder
Fe(OH)2 Pale-green precipitate
Fe(OH)3 Foxy red-brown precipitate
FeCl2 White solid
FeCl3 Red black solid

VARIABLE OXIDATION STATES

Metals in group 1, 2 and 3 only show one valency. Group 1 metals always show a valency
of 1 only (Na+, K+ etc). Group 2 metals like Mg, Ca etc always show a valency of 2 as Ca 2+,
Mg2+ etc. Similarly aluminium has a valency of 3. However the transition metals can form
ions of more than one valency. E.g.: Iron atoms can lose either 2 electrons to give iron (ii)
ions, Fe2+ or it can lose 3 electrons to give iron (iii) ions, Fe 3+. Fe2+ and Fe3+ compounds
have different colours and different properties.

THE OXIDATION STATES SHOWN BY THE FIRST TRANSITION SERIES

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

+3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +6 +4 +4 +2 +2

+3 +4 +3 +6 +3 +3 +2 +1

+2 +3 +2 +4 +2 +2

+2 +3

+2

USES OF TRANSITION METALS

Transition metals have certain properties that make them more useful metallic elements
available to us.

AS CATALYSTS

A catalyst is something used to speed up a chemical reaction which would otherwise be too
slow. Hence in industry a lot (over 90%) of process use catalysts. Many of these catalysts
are either transition metals themselves or their compounds. Catalytic property of transition
metals is associated with the variable oxidation states. Using a catalyst saves time and
energy of the manufacture and it lowers the energy demands. Hence, this is economically
advantageous as it helps to conserve energy.

Page 158]
 Notes – Metal Alloys

EXAMPLES OF CATALYSTS

Catalyst Name of process used in

Iron Haber process: to produce ammonia

Vanadium (v) oxide Contact process: to produce sulfuric acid

Nickel Hydrogenation of alkenes: to make margarine

Titanium chloride Polymerization: manufacture of polythene

Platinum Oxidation of ammonia to give nitric acid

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Very few transition metals have magnetic properties. These include iron, nickel and cobalt.

OTHER USES

• Making alloys: Stainless steel is made by mixing iron, nickel and chromium (all transition
metals) since they don’t go rusty, they are used to produce a lot of goods. E.g.: Knives.
• Titanium has a very great strength, very high melting point and comparatively low
density. It is also corrosion resistant. Hence it is used for the construction of supersonic
aircrafts, space vehicles etc.
• Also because of its very high melting point of 3410oC, it is used in filaments in light bulbs.

Page !59
 Notes – Extraction of Metals

EXTRACTION OF METALS
Objectives
 Describe the ease in obtaining metals from their ores by relating the elements to the reactivity series
 Describe and state the essential reactions in the extraction of iron from hematite
 Describe the conversion of iron into steel using basic oxides and oxygen
 State the conditions required for the rusting of iron
 Describe and explain methods of rust prevention, specifically paint and other coatings to exclude oxygen
 Name the uses of mild steel (car bodies and machinery) and stainless steel (chemical plant and cutlery)
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of recycling metals, limited to iron/steel and Aluminium
 Describe and explain sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity series of metals and galvanizing as a method
of rust prevention

Different metals can be extracted by different methods depending on their reactivities

and the position in the reactivity series of metals.

The reactivity series of metals can be presented to include two non-metals, carbon and
hydrogen, to help predict which method could be used to extract the metal. Any
element higher in the reactivity series can displace an element below it.

Metals above carbon in the reactivity series cannot usually be extracted with carbon
or carbon monoxide. They are usually extracted by electrolysis of the purified molten
ore or other suitable compound.

Metals below carbon can be extracted by heating the oxide with carbon or carbon
monoxide. The non-metallic element carbon will displace the less reactive metals in a
smelter or blast furnace e.g. iron or zinc and metals lower in the series.

Some metals are so unreactive that they do not readily combine with oxygen in the air
or any other element present in the Earth's crust, and so can be found as the metal
itself, e.g. gold (and sometimes copper and silver); no chemical separation or extraction
is needed. All metals below hydrogen can be found as the 'free'/ 'native' element.

The 3 main methods of extraction of metals are: -

1. Mining the pure metal: least reactive metals such as gold, silver, platinum
2. Reduction of the oxide: some transition metals especially iron
3. Electrolysis of molten solid: reactive elements of group I, II and III, e.g. sodium,
magnesium, aluminium

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 Notes – Extraction of Metals

METAL METHOD OF EXTRACTION

Potassium
Sodium
Calcium Electrolysis of their molten salts
Magnesium
Carbon Aluminium
Zinc
Reduction of the oxide by heating with a
Iron
chemical reducing agent such as carbon/
Lead
Hydrogen hydrogen
Copper
Silver Mining the pure metal, as these metals occur
Gold native

METAL ORES

Metals high up in the reactivity series do not exist in the free State, but combined with
other elements to form metal ores or salts.

A mineral can be a solid metallic or non-metallic element or a compound found

naturally in the Earth's crust.

A metal ore is a mineral or mixture of minerals from which economically viable amounts
of metal can be extracted, i.e. its got to have enough of the metal, or one of its
compounds, in it to be worth digging out!

Metal ores are normally in the forms of oxides, sulfides and carbonates.

Pure metals are usually extracted from their ores as the ores occur naturally.

Some examples of metal ores are:

 Bauxite [aluminium oxide]
 Haematite [Iron(III) oxide]
 Zinc blend [Zinc sulfide]

They are all finite resources so we should use them wisely!

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 Notes – Extraction of Metals

RECYCLING METALS

Metal ore resources are finite and limited. Hence it is essential that
we recycle those that are still useful to us.
Iron, steel, copper and aluminium are the most easily recycled metals.
Some advantages of recycling are listed below:

1. Recycling of metals saves energy with a consequent reduction in carbon dioxide- one
of the main greenhouse gases. Using ferrous scrap instead of iron ore in the
manufacturing process results in a 75% saving in energy.
2. Recycling also preserves scarce, non-renewable raw materials.
3. Recycling reduces environmental air pollution and maintenance of clean air.
4. Recycling saves local authority collections costs and the amount of land required for
the disposal of meal through landfill.
5. Recycling creates employment.
6. It is cheaper to recycle some metals than to extract them from the earth’s crust.
7. There are definitely more advantages than disadvantages in recycling. One main
disadvantage is a time consuming process and it takes up a high amount of effort
and human resources.

EXTRACTION OF IRON
Iron is the most used of all the metals, comprising 95% of all the metal tonnage

produced worldwide. Its combination of low cost and high strength make it

indispensable, especially in applications like automobiles, the hulls of large ships, and

structural components for buildings.

The main ore of iron is haematite, Fe2O3.

The iron is obtained by reduction in a blast furnace. The furnace is a steel tower about

30m high. It is lined with refractory (heat-resistant) bricks of magnesium oxide which

are cooled by water.

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 Notes – Extraction of Metals

Following reactions occur in the blast furnace during the extraction of iron

Raw Materials:
 Iron Ore e.g. haematite ore [iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3]
 coke (carbon, C)
 hot air (for the O2 in it)
 limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3)

1. Iron ore, limestone and coke (C) are fed into

the blast furnace continuously from the top.
2. A blast of hot air is sent through the bottom
of the furnace. The blast of air provides the
oxygen for the reaction given below in the next
step.

3. The Coke reacts with oxygen in the air, giving

carbon dioxide. This reaction gives out a lot
of heat (exothermic) which helps to maintain
the high temperature inside the blast furnace.

Carbon + oxygen  carbon dioxide

C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)

4. This carbon dioxide reacts with more coke, giving carbon monoxide.

Carbon dioxide + carbon  carbon monoxide

CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g) (endothermic)

5. This carbon monoxide is a strong reducing agent that reduces haematite (Fe2O3 )
to iron. This is a redox reaction that produces molten iron, which trickles down to
the base of the blast furnace.

Iron (III) oxide + carbon monoxide  iron + carbon dioxide

Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g)  2Fe(l) + 3CO2 (g)

Some of the iron (III) oxide reacts directly with carbon to form iron.

Iron (III) oxide + carbon  iron + carbon dioxide

Fe2O3(s)+ 3C(s)  4Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

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 Notes – Extraction of Metals

6. Limestone added to the blast furnace helps to remove the impurities (silica, SiO2).
The limestone decomposes to form calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide. (CO2).
The purpose of the reaction is to remove impurities. The reaction of lime with silica
is a neutralization reaction since silica is acidic.

Calcium carbonate  calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

CaCO3  CaO+ CO2(g)

7. Calcium oxide reacts with sand to form calcium silicate (CaSiO3) or slag.

Calcium oxide + silicon dioxide  calcium silicate

CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3

8. The molten iron and slag runs down the furnace. Slag is less dense than iron, hence
it floats on the surface, preventing molten iron from reacting with oxygen. The iron
produced by the blast furnace is known as pig iron and it is not pure. It contains
about 4% carbon, and other impurities.
 The slag and iron are drained from the bottom of the furnace. When the slag
solidifies it is solid, mostly used for road construction. Only some of the iron is
left to solidify, in moulds. The rest is taken away while still hot, and turned in to
steel.
 The whole process releases CO2 and N2 as waste gases, CO2 from the reduction
reaction and N2 from the air blast. These waste gases come out at the top of the
furnace.
STEEL ALLOYS

The iron produced by the blast furnace is known as ‘pig iron’ or ‘cast iron’ and is not
pure. It contains about 4% carbon, and other impurities such as sulfur, silicon and
phosphorous.
This amount of carbon and other impurities makes the iron brittle, not hard enough to
be used for wide varieties of purposes industrially and limits its usefulness.
The properties of iron can be altered by removing the impurities and adding small
quantities of other metals or carbon to make steel.

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 Notes – Extraction of Metals

The Basic Oxygen Converter

The impurities are removed in the basic oxygen process.

1. In this process, molten pig iron from the blast furnace is poured into the basic
oxygen furnace.
2. A water cooled ‘lance’ is introduced into the furnace and oxygen at 5-15 atm
pressure is blown onto the surface of the molten metal.
3. Carbon is oxidized to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, while sulfur is
oxidized to Sulphur dioxide. Silicon and phosphorous are oxidized to silicon (IV)
oxide and phosphorous pentoxide, which are solid oxides.
4. Some calcium oxide is added to remove these solid oxides as slag. The slag may be
poured off the surface.
5. Samples are continuously taken and checked for carbon content.
6. When the required amount of carbon has been reached, the blast of oxygen is turned
off.
Steels are alloys since they are mixtures of iron with other metals or with non-
metals like carbon or silicon.

Controlled amounts of carbon and other elements are added to make different types of
steel to make a wide variety of steels to suit particular application.
Different Steels and their uses:

 High % carbon steel is strong but brittle.

 Low carbon steel or mild steel is softer and is easily shaped and pressed e.g. into
a motor car body.

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 Notes – Extraction of Metals

 Stainless steel alloys contain chromium and nickel and are tougher and more
resistant to corrosion.
 Very strong steels can be made by alloying the iron with titanium or manganese
metal.

Carbon
Metal Properties Uses
content (%)
Malleable and
Mild steel <0.25 Car bodies, machinery
ductile, not brittle
Tougher than mild
Medium steel 0.25-0.45 Axles, bridges
steel
High-carbon steel 0.45-1.5 Hard and brittle Cutting tools, razor blades
Cheaper than steel, Gear boxes, engine blocks,
Cast iron 2.5-4.5
easily moulded brake discs

Some Typical Steel Alloys

Steel Typical composition Properties Uses

Iron 74% Making cutlery,
Corrosion
Stainless steel Chromium 18% surgical instruments,
resistant, hard
Nickel 8% chemical plant
Tungsten steel
Iron 95% Edges of high-speed
(high speed Tough and hard
Tungsten 5% cutting tools
steel)
Manganese Iron 87%
Hard and tough Drill bits
steel Manganese 13%
Iron Corrosion
Chromium steel Making ball bearings
chromium resistant, hard

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 Notes – Extraction of Metals

RUSTING OF IRON

 The corrosion of iron or steel is called rusting.

 Corrosion is deterioration of essential properties in a material due to reactions with
its surroundings.
 Iron (or steel) corrodes more quickly than most other transition metals and readily
does so in the presence of both oxygen (in air) and water to form an iron oxide.
 Rusting is speeded up in the presence of salt or acid solutions because of an
increased concentration of ions.
 Corrosion is a redox process involving redox electron transfer and ion movement.
The rusting metal behaves like a simple cell and more ions enable the current, and
hence the electron transfer, to occur more readily.
Iron + oxygen + water  hydrated iron(III) oxide

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + xH2O(l)  Fe2O3.xH2O(s)

 Rust is an orange-brown solid hydrated iron(III) oxide formed from the reaction with
oxygen and water .
 The reaction proceeds via (i) iron(II) hydroxide Fe(OH)2 which is (ii) oxidised further
to the hydrated Fe2O3, or if very soggy, it amounts to the formation of iron(III)
hydroxide.

 Rusting is an oxidation because it involves iron gaining oxygen(Fe  Fe2O3) or

atoms of iron losing electrons (Fe  Fe3+ + 3e-)

Conditions for rusting

 Rusting occurs in the presence of both oxygen and water. Absence of any of the two
will not result in rusting.
 Higher temperature and the presence of an electrolyte can increase the process
of rusting.
 Presence of an acid also increases rusting whereas an alkali does not.
 During the process of rusting, the mass of the metal increases but after rusting has
taken place, the mass decreases as rust in the form of flakes can be blown away.

Page 167
 Notes – Extraction of Metals

In which of the following test tubes do the nails undergo rusting?

 Aluminium does not oxidise (corrode) as quickly as its reactivity would suggest.
 Once a thin oxide layer of Al2O3 has formed on the surface, it forms a barrier to
oxygen and water and so prevents further corrosion of the aluminium.
 Aluminium is a useful structural metal. It can be made harder, stronger and stiffer
by mixing it with small amounts of other metals (e.g. magnesium) to make alloys.
 Copper and Lead are both used in roofing situations because neither is very reactive
and the compounds formed do not flake away as easily as rust does from iron. Lead
corrodes to a white lead oxide or carbonate and copper corrodes to form a basic
green carbonate (combination of the hydroxide Cu(OH)2 and carbonate CuCO3 e.g.
seen as green roof on buildings).
 Both metals have been used for piping but these days lead is considered too toxic
and copper is usually used as the stronger, but equally unreactive alloy with zinc,
brass. Now of course, most piping is flowing in the plastic direction which doesn't
corrode at all!

Prevention of rusting

 Rusting of iron is a major problem in its use as a structural material.

 Rusting is therefore a serious economic problem.
 Large sums of money are spent each year replacing damaged iron and steel
structures, or protecting structures from such damages.
 To prevent iron from rusting, water and air must be prevented from coming into
contact with the metal surface.

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 Notes – Extraction of Metals

Some methods of rust prevention include:

A. Barrier Protection

1. Painting
2. Oiling and greasing
3. Plastic coatings
4. Electroplating
5. Galvanizing

1. Painting

 Iron and steel (alloy of iron) are most easily protected by paint which provides a
barrier between the metal and air/water.
 Some paints react with the iron layer to form a stronger protective layer.
 However, generally painting only protects the metal as long as the paint layer is
unscratched.
 Regular repainting is often necessary to keep this protection intact.
 This method is widespread for objects ranging in size from ships and bridges to
garden gates.

2. Oiling and greasing

 Moving parts on machines can be protected by a water repellent oil or grease

layer.
 The treatment must be repeated to continue the protection.

3. Plastic coatings

 These are used to form a protective layer on items such as refrigerators, garden
chairs, etc.
 The plastic PVC is often used for this purpose.
4. Electroplating

 An iron or steel object can be electroplated with a layer of chromium or tin to

protect against rusting. A ‘tin can’ is made of steel-coated on both sides with a
fine layer of tin.
 Tin is used because it is unreactive and nontoxic.
 However, with both these metals, if the protective layer is broken, or a scratch
result to start rusting.
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 Notes – Extraction of Metals

5. Galvanizing

 Coating iron or steel with a thin zinc layer is called 'galvanising'. The layer is
produced by electrolytic deposition [electroplating] by making the iron/steel the
negative cathode or by dipping the iron/steel object in molten zinc.
 It has the advantage over other plating methods in that the protection still works
even if the zinc layer is badly scratched.
 The zinc preferentially corrodes or oxidises to form a zinc oxide layer that doesn't
flake off like iron oxide rust does. Also, if the surface is scratched, the exposed
zinc again corrodes before the iron and continues to protect it.

B. Sacrificial protection

 Rusting can be prevented by connecting or attaching iron to a more reactive metal (e.g.
zinc or magnesium). This is referred to as sacrificial protection
 In the process the more reactive protecting metal is preferentially oxidised away
(corrodes), leaving the protected metal intact.
 Zinc or magnesium is more reactive than iron and will be corroded in preference to it.
 In this case the attached more reactive metal block or the connected metal block lose
electrons in preference to the iron so prevent the formation of iron(iii)oxide.
 Sacrificial metal is used to protect pipes and other exposed metal on oil rigs and hulls
of ships from corrosion by rust.

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 Notes – Extraction of Metals

 A more reactive metal than iron, such as zinc

or magnesium, is attached in large lumps by
conducting wires, at intervals along
underground gas and water pipes.
 Electrons released during the reaction travel
along the conducting wires to the pipes,
preventing rust from occurring.
 It is cheaper to replace the sacrificial metal
than it is to replace the pipes.

Page 171
 Notes – Extraction of Aluminium

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM

Objectives:
• State that the main ore of aluminium is bauxite and that aluminium is extracted by electrolysis
• Describe the extraction of aluminium from purified bauxite / aluminium oxide, including:
(a) the role of cryolite
(b) why the carbon anodes need to be regularly replaced
(c) the reactions at the electrodes, including ionic half-equations
• Explain the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in terms of its oxide layer
• Give the uses of aluminium:
– in the manufacture of aircraft because of its strength and low density
– in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion

Extraction of Aluminium
• Aluminium is the most abundant of all metals and the third most abundant element
in the Earth's crust, after oxygen and silicon.

• The main ore of aluminium is bauxite.

• Aluminium is too high in the reactivity series to extract it from its ore using carbon
reduction. The temperatures needed are too high to be economic. Therefore, it is
extracted by electrolysis.

Electrolysis of purified aluminium oxide

• Bauxite is an impure form of aluminium oxide. It is first treated with sodium

hydroxide to obtain pure aluminium oxide, removing impurities such as sand and
iron oxide.
• Aluminium oxide has a very high melting point (2045°C) and needs more heat energy
to melt it. So it is expensive.

• Cryolite (Na3AlF6) is added to purified Aluminium oxide during the extraction. The
use of cryolite is to lower the operating temperature (900-1000°C) and to
increase the conductivity. Which reduces the energy costs involved in the
extraction. Cryolite also helps to dissolve the ore.

• The molten mixture of aluminium oxide and cryolite is electrolyzed in a cell fitted
with graphite cathode and graphite anode (electrodes).

• The purified bauxite ore of aluminium oxide is continuously fed in.

Page 172
 Notes – Extraction of Aluminium

graphite anode (+ve)

graphite cathode (—ve)

molten purified alumina

and cryolite.(electrolyte)

Molten aluminium out

steel
tank molten aluminium

• Ions present in the electrolyte are Al3+ and O2—.

Cathode reaction:

Al3+(l) + 3 e- → Al(l) (Reduction).

• During electrolysis, aluminium forms at the negative cathode and sinks to the
bottom of the tank in the form of molten aluminium.

Anode reaction:
2 O2—(l) → O2(g) + 4 e- (Oxidation).
• Due to high temperature, oxygen gas produced at the anode reacts with carbon
(graphite) anode to form carbon dioxide gas. So anode will be burnt out and needs to
be replaced frequently and this makes the process expensive.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
• Molten aluminium is collected from the floor of the container where graphite
cathode is lined with.
• The overall reaction which takes place in the cell is
2 Al2O3(l) → 4 Al(l) + 3 O2(g)

Properties of Aluminium

 Corrosion resistance

• Aluminium is more reactive than iron but despite this it does not easily corrode and
damage the way iron does when exposed to air and water.

• Both iron and aluminium reacts with air. In the case of aluminium, a very thin inert
layer of aluminium oxide forms, which sticks strongly to the surface of the metal,
and prevents the metal from reacting with other chemicals, whereas iron forms
flakes.

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 Notes – Extraction of Aluminium

• Aluminium is useful construction material because it is protected by this oxide layer.

• The protected layer can be made thicker artificially by anodising. The aluminium is
used as the anode in an electrolytic cell which contains dilute sulfuric acid and has
carbon cathode. The oxygen produced at the anode
reacts with aluminium, thickening the oxide layer.
 Other properties
• As well as being corrosion-resistant, aluminium is
light (because of its low density) and becomes very
strong when alloyed with other metals.
• The spider diagram summarizes this metal's useful
properties.

Uses of Aluminium
Aluminium is used for Because

Aircraft bodies Low density, strong and resists corrosion.

Other transport such as

ships, container vehicle Light, strong, resists corrosion
bodies, tube trains

Overhead power cables

Light, resists corrosion, good conductor of
(with a steel core to
electricity
strengthen them)
Light, resists corrosion, good appearance,
Sauce pans
good heat conductor
Non-toxic due to the protective layer of
Food containers
aluminium oxide.

• Aluminium can be alloyed to make 'Duralumin' by adding copper (and smaller

amounts of magnesium, silicon and iron), to make a stronger alloy used in:

• Aircraft components (low density = 'lighter’),

• Greenhouse and window frames (good anti-corrosion properties),

• Overhead power lines (quite a good conductor and 'light'), but steel strands are
included to make the 'line' stronger and poorly electrical conducting ceramic
materials are used to insulate the wires from the ground.

Page 174
 REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS
Learning outcomes:
 State the order of the reactivity series as: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, carbon,
zinc, iron, hydrogen, copper, silver, gold
 Describe the reactions, if any, of:
(a) potassium, sodium and calcium with cold water
(b) magnesium with steam
(c) magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, silver and gold with dilute hydrochloric acid and explain these
reactions in terms of the position of the metals in the reactivity series
 Deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results
 Describe the relative reactivities of metals interms of their tendency to form positive ions, by
displacement reactions, if any, with the aqueous ions of magnesium, zinc, iron, copper and silver.
 Explain the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in terms of its oxide layer

 Metals differ greatly in their reactivity.

 When a metal reacts, it gives up electrons to form positive ions. The more reactive the
metals, the more easily it gives up electrons.
 Compounds of reactive metals are more stable than less reactive metal compounds.
Reactive metal compounds are not found uncombined in nature while less reactive metals
like gold and silver can exist in their pure uncombined form.
 Based on their reactivity with several substances, metals are arranged in a particular order
called the reactivity series. The reactivity series is very useful as it can help us to predict
the reactions of the metals.
The Position of Various Metals in the Reactivity Series
Most reactive

Potassium (K)
Sodium (Na)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium
(Mg)
Aluminium (Al) Reactivity decreases down the
Carbon (C) Zinc (Zn) series.
Iron (Fe)
Tin (Sn)
Lead (Pb)
Hydrogen (H) Copper (Cu)
Mercury (Hg)
Silver (Ag)
Gold (Au)
Platinum (Pt)
Least reactive

Page 175
REACTION OF METALS WITH ACID
 Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with acid to give salt and hydrogen gas.
 Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series do not react with acid
Metal How it reacts Equation
Reacts explosively to form salt
K 2K(s) + 2HCl(aq)  2KCl(aq) + H2(g)
and hydrogen gas. Reactivity
decreases from potassium to
Na 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
sodium.

Reaction of calcium with acid is

Ca Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
violent
Mg Reacts vigorously Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Al Reacts moderately and 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

Zn reactivity decreases from Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Fe aluminium to iron. 2Fe(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2FeCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

Sn Sn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  SnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Reacts slowly
Pb Pb(s) + 2HCl(aq)  PbCl2(s) + H2(g)
Cu
Ag
These do not react with acids. No reaction
Au
Pt

Note : Aluminium and its apparent lack of reactivity

 Aluminium is a curious metal in terms of its reactivity
 It is placed high on the reactivity series but it doesn´t react with water or acids
 This is because the surface of aluminium metal reacts with oxygen in the air forming
a protective coating of aluminium oxide:
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
 The aluminium oxide layer is tough, unreactive and resistant to corrosion
 It adheres very strongly to the aluminium surface and protects it from reaction with
other substances, hence making it appear unreactive

Page176
REACTION OF METALS WITH WATER
 Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with water.
 Reactive metals like potassium, sodium and calcium react with water to form the metal
hydroxide and hydrogen. These metals can even react easily with cold water.
 Metals from magnesium to lead react with water to form the metal oxide and hydrogen.
 Metals below hydrogen in the series do not react with water.
Metal How it reacts Equation
Potassium Reacts vigorously with water. 2K(s) + 2H2O(l)  2KOH(aq) + 2H2(g)
Sodium Potassium and sodium shoots across 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq) + 2H2(g)
the surface producing bubbles.
Calcium sinks to the bottom and
Calcium Ca(s) + 2H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2(s) + H2(g)
gives off a slow stream of bubbles
and a cloudy solution.
Reacts extremely slowly with cold
Magnesium water but reacts vigorously with Mg(s) + H2O(g)  MgO(s) + H2(g)
steam to produce a white solid.
Aluminium All three metals do not react with 2Al(s) + 3H2O(g)  Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
Zinc cold water but reacts slowly with Zn(s) + H2O(g)  ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Iron steam to produce the metal oxide. 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)  Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Tin Sn(s) + H2O(g)  SnO(s) + H2(g)
A very slight reaction with steam.
Lead Pb(s) + H2O(g)  PbO(s) + H2(g)
Copper
Silver These do not react with either water
No reaction
Gold or steam.
Platinum

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REACTION OF METAL OXIDES WITH CARBON
 Carbon in the form of coke can be used to reduce metal oxides. Coke is very cheap and at
high temperatures it has a tendency to react with oxygen.
 Some of the metals are found as oxides in nature. These metals can be obtained by
heating the metal ore with coke. T
 The carbon acts as a reducing agent and removes the oxygen from the oxide leaving the
metal behind.
 Oxide of any metal above carbon in the reactivity series cannot be reduced by carbon.
Carbon cannot reduce the oxides of reactive metals such as potassium, sodium,
magnesium and aluminium.
 Carbon can reduce oxides of metals below carbon in the reactivity series.
carbon + metal oxide  metal + carbon dioxide
carbon + zinc oxide  zinc + carbon dioxide
C(s) + 2ZnO(s)  2Zn(s) + CO2(g)
carbon + iron(III) oxide  iron + carbon dioxide
3C(s) + 2Fe2O3(s)  4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

REACTION OF METAL OXIDES WITH HYDROGEN

 Hydrogen can also be used to reduce metal oxides.
 When hydrogen is passed over heated metal oxide the metal and water (steam) is formed.
 The hydrogen acts as a reducing agent and removes the oxygen from the oxide leaving the
metal behind.
 Hydrogen cannot reduce the oxides of metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series.
[Note: oxides of some metals just above hydrogen in the reactivity series (such as lead, tin
and iron) can be reduced by hydrogen at extremely high temperatures.]
 Hydrogen can reduce oxides of metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series.

hydrogen + metal oxide  metal + water

hydrogen + copper(II) oxide  copper + water

H2(g) + CuO(s)  Cu(s) + H2O(g)

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 The reduction of metal oxides with carbon and hydrogen

Reaction of metal oxide with

Metal
Carbon Hydrogen
Potassium
Sodium
Oxides of these metals cannot
Calcium Oxides of these metals cannot
be reduced by carbon.
Magnesium be reduced by hydrogen
Aluminium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Slight reaction at extremely
Tin Oxides of these metals can be
high temperatures.
Lead reduced by carbon to the
Hydrogen
Copper metal and carbon dioxide. Oxides of these metals are
Silver Reduced with increasing ease. reduced to form the metal and
Gold water. Reduced with increasing
Platinum ease.

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS OF METALS

 The more reactive metal has a higher tendency to lose electrons and form positive ions
than a less reactive metal.
 A more reactive metal is able to displace a less reactive metal from its compounds, i.e. a
metal high up in the reactivity series can displace a metal lower down the series.
EXAMPLE : 01
Mix black copper (II) oxide powder with pieces of magnesium and heat the mixture in a
crucible.

mixture of copper(II)
oxide and magnesium

HEAT

Observation: a white solid and a pink solid are formed.

Equation: 𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢𝑂(𝑠) ⟶ 𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢(𝑠)

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Explanation: magnesium being more reactive than copper removes the oxide ion from copper
oxide, forming copper metal (pink solid) and magnesium oxide (white solid).
EXAMPLE: 02
Place a strip of magnesium metal in an aqueous solution of copper (II) sulfate.

Magnesium

Aqueous copper (II) sulfate

Observations: Pink solid deposited on the strip of magnesium.

Blue colour of the solution fades.
Magnesium strip dissolves.
Equation: 𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑢(𝑠)
2+ 2+
Ionic equation: 𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑢(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝑀𝑔(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑢(𝑠)
Explanation: magnesium being the more reactive metal loses 2 electrons and become
magnesium ions (Mg2+). Copper ions (Cu2+) gain the electrons and become copper atoms
which are deposited as a pink solid. The solution is blue due to the presence of Cu 2+ ions. As
the Cu2+ ion concentration in the solution decreases, the blue colour fades.
EXAMPLE: 03
Place a strip of copper metal in an aqueous solution of silver nitrate.

Copper

Aqueous silver nitrate

Observations: Silvery grey solid deposited on the strip of copper.

Colourless solution turns blue.
Copper strip dissolves.
Equation: 𝐶𝑢(𝑠) + 2𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐴𝑔(𝑠)
+ 2+
Ionic equation: 𝐶𝑢(𝑠) + 2𝐴𝑔(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝑢(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐴𝑔(𝑠)
Explanation: copper is more reactive than silver so it loses 2 electrons and become copper
ions (Cu2+). Silver ions (Ag+) gain one electron and become silver atoms which are deposited as
a silvery grey solid. The solution turns blue as Cu2+ ions are formed in the solution.

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 Chemistry of the Environment

Candidates should be able to:

1 Describe chemical tests for the presence of water using anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride and anhydrous
copper(II) sulfate
2 Describe how to test for the purity of water using melting point and boiling point
3 Explain that distilled water is used in practical chemistry rather than tap water because it contains fewer
chemical impurities
4 State that water from natural sources may contain substances, including:
(a) dissolved oxygen
(b) metal compounds
(c) plastics
(d) sewage
(e) harmful microbes
(f) nitrates from fertilisers
(g) phosphates from fertilisers and detergents
5 State that some of these substances are beneficial, including:
(a) dissolved oxygen for aquatic life
(b) some metal compounds provide essential minerals for life
6 State that some of these substances are potentially harmful, including:
(a) some metal compounds are toxic
(b) some plastics harm aquatic life
(c) sewage contains harmful microbes which cause disease
(d) nitrates and phosphates lead to deoxygenation of water and damage to aquatic life

7 Describe the treatment of the domestic water supply in terms of:

(a) sedimentation and filtration to remove solids
(b) use of carbon to remove tastes and odours
(c) chlorination to kill microbes
8 State that ammonium salts and nitrates are used as fertilisers
9 Describe the use of NPK fertilisers to provide the elements nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for
improved plant growth

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 Water & Water Pollution
Chemical tests for water
Water is known as the universal solvent as it dissolves a variety of substances in it.
Those dissolved substances include oxygen, mineral salts, gases organic matter and
many more.

Using cobalt(II) chloride

Cobalt (II) chloride turns from blue to pink on the addition of water.
The equation is:
anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride + water ⇌ hydrated cobalt (II) chloride
CoCl2(s)+ 6H2O (l) ⇌ CoCl2 .6H2O (s)
Blue Pink
Using copper(II) sulfate
Anhydrous copper (II) sulfate turns from white to blue on the addition of water
The equation is:
anhydrous copper (II) sulfate + water ⇌ hydrated copper(II) sulfate

CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) ⇌ CuSO4.5H2O(s)

white blue

Testing the purity of water

 Pure substances melt and boil at specific and sharp temperatures
 Water has a boiling point of 100 °C and a melting point of 0 °C
 Mixtures have a range of melting and boiling points as they consist of different
substances that melt or boil at different temperatures
 Melting and boiling points data can therefore be used to determine the purity of
water
 Impurities tend to increase the boiling point of water, so impure water will boil at
temperatures above 100 °C
 Impurities tend to decrease the melting point of water, so impure water will melt
at temperatures below 0 °C

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Distilled water
 Distilled water is water that has been heated to form a vapour, and then
condensed back to a liquid
 It contains very few impurities
 Distilled water is used in practical chemistry because of its high purity
 Tap water contains more impurities which could interfere with chemical reactions
so is typically not used
Substances in Water from Natural Sources
We use water in many aspects of our everyday life:
 Domestic uses: for drinking, cooking, gardening and general sanitation
 Agricultural uses: as a drink for animals and watering crops
 Industrial uses: as a solvent, as a coolant and heated to make steam used to
generate electricity
 Water is found in natural sources such as lakes, rivers and underground water
sources (groundwater)
 A rock that stores water is known as an aquifer
 Water from natural sources may contain a variety of different substances,
including:
 Dissolved oxygen

 Metal compounds

 Plastics

 Sewage

 Harmful microbes

 Nitrates from fertilisers

 Phosphates from fertilisers and detergents

 Many of these substances enter water sources when rain falls and washes them
 into lakes, rivers or groundwater
 Some of these substances are naturally occurring but many are a direct result of
human activities

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Beneficial & Harmful Substances in Water
 Some of the substances which may be found in natural water sources are beneficial
 and others may have harmful effects
 Beneficial substances include:
 Dissolved oxygen - essential for aquatic life

 Metal compounds - some provide essential minerals which are necessary for

 life, such as calcium and magnesium.

 Potentially harmful substances include:

 Metal compounds - some are toxic like aluminium and lead
 Some plastics - these may be harmful to aquatic life in many ways, e.g. getting
trapped in plastic waste, dying of starvation as their stomach is filled with
plastic
 Sewage - contains harmful microbes which can cause disease.
 Nitrate & phosphates from fertilisers - these can promote the growth of aquatic
plant life which leads to deoxygenation of water. Ultimately, this can cause
damage to aquatic life in a process called eutrophication (you do not
need to know the details of this process)

Water supply
Water is taken from rivers, reservoirs or underground water sources(groundwater)
A rock that stores water is known as an aquifer

Water Treatment
 Untreated water contains soluble and insoluble impurities
 Insoluble impurities include soil, pieces of plants and other organic matter
 Soluble impurities include dissolved calcium, metallic compounds and inorganic
 pollutants
 Water is first pumped through a screen to get rid of the larger bits of rubbish.
 Then, water is filtered through a bed of coarse sand, which traps larger solid
particles.
 Next, it flows into a sedimentation tank. Here chemicals are added to it to make
the smaller particles stick together. These particles settle to the bottom of the tank.

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  Water flows from the top of the sedimentation tank in a filter of fine sand
where it traps any remaining particles.
 Water is then passed through carbon to remove taste and smell (odour)
 Finally a little chlorine is added (chlorination) to disinfect the water, to kill any
remaining bacteria.
 This involves the careful addition of chlorine to the water supply which kills
bacteria and other unwanted microorganisms
 Cholera and typhoid are examples of bacterial diseases which can arise from the
consumption of untreated water

Fertilisers

 N, P, K Fertilisers
 Fertilisers contain nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus
 Nitrogen makes chlorophyll and protein and promotes healthy leaves
 Potassium promotes growth and healthy fruit and flowers
 Phosphorus promotes healthy roots
 Fertiliser compounds contain the following water-soluble ions:

 Ammonium ions, NH4+and nitrate ions, NO3-, are sources of soluble nitrogen Phosphate

ions, PO43- are a source of soluble phosphorus

 Most common potassium compounds dissolve in water to produce potassium ions,
K+
 Common fertiliser compounds include:
 Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
 Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4
 Potassium sulfate, K2SO4
 Ammonium salts and nitrates are commonly used as fertilisers
 Different fertilisers contain different amounts of fertiliser compounds so each
 contains different proportions of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous

Page 185
 Air and air pollution

Candidates should be able to:

1 State the composition of clean, dry air as approximately 78% nitrogen, N2, 21% oxygen, O2
and the remainder as a mixture of noble gases and carbon dioxide, CO2
2 State the source of each of these air pollutants,limited to:
(a) carbon dioxide from the complete combustion of carbon-containing fuels
(b) carbon monoxide and particulates from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing
fuels
(c) methane from the decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from digestion in
animals
(d) oxides of nitrogen from car engines (e) sulfur dioxide from the combustion of fossil
fuels which contain sulfur compounds
3 State the adverse effect of these air pollutants, limited to:
(a) carbon dioxide: higher levels of carbon dioxide leading to increased global warming,
which leads to climate change
(b) carbon monoxide: toxic gas (c) particulates: increased risk of respiratory
problems and cancer
(d) methane: higher levels of methane leading to increased global warming, which leads to
climate change
(e) oxides of nitrogen: acid rain, photochemical smog and respiratory problems
(f) sulfur dioxide: acid rain
4 State and explain strategies to reduce the effects of these environmental issues, limited to:
(a) climate change: planting trees, reduction in livestock farming, decreasing use of
fossil fuels, increasing use of hydrogen and renewable energy, e.g. wind, solar
(b) acid rain: use of catalytic converters in vehicles, reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide
by using low-sulfur fuels and flue gas desulfurisation with calcium oxide
5 Describe photosynthesis as the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen
in the presence of chlorophyll and using energy from light
6 State the word equation for photosynthesis,
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
7 State the symbol equation for photosynthesis,
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
8 Describe how the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane cause global warming,
limited to:
(a) the absorption, reflection and emission of thermal energy
(b) reducing thermal energy loss to space
9 Explain how oxides of nitrogen form in car engines and describe their removal by catalytic
converters, e.g. 2CO + 2NO → 2CO2 + N2

The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained
by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar
radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing
temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variations).

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Air is a mixture of gases, its composition keeps on changing and its components can be
easily separated.
COMPOSITION OF AIR
 Composition of air is approximately constant throughout the world.

Oxygen (21%)

(0.91%)

(78%)

 The main gases in the air are nitrogen and oxygen.

 The remaining 1% is mainly argon and there is a little amount of carbon dioxide,
water vapour and other noble gases.

Gases Composition
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon 0.93%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Other noble gases 0.003%

Uses of air
 The gases available in the air have many important applications
 The noble gases are used in many applications, e.g. helium is used to fill balloons,
 argon is used in tungsten light bulbs, krypton is used in lasers for eye surgery
 Oxygen is used in steel making, welding and breathing apparatus
 Nitrogen is used in food packaging, the production of ammonia and in the
 production of silicon chips
 Oxygen and nitrogen are separated from the air by fractional distillation

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Methods of Gas Collection
Upward displacement of air (Downward delivery)

 This method is suitable if the gas to be collected is

soluble in water or if a dry gas is required.
 Is used to collect gases that are denser than air.
Example: chlorine, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
chloride

Downward displacement of air (Upward delivery)

 This method is suitable if the gas to be collected is

soluble in water or if a dry gas is required.
 Is used to collect gases that are less dense than
air.
Example: hydrogen, ammonia

Downward displacement of water

 This method is suitable for collecting gases that
are insoluble in water/or slightly soluble in
water . However, the gas collected is wet so the
method cannot be used if a dry gas is required.
 Is used to collect gases that are less dense than
air.
Example: hydrogen, oxygen (slightly soluble in
water)
Drying agents
 A drying agent is a substance that absorbs water.
 Concentrated sulphuric acid, which is used to dry all the gases except ammonia.
 Anhydrous calcium chloride is used for all gases except ammonia, which forms a
complex with calcium chloride.
 Calcium oxide is used to dry ammonia and natural gas.

Page 188
Investigating the percentage of oxygen in air

 The percentage of oxygen in the air can be investigated by passing a known quantity of air
over a metal. The oxygen in the air will react with the metal, forming a metal oxide
 The oxygen will be removed from the air and the volume of the air with the oxygen
removed can be measured
 An example of the apparatus that can be used to investigate this is shown below:

 Take 100 cm3 of oxygen in the syringe at the beginning of the experiment.
 Heat the copper turnings using the Bunsen burner.
 Push the plunger of A so that air is forced through the glass tube and into B.
 Push the plunger of B forcing air back to A.
 Repeat this until there is no more change in the volume of air.
 Stop heating and allow everything to cool.
 Push all the air into one syringe and measure the volume of air remaining in the
syringe.
Observation:
The reddish brown copper turnings turned black.
The volume of air present in the syringe decreased to 79 cm3.
Result:
Initial volume of air =100 cm3
Final volume of air = 79 cm3
Volume of oxygen in the air =starting volume - final volume =100-79 = 21 cm3

% of oxygen in air = volume of gas before heating-volume of gas after heating x 100
volume before heating
= (100-79)/100 x 100 =21%
Conclusion:
Percentage of oxygen in the air = 21%

Page 189
 Reason:
When heated, copper reacts with oxygen in the air to form black Copper (II) Oxide. As a
result, the volume of air decreases. When all the oxygen in the syringe is used up the
volume of air in the syringe becomes steady. In this experiment pink colour of the
copper turns black as copper reacts with oxygen to form copper(II) oxide. Copper metal
is pink and copper (II) oxide is black.
2Cu + O2 2CuO
Pink Black

Air pollution
Pollution The introduction of different harmful pollutants into certain environment that
makes this environment, unhealthy to live in.
Pollutant- A substance or condition that contaminates air, water, or soil.

Pollutant Sources Harmful Effects

-By incomplete combustion of
Carbon monoxide  Toxic gas which reduces
carbon containing fuels.
capacity of red blood
(CO) (burning of fossil fuel in too little
cells to carry oxygen
oxygen)
Carbon dioxide  Causes greenhouse effect
-By complete combustion of carbon
which leads to global
(CO2) containing fuels.
warming
Oxides of  Respiratory problems.
- From internal combustion engines  Causes photochemical
Nitrogen
- lightening smog
(NO/NO2)
 Causes acid rain
- From volcanic eruption
Sulfur dioxide  Causes acid rain
- From combustion of fossil fuels
(SO2)  Respiratory diseases.
containing sulfur compounds.
-Decomposition of vegetation
 Causes greenhouse effect
Methane - waste gases from digestion in
which leads to global
animals.
warming
- rice paddy fields and landfill sites
incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing fuels such as fossil fuels
can also produce particulates of
Particulates carbon (soot), e.g the incomplete  respiratory problems and
combustion of cancer
methane can produce CO and C
2CH4 + 3O → 2CO + 4H2 O
CH4 + O → C + 2H2 O

Page 190
Health and Environmental Effect of Pollution
In recent years pollution has been a major threat to the health of people, wildlife, air,
water and land. Main Environmental problems faced as a result of increased pollution
are:
 Green house effect and global warming
 Ozone depletion
 Acid rain
 Photochemical smog

Photochemical Smog
 Photochemical smog is formed in areas where there is large amount of traffic.
 On sunny windless days pollutant gases released by cars and other vehicles are
trapped cloze to the ground between hills and tall buildings.
 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and unburnt hydrocarbons (or VOCs) in this trapped air
react in the presence of sunlight causing a series of chemical reactions resulting in
heavy smog.
 Ground level ozone is one of the products of these reactions and is especially
harmful to asthma patients.

Green house effect and global warming

Greenhouse gases help to trap some of the energy from the sun, which strikes the
earth, and prevent it from being radiated back into space. This process of trapping
heat is known as the greenhouse effect and it is essential for life on earth. Without this
effect the surface of the earth will be much cooler (-18 °C).
The major greenhouse gases are Carbon dioxide (CO2) and Methane (CH4)
Sources of Greenhouse Gases
 Carbon dioxide: burning of fossil fuels particularly in vehicles, factories and
power stations etc.
 Methane: decomposition of organic and vegetable matter.

Page 191
  The increase in use of fossil fuel and large scale deforestation lead to an increase in
the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere resulting in an imbalance in the carbon
cycle.
 More carbon dioxide (greenhouse gases) means more heat is trapped and
subsequently the earth gets too warm which leads to global warming.

Long Term Consequences of Global Warming

Global warming can increase the average air temperature of the earth and if it keeps on
increasing it could lead to:
1. Melting of the polar ice caps which causes
 Sea level to rise
 Flooding of low lying coasts and islands
2. Unpredictable new weather patterns.
3. Disruption of agriculture
Strategies to reduce climate change and green house effect:
1. Planting trees.
2. Reduction in livestock farming
3. Decreasing of fossil fuels.
4. Increasing use of hydrogen and renewable energy such as wind and solar energy.

Ozone depletion
 High energy UV radiation on oxygen gas (O2) produces oxygen atoms (O), which
further react with O2 molecule to form a colourless gas ozone (O3.).
 Ozone (O3) forms a protective layer around the earth’s surface (in stratosphere). It
prevents suns harmful ultra violet rays from reaching the earth’s surface.
 Gases that deplete ozone layer mainly include CFC and other chlorine containing
compounds. When CFCs are released in to the atmosphere, it releases chlorine
atoms in the presence of sunlight. These chlorine atoms react with ozone,
depleting the ozone layer.
 CFCs are used in air conditioners, refrigerators and aerosols etc.
 CFCs react with ozone, breaking it down to oxygen atoms, causing holes in the
ozone layer (ozone depletion) which means more of the suns harmful radiation
reaches the earth surface causing skin cancer, eye cataracts and crop damage.

Page 192
Acid rain
Acid rain is formed when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide which are emitted from
burning of fossil fuels, react with water vapour in air to produce sulfuric acid and nitric
acids.
Effects of acids rain
 Destroys vegetation
 Destroys lime stone buildings and statues
 Lakes are acidified and presence of metal ions (example Al3+) leached (washed out)
of the soil damages the gills of fish.
Methods to reduce acid rain
 Use catalytic converters in vehicles.
 Reduce the emissions of sulfur dioxide by using low-sulfur fuels and the flue gas
desulfurization with calcium oxide or calcium carbonate.

Page 193
Possible Solutions to reduce pollution
1. Fitting catalytic converters in car engines. In catalytic converters carbon monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons formed in the fumes of car engines are
converted into less harmful gases – carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour.
2. Flue-gas desulphurisers can be fitted to power stations and factory chimneys to
reduce the levels of sulphurdioxide given off
3. Replacing CFCs with ozone friendly products
4. Using lead free petrol
5. Calcium carbonate can be used to reduce the effects of acid rain. It can be added to
lakes and surrounding land to decrease acidity.

Oxides of Nitrogen in Car Engines

 These compounds (NO and NO) are formed when nitrogen and oxygen react in
the high pressure and temperature conditions of internal combustion engines and
blast furnaces
 Exhaust gases also contain unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. Cars
are fitted with catalytic converters which form a part of their exhaust systems.
Their function is to render these exhaust gases harmless

Catalytic converters
 They contain a series of transition metal catalysts including platinum and rhodium.
 The metal catalysts are in a honeycomb within the converter to increase the surface
area available for reaction
 A series of redox reactions occurs which neutralises the pollutant gases
 Car exhaust fumes contain harmful gases such as CO, NOx , unburnt hydrocarbons.
The catalytic converter converts these to less harmful products such as CO2, N2 and
H2O.

Page 194
Some of the reactions that occur in catalytic converters are:
1. Carbon monoxide + oxygen carbon dioxide
2CO (g) + O2 (g) 2CO2 (g)

2. Nitrogen monoxide + carbon monoxide nitrogen + carbon dioxide

2NO (g) + 2CO (g) N2 (g) + 2CO2 (g)

3. Nitrogen monoxide nitrogen + oxygen

2NO (g) N2 (g) + O2 (g)
4. Hydrocarbons + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

 Catalytic converters can only be used with unleaded petrol, as lead poison the
catalyst.

CO CO2

HC H2O

Flue gas desulfurization

Acidic gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxides present in fumes emitted by
power stations are mainly removed by this process. Calcium carbonate (lime stone) is
used in this process to remove these gases. Carbon dioxide cannot be removed by this
method.
For example
sulfur dioxide is removed as calcium sulfite as follows;
Calcium carbonate + Sulfur dioxide Calcium sulfite + Carbon dioxide
CaCO3 (s) + SO2 (g) CaSO3 (s) + CO2 (g)

Page 195
Photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction in which energy is transferred from the environment
to the chloroplasts in green plants to make glucose.
 The reactants for this reaction are carbon dioxide and water
 Glucose and oxygen are produced
 Chlorophyll (found in chloroplasts) and energy from light are required for this reaction to occur
The word equation for photosynthesis is:

Sunlight
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen + water
Chlorophyll

Symbol Equation for Photosynthesis

The balanced symbol equation for photosynthesis is:

Sunlight
6CO2+6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

Page 196
 Notes – Organic Chemistry

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. Carbon is a group IV element
with an electronic configuration of (2,4), so it has 4 electrons in the outer shell. The
vastness of carbon compounds is due to the unique properties of carbon.
Unique Properties of Carbon
Carbon has the ability to bod to itself and many other different elements.
Catenation: The ability of carbon to form strong bonds to itself mean that it can
form chains and rings of varying size. These chains and rings are the basis of
carbon’s many stable compounds.
Carbon can form multiple bonds.

Single bond double bond triple bond

Carbon compounds exhibit isomerism. Compounds which have the same

molecular formula but different structural formula are called isomers and the
property is called isomerism.
Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are the simplest form of organic compounds. They contain carbon and
hydrogen atoms only.

hydrocarbons

aliphatic cyclic aromatic

compounds compounds compounds

saturated unsaturated

alkanes (compound alkenes (compound alkynes (compound

with all single bonds) with double bonds) with triple bonds)

Page 197
Saturated hydrocarbons: compounds of carbon and hydrogen that contain carbon-
carbon single bonds only.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: compounds of carbon and hydrogen that contain at least
one carbon-carbon double bond or triple bond.
FORMULAE IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
There are three kinds of formula that are commonly used. They are:-

 Molecular formula
 Empirical formula
 Structural formula
1. MOLECULAR FORMULA
Molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element present in one
molecule of a compound. The molecular formula is written in such a way that it gives
an idea of the arrangement of atoms.
Example
Name of the
Molecular formula
compound
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Ethanol C2H5OH

2. EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Empirical formula is a formula of a compound showing the simplest whole number

ratio of the different types of atoms present in a compound. Normally Empirical formula
does not tell exactly which compound it is.

Example Name of the

Molecular formula Empirical formula
compound
Ethane C2H6 CH3
Butane C4H10 C2H5
butene C4H8 CH2

The molecular formula is the integral multiple of empirical formula. To determine the
molecular formula the relative molecular mass must be known.

Page 2 of 6
 Notes – Organic Chemistry

3. DISPLAYED FORMULA

Displayed formula is also known as molecular structure. It is a diagram showing the

bonding between the atoms involved. It shows how the atoms are joined in the
molecule.

Example

Empirical Molecular
Compound name Displayed formula
formula formula

H H
Ethane CH3 C2H6
H C C H

H H
H H

Ethene CH2 C2H4 C C

H H

The electronic structure is also known as electronic formula. This type of formula
is not very common. It is a diagram, which is drawn similarly to the molecular
structure, and the outer electrons of the atoms are shown.

Example Methane CH4 H

οх
х C ο
H ο х H
οх

H
• In structural formulae, most of the actual covalent bonds are omitted. Only important
bonds are always shown, such as double and triple bonds.

• Identical groups can be bracketed together

• Side groups are also shown using brackets

Example:- Ethane, C2H6 CH3CH3

BUTANE C4H10 structural formula

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 Notes – Organic Chemistry

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A Homologous series is a family of compounds with the same general formula. They
have similar chemical properties and follow a trend in physical properties. Each
member of the series is called a homologue.
The members of the same homologous series have the following characteristics:-
Same general formula.
 The general formula shows the relative numbers of the different atoms in terms
of the variable ‘n’ for all the members of a particular family of compounds.
Example: - Alkanes have the general formula CnH(2n+2)
Same functional group.
 A functional group in organic chemistry is an atom or group of atoms present
in a molecule which is responsible for the characteristic properties of that
molecule.
Example:- In alcohols  –OH group.
The molecular formula of two adjacent members differ by –CH2 group.
The difference in the molecular mass of any adjacent member of the same series
is 14.
Similar chemical properties.
Shows a gradual change (trend) in physical properties with increase in
molecular mass.
Example:- In alkanes as the number of carbon atoms per molecule increases,
the melting point and boiling point increase gradually.
All members in the same homologous series can be prepared by similar
methods.

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 Notes – Organic Chemistry

Naming of organic compounds

Prefixes in the name shows the number of carbon atoms in the compound of a given
homologous series
Suffix in the name represents which homologous series it belongs to.

No. of Prefix Suffixes for different

carbon homologous series
1 Meth -
2 Eth - Alkane –ane

3 Prop -
Alkenes –ene
4 But -
5 pent -
Alcohol –ol
6 Hex -
7 Hept -
Carboxylic acids –oic acid
8 Oct -
9 Non-
10 Dec-

Isomerism
 Isomers are organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different
structural formula.
 The isomers belonging to same homologous series have similar chemical properties
but different physical properties.
 Isomerism can also exist in organic compounds such as in alkanes, alkenes,
alcohols and carboxylic acids.
 As the number of carbon atoms in an organic compound increases the number of
isomers also increases.
 Alkane molecules with 4 or more carbon atoms possess isomers.

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 Notes – Organic Chemistry

For example, butane exhibits isomerism. C4H10can exist as two different structures.

Butane 2 methyl propane

This isomer is said to be straight chain This one is said to be branched chain
because all the carbon atoms are in a because the line of carbon atoms has a
straight line. branch or fork.

The isomers belonging to different homologous series have different chemical and
physical properties.
eg:- There are two structural isomers for molecular formula C3H6O2

NOTE
When drawing the
H H O H O H structure of organic
compounds, check that
H C C C O H H C C O C H each carbon atom forms
four bonds.
H H H H
ethanoic acid Methyl ethanoate

PROPERTIES OF ISOMERS
If the carbon-carbon chain is long the strength of the forces between carbon-carbon
atoms increases. Hence the straight chained molecules are expected to have higher
melting and boiling points.

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 ALKANES
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to
1 State that the bonding in alkanes is single covalent and that alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
2 Describe the properties of alkanes as being generally unreactive, except in terms of combustion and
substitution by chlorine
3 State that in a substitution reaction one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group of
atoms
4 Describe the substitution reaction of alkanes with chlorine as a photochemical reaction, with ultraviolet
light providing the activation energy, Ea, and draw the structural or displayed formulae of the products,
limited to monosubstitution

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with all single bonds between the carbon atoms
in the chain.
Its general formula is CnH2n+2, where ‘n’ is the number of carbon atoms.(n=1,2,3..)
The suffix for alkane homologous is -ane
Examples
n = 1, so, C1H2x1+2 = CH4 Methane
n = 2, so, C2H2x2+2 = C2H6 Ethane
Nomenclature
Since general name of these compounds is alkane, the names of all the individual
alkanes end in –‘ane’ and the prefixes come from Latin name for the numbers.
As CH4 has one carbon atom, Meth, in Latin, ane, as it is an alkane, Methane

Number of carbon
Prefixes Name of alkane Molecular formula
atoms
1 Meth Methane CH4
2 Eth Ethane C2H6
3 Prop Propane C3H8
4 But Butane C4H10
5 Pent Pentane C5H12
6 Hex Hexane C6H14
7 Hept Heptane C7H16
8 Oct Octane C8H18
9 Non Nonane C9H20
10 Dec Decane C10H22

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 molecular
name displayed formula dot- cross diagram
formula
H
H
H C H x

x
CH4 Methane H H x
C H
x

Structural CH4 H

H H
H H
H C C H x x

x x
C2H6 Ethane H H H C C H
x x
Structural : CH3CH3
H H

H H H H H H
x x x
H C C C H x
H x
C C C H
C3H8 Propane H H H
x x x

Structural H H H
CH3CH2CH3

Isomers of Alkanes
Alkanes exhibit isomerism. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but
different structural formula. Isomers have the same relative molecular mass and empirical
formula but different physical properties.
The first three alkanes, methane (CH4) , ethane (C2H6) and propane ((C3H8), each have only
one structure. Butane (C4H10 ) has two structures.
H H H
H H H H
H C H
H C C C C H
H C C C H
H H H H H H H

Page 2 04
 butane 2-methyl propane Structural :
CH3CH3

Physical Properties of Alkanes

The boiling points and melting points increases as the carbon number increases (increase
in molecular mass). This is due to increasing strength of inter molecular forces between
the molecules.
Branched alkanes have lower boiling points than unbranched alkanes, because in
branched chain alkanes carbon atoms are more compact and the intermolecular forces
between molecules are weaker than those between unbranched ones.
The alkane C5H12 has the following isomers and their boiling points are

Isomer boiling point/C

H H H H H

H C C C C C H
1. 36
H H H H H

H
H H
H C H H
2. H C C C C H 27.9
H H H H

H
H H
H C H

H C C C H
9.5
3.
H C H
H H
H

Alkanes from C1 – C4 are gases, C5 – C16 are liquids and above C16 are solids.
Viscosity of alkanes increases down the series as the chain size increases. Longer
molecules have the tendency to get ‘tangled up’ with one another.

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 Flammability of alkanes decreases as the number of carbon increases. Longer carbon
chains have higher boiling points so they don’t vaporise easily and hence will not burn
easily.

No. of
carbon Molecular formula Name Boiling point/ OC Melting point/OC
atoms
1 CH4 Methane -161 -182

2 C2H6 Ethane -89 -183

3 C3H8 Propane -42 -188

4 C4H10 Butane -1 -138

5 C5H12 Pentane 36 -130

6 C6H14 Hexane 69 -95

7 C7H16 Heptane 98 -91

8 C8H18 Octane 126 -57

9 C9H20 Nonane 151 -54

10 C10H22 Decane 174 -30

Liquid alkanes are colourless. They are insoluble in water. Alkanes are less dense than
water, so they float on water.

Chemical Properties of Alkanes

In alkanes the carbon-hydrogen bonds (C-H) are weaker than the carbon – carbon
(C-C) bonds and for this reason replacement of hydrogen atom or atoms by some other
functional group is to be expected, such reaction is called substitution reaction.
They are generally not affected by alkalis, acids or other substances.

a) Substitution reaction of Alkanes with halogens

Alkanes undergo substitution reactions as each hydrogen atom is substituted by a
halogen atom.

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 A substitution reaction is a reaction in which one atom or group of atoms is replaced by
another atom or group of atoms.
Halogens react with alkanes in order of their reactivity.
Fluorine > Chlorine > Bromine > Iodine

Condition : In the presence of ultra violet light (UV light). The substitution reaction of
alkanes with chlorine is a photochemical reaction, with ultraviolet light.
 UV light is providing the activation energy, Ea for the reaction.
Reagent: halogen (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)

Example : methane reacts with chlorine, in the presence of U-V light to form a mixture of
substituted products.
1. H H

H C H + Cl Cl H C Cl + H Cl

H H

CH4(g) + Cl2(g)  CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

(methane) (chloromethane)
2. H H

H C Cl + Cl Cl H C Cl + H Cl

H Cl

CH3Cl(g) + Cl2(g)  CH2Cl2(g) + HCl(g)

(chloromethane) (dichloromethane)
3. H Cl

H C Cl + Cl Cl H C Cl + H Cl

Cl Cl

CH2Cl2(g) + Cl2(g)  CHCl3(g) + HCl(g)

(dichloromethane) (trichloromethane)
4. Cl Cl

H C Cl + Cl Cl Cl C Cl + H Cl

Cl Cl

CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g)  CCl4(g) + HCl(g)

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 (trichloromethane) (tetrachloromethane)

b) Reaction with Air or Oxygen (Combustion reaction of Alkanes)

Gaseous alkanes, such as methane will burn in a good supply of air to form carbon
dioxide and steam (water vapour) as well as plenty of heat energy.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ⟶ CO2(g) + 2H2 O(g)
2C4 H10(g) + 13 O2(g) ⟶ 8CO2(g) + 10H2 O(g)

In a limited supply of oxygen alkanes produces toxic carbon monoxide and steam.
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) ⟶ 2 CO(g) + 4H2 O(g)
2C4 H10(g) + 9 O2(g) ⟶ 8 CO(g) + 10H2 O(g)
In a very limited supply of oxygen alkanes produce un-burnt carbon (soot) and steam.
CH4(g) + O2(g) ⟶ C(s) + 2H2 O(g)
2C4 H10(g) + 5 O2(g) ⟶ 8C(g) + 10H2 O(g)
Uses: Gaseous alkanes are used as fuels. Methane or natural gas is used for cooking as
well as heating purposes. Propane and butane burn with very hot flames and are sold as
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).

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 Fuels
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to
1 Name the fossil fuels: coal, natural gas and petroleum
2 Name methane as the main constituent of natural gas
3 State that hydrocarbons are compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only
4 State that petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons
5 Describe the separation of petroleum into useful fractions by fractional distillation
6 Describe how the properties of fractions obtained from petroleum change from the bottom to the top of
the fractionating column, limited to:
(a) decreasing chain length
(b) higher volatility
(c) lower boiling points
(d) lower viscosity
7 Name the uses of the fractions as:
(a) refinery gas fraction for gas used in heating and cooking
(b) gasoline / petrol fraction for fuel used in cars
(c) naphtha fraction as a chemical feedstock
(d) kerosene / paraffin fraction for jet fuel
(e) diesel oil / gas oil fraction for fuel used in diesel engines
(f) fuel oil fraction for fuel used in ships and home heating systems
(g) lubricating oil fraction for lubricants, waxes and polishes
(h) bitumen fraction for making roads

SOURCES OF FUEL
Petroleum, natural gas and coal are fossil fuels. They were produced from the remains of
plants and small marine animals that lived a long time ago by heating and pressure. There
are limited amounts of these fossil fuels in the Earth. The main sources of fuels are
petroleum and natural gas.

Natural gas consists mainly of methane, CH4

Petroleum (also called crude oil) is a thick black liquid obtained from deep in the ground.
It consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons. Most of these hydrocarbons are liquids although
there are some as solids and gases.

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Crude oil is formed from dead microscopic marine plants and animals which were buried
millions of years ago. Under high pressure and temperature the organic matter are
converted by bacteria into a black viscous liquid, the crude oil. The mixtures of different
hydrocarbons give special characteristics to the fractions (parts) of petroleum. Some
fractions, such as petrol and kerosene, are valuable in their natural liquid state as a fuel.
Others must be converted from one state to another or combined with different substances
before they can be used. In order to convert crude oil into useful products, it has to be
refined.

The mixtures of different hydrocarbons give special characteristics to

NOTE
the fractions (parts) of petroleum. Some fractions, such as petrol and
Fossil fuels are
kerosene, are valuable in their natural liquid state as a fuel. Others must
called non-
be converted from one state to another or combined with different renewable fuels
substances before they can be used. In order to convert crude oil into because they take
thousands of years
useful products, it has to be refined.
to form naturally
and cannot be
Refining of crude oil is carried out in a refinery. In the first stage of refinery
replaced as fast as
crude oil is fractionally distilled. they are being
consumed.

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OIL

Crude oil or petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules. These molecules have different sizes
and numbers of carbon atoms. The small molecules have few carbon atoms, while the large
molecules have many carbon atoms. In this form crude oil is of little use. It must be refined to make
useful products and fuels.
Crude oil is separated by fractional distillation into separate parts in an oil refinery. These parts are
called fractions. Crude oil is heated in a furnace to about 400oC. The oil vaporises and passes up
the fractionating column. The different fractions condenses and come out of the column at different
heights depending on their boiling point.

The fractionating column is filled with trays or plates. The trays have many holes or bubble caps
(like a loosened cap on a soda bottle) in them to allow the vapour to pass through. The trays increase
the contact time between the vapour and the liquids in the column and help to collect liquids that
form at various heights in the column.
The petroleum gas (refinery gas) fraction comes out at the top of the column as its molecules have
the lowest boiling points. The lubricating oil fraction comes out near the bottom because its
molecules have higher boiling points. Bitumen is the residue at the bottom of the column.

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 Small molecules
Low boiling points
high volatility
Low viscosity
High flammability

Large molecules
High boiling points
Low volatility
High viscosity
Low flammability

The properties of fractions obtained from petroleum change from the bottom to the top of
the fractionating column as shown below
(a) decreasing chain length - refinery gas has smaller chain length than diesel
(b) higher volatility – refinery gas is more volatile than diesel.
(c) lower boiling points- refinery gas has lower boiling points than diesel.
(d) lower viscosity- refinery gas has a lower viscosity than diesel.

(e) higher flammability - refinery gas has higher flammability than diesel.

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PETROLEUM FRACTIONS AND THEIR USES

Carbon Boiling
Fractions chain temperature Uses
size range/ °C
Liquefied  Gaseous heating for home and cooking
petroleum C1-C4 Below 25 used to make plastics also used as a
gas(LPG) solvent
Petrol
C4-C12 40 – 100  Used as fuel in cars
(gasoline)

 Used as chemical feed stock

Naphtha C7-C14 90-150  Used as lighter fuel
 To manufacture ethene to make plastics

Kerosene  Used as aircraft fuel and also used as fuel

C9-C16 150 -240
(paraffin) in oil stove and kerosene lamp.
 Used as fuel in diesel engines and buses
Diesel oil C15-C25 220-250
 Power station fuel

 Used as fuel for ships

Fuel oil C20-C70 255
 As a furnace fuel

Lubricating  Lubricant for engines and machines

C20-C70 255-350
oil  Used to make waxes, grease and polish

Bitumen More  Tar for making roads

Above 350
(residue) than C70  Used for roofing.

Page 212
 ALKENES

Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to

 State that the bonding in alkenes includes a double carbon–carbon covalent bond and that
alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
 Describe the manufacture of alkenes and hydrogen by the cracking of larger alkane molecules
using a high temperature and a catalyst
 Describe the reasons for the cracking of larger alkane molecules
 Describe the test to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons by their
reaction with aqueous bromine
 State that in an addition reaction only one product is formed
 Describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition reactions with:
(a) bromine or aqueous bromine
(b) hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst
(c) steam in the presence of an acid catalyst and draw the structural or displayed formulae of
the products

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain carbon –carbon double bond (C=C).

Alkenes can be represented by the general formula CnH2n (n = 2, 3, 4 …)

Its functional groups is a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C).

All the alkenes have at least one double bond between the carbon atoms. They are therefore

more reactive than alkanes.

Alkenes have the suffix – ene.

Page 213
Structures of Alkenes
Displayed
molecular formula/
name dot and cross diagram
formula structural
formula

H H H H
x x
C C
Ethene C2H4 H H C C
x x

CH2=CH2 H H

H H
H H
H H x x
C C C H x

Propene C3H6 H
H
C C C x
H
x x

CH2=CH – CH3 H H

Butene C4H8

CH2=CH – CH2= CH3

C5H10
Pentene

214
Isomers of alkenes
Alkenes having four or more carbon atoms show isomerism.
Butene (C4H8) has three isomers.
H
H H
H H H H H H H
H C
H H
C C C C H H C C C C H
C C C H
H
H H H H H H
but-1-ene but-2-ene 2-methylpropene

Physical Properties of Alkenes

alkenes formula melting point/C boiling point/C state at r.t.p

ethene C2H4 -169 -104 gas

propene C3H6 -185 -47 gas

butene C4H8 -184 -6 gas

pentene C5H10 -138 30 liquid

hexene C6H12 -139 63 liquid

The physical properties of alkenes are very similar to that of alkanes.

Generally alkenes have lower boiling points than alkanes. The boiling point increases as the

number of carbon atoms per molecule increase or molecular mass increases.

Viscosity increases as the number of carbon atoms increases.

Flammability decreases as the boiling point increases.

Page 215
WHERE DO WE GET ALKENES FROM?
Alkenes are very important industrial chemicals used extensively in the plastic industry and
in the production of alcohols such as ethanol and propanol.
However very few alkenes are found in nature and most of the alkenes are obtained by
breaking up larger less useful alkane molecules obtained from the fractional distillation of
crude oil. This is usually done by a process called cracking.
Cracking is the breaking of long chain alkanes into smaller alkane and alkene molecules.

Methods of Preparation of Alkenes

1. Thermal cracking – carried out by heating.
2. Catalytic cracking – carried out by using a catalyst.
3. Dehydration of alcohols.
1. Thermal Cracking
In thermal cracking, high temperature and pressures are used to break the large
hydrocarbons into smaller ones. Thermal cracking gives mixtures of products containing high
proportions of hydrocarbons with double bonds – alkenes.
2. Catalytic Cracking
Catalytic cracking involves passing the larger alkane molecules over a catalyst of aluminium
oxide powder at a temperature of about 500C and moderately low pressures.
Example:
Al2O3
decane octane + ethene
500 °C
C10 H22 ⟶ C8 H18 + C2 H4

This is just one possible reaction where decane is cracked. The molecules may not all break
at the same place. The alkene fragment is not always ethene. Propene and butene may also
be produced.

Cracking can be carried out in the laboratory using paraffin oil. The apparatus is shown
below.

Page 216
Note :

Since ethene is insoluble in water, it is collected by the downward displacement of water.

The delivery tube must be removed from water before the apparatus is left to cool, this is to prevent
the back flow of water in to the hot boiling tube which may break the apparatus.

Advantages of Cracking

As a source of alkenes: because they are unreactive, alkanes are not a good starting point
from which to make the many organic products derived from crude oil. Alkenes with their
reactive double bonds are a more suitable starting point. Cracking reactions produce
alkenes and under the right conditions large yields of ethene and propene can be obtained.

To provide extra gasoline: fractional distillation of crude oil alone does not produce
sufficient petrol (gasoline) to meet the demand of today’s world. To overcome this problem,
heavier fractions can be cracked to produce extra gasoline. For example undecane (C11H24),
a member of the kerosene fraction, can be cracked to produce nonane (C9H20), a component
of gasoline.

Page 217
REACTIONS OF ALKENES
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons and are more reactive than alkanes. Under suitable
conditions alkenes undergo addition reactions with molecules such as bromine, hydrogen and
water. These molecules will add across the C=C double bond.

1. COMBUSTION REACTIONS OF ALKENES

In a good supply of oxygen, alkenes undergo complete combustion to produce carbon
dioxide and water (steam).
15
C5 H10(g) + 2
O2(g) ⟶ 5CO2(g) + 5H2 O(g)
In a limited supply of oxygen, alkenes undergo incomplete combustion to produce carbon
monoxide and water.
C5 H10(g) + 5O2(g) ⟶ 5CO(g) + 5H2 O(g)
2. ADDITION REACTIONS
A reaction where two or more molecules join together chemically, to form a single molecule is
called an addition reaction. In these reactions molecules can be added across the double bond
to form a saturated compound.

a) Hydrogenation of Alkenes (Addition of Hydrogen)

The addition of hydrogen across a C=C double bond is known as hydrogenation.
Reagent: hydrogen gas
Conditions: temperature of 150C – 300C
nickel or platinum catalyst

alkene hydrogen Ni/Pt catalyst alkane

+
150 - 300°C

C2 H4 + H2 ⟶ C2 H6

H H H
H
C C + H H H C C H
H H
H H

Page 218
b) Hydration of Alkenes (Addition of Water)
Alkenes undergo addition reaction with steam in the presence of phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
catalyst at a temperature of 300˚C and pressure of 60 atm (6000 kPa) to form alcohols.
Reagent: water (steam)
Conditions: 300˚C, 60atm OR 6000kPa
H3PO4 catalyst
Ethene reacts with steam to form ethanol. This reaction produces ethanol of high purity
needed in industrial organic chemistry.

H3PO4
alkene + steam alcohol
300°C, 60 atm

C2 H4 + H2 O ⟶ C2 H5 OH

H H H
H O
C C + H H H C C H
H H
H O H

c) Bromination (Addition of Bromine)

Alkenes react with bromine water to form di bromo alkanes. The reaction rapidly
decolourises bromine water from orange-brown to colourless.
Reagent: bromine water
Condition: room temperature
Observation: bromine water is rapidly decolourised. It goes from orange–brown to
colourless.

alkene + bromine dibromoalkane

C2 H4 + Br2 ⟶ CH2 BrCH2 Br

ethene bromine 1, 2-dibromoethane

Page 219
 H H H
H
C C + Br Br H C C H
H H
Br Br

The number of bromine molecules used in the reaction is equal to the number of double
bonds in the alkene molecule.
H H H H H H H H H H H H

H C C C C C C H + 2Br2 H C C C C C C H

H H H Br Br Br Br H

This reaction with bromine is used as test for unsaturation (to find out whether a compound

has double bonds).

This reaction can be used to differentiate between alkanes and alkenes. With bromine

water:-

alkanes – the orange-brown colour of bromine remains unchanged.

alkenes – the orange-brown colour of bromine goes colourless.

Page 220
 ALCOHOLS
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to

1. describe the alcohols as a homologous series containing the –OH group

2. draw the structures of alcohols, C1 to C4, and name the unbranched alcohols, methanol to butanol
3. Describe the manufacture of ethanol by:
(a) fermentation of aqueous glucose at 25–35 °C in the presence of yeast and in the absence of
oxygen
(b) catalytic addition of steam to ethane at 300 °C and 6000 kPa / 60 atm in the presence of an acid
catalyst
4. Describe the combustion of ethanol
5. State the uses of ethanol as: (a) a solvent (b) a fuel
6. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the manufacture of ethanol by:
(a) fermentation
(b) catalytic addition of steam to ethene

Alcohols are a homologous series of compounds which have a general formula

CnH2n+1OH (n = 1, 2, 3 ...).

The molecules have the –O-H functional group called the hydroxyl group.

The names of alcohols end in –ol. (drop the ‘e’ at the end of the corresponding alkane

and add ‘ol’)

STRUCTURE OF ALCOHOLS

Molecular
Name
formula
Displayed formula Dot and Cross diagram
C
Displayed formula
H x
H H O

H C O H x
CH3OH
Methanol x
H H
x
C O H
Structural formula x

CH3OH H

Displayed formula
H H H H
x x
H C C O H x
Ethanol C2H5OH H x
C C O H
H H x x
Structural formula
H H
CH3 CH2 OH

Displayed formula
H H H H H H
x x x
H C C C O H x
Propanol C3H7OH H x
C C C O H
H H H x x x

Structural formula H H H
CH3CH2 CH2OH
Displayed formula

Butanol C4H9OH

Structural formula
CH3CH2 CH2 CH2OH

Page 222
Isomers of Alcohols
Isomers of alcohols can be formed by changing the position of the –OH group and/or by forming
straight and branched structures.
Isomers of C3H7OH
H H H H H H

H C C C H H C C C H

H H OH H OH H

propan-1-ol propan-2-ol
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOLS
alcohol boiling point flammability viscosity solubility in water

CH3OH
C2H5OH
decrease

decrease
increase

increase

C3H7OH
C4H9OH
C5H11OH

Alcohols from C1 to C10 are colourless liquids and alcohols above C10 are solids.
FORMATION OF ALCOHOL
1. Hydration of Alkenes
Reagent: steam
Conditions: H3PO4 catalyst, 300˚C temperature, 60atm pressure (6000kPa)
H3PO4
alkene + steam alcohol
300°C, 60 atm

C2H 4 + H 2O C2H5OH

Advantages
 Cheap and less time consuming(fast process)
 100% yield, 100% pure.
Disadvantage

 Ethene is a non-renewable raw material obtained by the cracking of crude oil.

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 Notes – Alcohols

2. Fermentation of Glucose
 Sugar or starch is dissolved in water and yeast is added. The mixture is then fermented
between 25 and 35 °C with the absence of oxygen for a few days.
 Yeast contains enzymes that catalyse the breakdown of starch or sugar to glucose. If the
temperature is too low the reaction rate will be too slow and if it is too high the enzymes
will become denatured
 The yeast respire anaerobically using the glucose to form ethanol and carbon dioxide:

Glucose Lime water

+ yeast

 The yeast are killed off once the concentration of alcohol reaches around 15%, hence the
reaction vessel is emptied and the process is started again. This is the reason that ethanol
production by fermentation is a batch process

zymase
C6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

 The fermentation lock allows the escape of carbon dioxide (by-product) without the entry of
oxygen into the flask. If oxygen enters into the apparatus it will oxidise ethanol into ethanoic
acid.
 Once the ethanol concentration is about 14% or glucose runs out, yeast die and
fermentation stops. A more concentrated solution of ethanol can be produced by the
fractional distillation of the resulting solution.
Note: Ethanol is not produced by fractional distillation of crude oil.
Advantages :
 It uses a renewable raw material, glucose, which is obtained from plants.
 Raw materials are readily available.

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 Disadvantages:
 expensive, long time to prepare.
 produces CO2 which can cause greenhouse effect.
 low yield and ethanol produced is not 100% pure
Comparing Methods of Ethanol Production.
HYDRATION OF EHTENE FERMENTATION
Equipment Complex set up required Simple equipment needed
Uses renewable resources
Raw materials Uses non-renewable resources (crude oil)
(glucose/starch)
Batch process- everything is mixed
together in a reaction vessel and then
Continuous process- a stream of reactant
Type of process left for several days. That batch is then
is constantly passed over the catalyst
removed and a new reaction is set up-
this is inefficient.
Rate of reaction Fast Very slow
Quality of Produces a dilute solution requiring
Produces pure ethanol
product further processing
No greenhouse gas is produced but
Atmospheric Carbon dioxide produced which is a
pollutants are formed form the burning of
effect greenhouse gas
fossil fuel to maintain high temperature.
Reaction
High temperatures and pressures required Low temperature is required
conditions

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOLS

Combustion Reaction
Alcohols burns in a good supply of air with a pale blue flame to produce carbon dioxide and
water vapour.
ethanol + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water vapour
C2H5OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 3H2O(g)
When less oxygen is present, they burn to give carbon monoxide.
C2H5OH + 2O2  2CO + 3H2O(g)
USES OF ETHANOL

1. Used as methylated spirit.

2. Used as fuel. It is mixed with petrol and used as a fuel for cars. It burns more cleanly than
petrol and so causes less air pollution.
3. Used as a solvent in paints, perfumes, varnishes etc.
4. Important component in the alcoholic drink such as beer, wine. etc.
5. Used to prepare compounds such as ethanoic acid (vinegar) and synthetic rubber.

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 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to

(a) describe the carboxylic acids as a homologous series containing the –CO2H group
(b) draw the structures of carboxylic acids, methanoic acid to butanoic acid, and name the unbranched acids,
methanoic to butanoic acids
(c) describe the carboxylic acids as weak acids, reacting with carbonates, bases and some metals
(d) describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation of ethanol by atmospheric oxygen or acidified
potassium manganate (VII)
(e) describe the reaction of carboxylic acids from C1 to C4 with alcohols from C1 to C4 to form esters
(f) draw the structures of and name the esters formed from carboxylic acids and alcohols
(g) state some commercial uses of esters, e.g. perfumes; flavorings; solvents

 Carboxylic acids are a homologous series of organic compounds which have a general

formula CnH2n+1COOH, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …).

 Carboxylic acids are weak organic acids which contain the –COOH

functional group called the carboxyl group.

 The suffix for carboxylic acids is -oic acid. (drop the ‘e’ at the end of the corresponding

alkane and add ‘oic acid’)

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 n formula name structure
O
0 HCOOH methanoic acid H C
O H

H O

1 CH3COOH ethanoic acid H C C

O H
H

H H O

2 C2H5COOH propanoic acid H C C C

O H
H H

H H H O

3 C3H7COOH butanoic acid H C C C C

O H
H H H

4 C4H9COOH pentanoic acid

METHOD OF PREPARATION - ETHANOIC ACID

Two methods used to make carboxylic acids are:

1.Oxidation by fermentation
2. Using oxidising agents
1. The microbial oxidation (fermentation) of ethanol will produce a weak solution of vinegar
(ethanoic acid)

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This occurs when a bottle of wine is opened as bacteria in the air (acetobacter) will use
atmospheric oxygen from air to oxidise the ethanol in the wine
C2H5 OH (aq) + O2(g) → CH3 COOH (aq)+ H2O (l)
The acidic, vinegary taste of wine which has been left open for several days is due
to the presence of ethanoic acid

2. Ethanol is easily oxidized to ethanoic acid in the presence of atmospheric oxygen, or by

using an oxidizing agent such as acidified potassium dichromate (VI).

𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 + 2[𝑂] ⟶ 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂

ethanol ethanoic acid

Only alcohols which have the –OH group attached to a terminal carbon of the chain can
produce the corresponding carboxylic acid. –OH groups which are not attached to a
terminal carbon do not form carboxylic acids.

eg: Propanol ( C3H7OH) has the following isomers

H H H H H H

H C C C H H C C C H

H H OH H OH H

propan-1-ol propan-2-ol

Propan-1-ol produces propanoic acid but propan-2-ol does not produce a carboxylic acid
though they have the same molecular formula.

Alcohols are oxidised to carboxylic acids by powerful oxidising agents. Acidified

potassium manganate (VII) and acidified potassium dichromate (VI) can be used as
oxidising agents for this reaction.
Colour change: Acidified potassium manganate (VII) – purple (MnO4-) to colourless (Mn2+)

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 Acidified potassium dichromate (VI) – orange (Cr2O72-) to green (Cr3+)
Alcohol + 2[O]  Carboxylic acid + Water
Ethanol + 2[O]  Ethanoic acid + Water
C2H5OH + 2[O]  CH3COOH + H2O

The reaction is carried out in the laboratory by heating the alcohol with an oxidising agent
as shown below.

water out

condenser

water in

alcohol and acidified

 oxidising agent
HEAT
This reaction is carried out in a flask, with a condenser attached so that the vapour
condenses and flows back into the flask. This is known as refluxing. This provides a
means of keeping the liquid at its boiling point without loss due to evaporation.

To separate carboxylic acid from the mixture, the mixture is transferred to a distillation
apparatus. On heating carboxylic acid and water will distil over producing an aqueous
solution of the acid.

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 thermometer

fractionating water
column out water
ethanoic acid (aq)
in
(distillate)

reaction mixture

HEAT

A similar, but slower, reaction takes place when wine or beer is left open. The ethanol in
the alcoholic drink will turn into vinegar (ethanoic acid) due to bacterial oxidation.

The original ‘breathalyzer’ worked out on the basis of the ethanol oxidation reaction. You
had to breathe out through a tube containing orange crystals of potassium dichromate(VI).
If the crystals turned green, this shows that you had too much alcohol in your breath.
2. Reaction With Metals
Alcohols are acidic in nature they react with metals (basic in nature) to produce
corresponding alkoxide salt and hydrogen gas.
Alcohol + Metal  Alkoxide salt + Hydrogen gas
2C2H5OH(l) + 2Na(s)  2C2H5ONa(s) + H2(g)
ethanol sodium ethoxide

2C3H7OH(l) + Mg(s)  (C3H7O)2Mg(s) + H2(g)

propanol magnesium propoxide

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 Note: alcohols are weaker acids than carboxylic acids and hence do not react with metal
hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates though they are basic in
nature.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1 The lower members of the homologous series of carboxylic acids are colourless liquids
with pungent smells and are freely soluble in water.
2 As carbon chain length of an acid increases, its solubility in water decreases.
3 Carboxylic acids containing more than nine carbon atoms per molecule are oily or waxy
solids, and are insoluble in water.
4 Methanoic acid is present in ant and nettle stings, while ethanoic acid (also called acetic acid) is
found in vinegar.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Carboxylic acids are weak acids compared to sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid. As
ethanoic acid is a weak acid it dissociates only partially into ions when dissolved in water.
CH3 COOH(aq) ⟶ CH3 COO−
(aq) + +
H(aq)
ethanoate ion

A solution of a carboxylic acid will show the characteristic reactions of an acid.

1 Carboxylic acids react with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas.
2CH3 COOH(aq) + Mg (s) ⟶ (CH3 COO)2 Mg (aq) + H2(g)
ethanoic acid magnesium ethanoate
2CH3 COOH(aq) + 2Na(s) ⟶ 2 CH3 COONa (aq) + H2(g)
ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate

2 Carboxylic acids react metal hydroxides (base) to form salt and water.
CH3 COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ CH3 COONa (aq) + H2 O(l)
ethanoic acid sodium ethanoate

Pge 231
3 Carboxylic acids react with metal carbonates to form salt, carbon dioxide and water.

2C2 H5 COOH(aq) + Na2 CO3(s) ⟶ 2C2 H5 COONa (aq) + CO2(g) + H2 O(l)

propanoic acid sodium propanoate

ESTERIFICATION
Ethanoic acid will react with ethanol in presence of a few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid,
to produce ethyl ethanoate. The concentrated H2SO4 acts as a catalyst.

Conditions: Concentrated sulfuric acid, heat

𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙 ⟶ 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) ⟶ 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶2 𝐻5(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

H O H H H O
H H
H C C H O C C H H C C O
+ +
O H O C C H H H
H H H H
H H

𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 ⟶ 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

This type of reaction is called esterification reaction. The structure of another ester, propyl
ethanoate, is shown below
H
O
H H H
H C C
O C C C H
H
H H H

Propyl ethanoate is just one example of an ester. This family of compounds has strong and
pleasant smells. Many of these compounds occur naturally. They are responsible for the
flavours in fruits and the scents of flowers.
USES OF ESTERS

 Used as food flavourings and in perfumes.

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 Fats and oils are naturally occurring esters used for energy storage in plants and animals.
 Esters are also good solvents for many organic compounds. For example, “thinner water”
which is a mixture of esters is used in nail polish remover.

Naming Esters

alkyl (from alcohol) + carboxylate (from carboxylic acid)

from the carboxylic acid
from the alcohol H H H O H (ethanoic acid)
(propanol)
H C C C O C C H

H H H H

prop + yl propyl ethanoate ethan + oate

The name propyl indicates that alcohol used is propanol. The name ethanoate tells us that
the acid used is ethanoic acid.
QUESTIONS

page 233
 Q1 Name the following esters.
A B
H H H
O O
H H H H H
H C C H C C C
O C H O C C C C H
H H H
H H H H H

C D

H H H
H H
H H H
H C C C O
H C C O
C C C C H
H H H C H
O H H
H H H O

Q2 Name the carboxylic acid and alcohol used to make each of the above esters.
Q3 Name and draw the structure of the esters formed by the following carboxylic acids and
alcohols.
(a) Methanol and butanoic acid
(b) Propanol and hexanoic acid
(c) Ethanoic acid and pentanol
(d) Methanoic acid and methanol
Q4 Write equations for the reactions occurring (a) and (d)

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 ORGANIC MACROMOLECULES
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to

(a) describe polymers as large molecules made from many small units called monomers, different
polymers having different units and/or different linkages.
(b) describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition polymerization of ethene as the
monomer.
(c) state some uses of poly(ethene) as a typical plastic, e.g. plastic bags; Clingfilm
(d) describe nylon, a polyamide, and PET, a polyester, as condensation polymers, the partial
structure of nylon being represented as

(e) state some typical uses of synthetic fibers such as nylon and PET, e.g. clothing; curtain

materials; fishing line; parachutes; sleeping bags

(f) deduce the partial structure of the polymer product from a given monomer and vice versa
(g) describe the pollution problems caused by the disposal of non-biodegradable plastics
(h) identify proteins
(i) describe proteins as possessing the same amide linkages as nylon but with different monomer
units

Macromolecules are large molecules which are made up from small units by a
chemical reaction.
 There are two classes of macromolecules:

Synthetic macromolecules Natural macromolecules

They are man-made macromolecules. These macromolecules are naturally
Some examples are nylon, terylene, occurring. Some examples are proteins,
polythene etc… carbohydrates, fats, cellulose, wool,
cotton etc…

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 POLYMERISATION
Polymerisation is the process in which many small molecules (monomers) chemically
react together to form a large molecule (polymer).

Types of Polymerisation
There are two types of polymerisation
1. Addition polymerisation 2. Condensation polymerisation

ADDITION POLYMERISATION
 Addition polymerisation is a process by which many small molecules (monomers) are
added onto one another to form one large molecule (polymer).
 ONLY unsaturated compounds (i.e. compounds containing a double bond between
the carbon atoms) can undergo addition polymerisation.
 The double bonds between carbon atoms of monomer are converted to single bonds.
 In addition polymerisation, the monomer and the repeating unit of the polymer have
the SAME molecular
 formula, empirical formula and relative molecular mass.
 The percentage by mass of elements in monomers and polymer remain the same.
 The melting point, boiling point and density of the polymer are different from the
monomer.
Example of Addition Polymerisation
Formation of Poly(ethene)
 Poly(ethene) is an addition polymer formed by the addition polymerisation of ethene
monomers at a specific temperature and pressure. Oxygen is used as a catalyst.

H H H H n = number
of ethene
n C C C C molecules

H H H H
n

ethene poly(ethene)
monomer polymer

 The above structure can be simplified and written as [-CH2 – CH2-]n

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Example of Addition Polymers and Their Uses
Monomer Structure of polymer Name of polymer Use
H H
H H
C C  To make
C C Poly(ethene)
H H
plastic bag
H H
ethene n

CH3 H  To make
CH3 H
C C plastic sheets
C C Poly(propene)
H H  washing up
H H bowls
propene n

Cl H

C C

H H Cl H  as an insulator
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) in electrical
vinyl chloride
C C or wire.
poly(chloroethene)
H H  to make pipes
n

C6H5 H  packaging
C6H5 H materials
C C Poly(styrene)
C C or  ceiling tiles
H H
poly(phenylethene)
phenylethene H H  plastic model
n
(styrene)
kits

H CH3 H CH3 Perspex

 As a
C C or
COOCH3 C C substitute for
H poly(methyl
glass
methyl methacrylate
H COOCH3 methacrylate)
n

 coating for
F F non-stick
F F Teflon sauce pans
C C or
C C
F F
poly(tetrafluoroethene)  to make
F F (PTFE) bridge
tetrafluoroethene n
bearings
 burette taps.
 Addition polymers can be homopolymers containing just one type of monomer. For
example poly(propene) from the monomer propene,
Page 237
 Addition polymers can also be copolymers containing two or more different types
of monomers. For example, the following polymer was made from the monomers
styrene and methyl methacrylate.

C6H5 H H CH3 C6H5 H H CH3

C C + C C C C C C

H H H COOCH3 H H H COOCH3

CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION
 Condensation polymerisation is a process where two monomers react together to
produce a large molecule, with the elimination of a small molecule like water (H2O),
ammonia (NH3), hydrogen chloride (HCl) etc.
 The two monomers can be the same as in starch or different as in nylon, proteins,
and terylene.
 Condensation polymers can be synthetic like nylon and terylene or natural like starch
and proteins.
 The molecular formula and relative molecular mass of monomers and the repeating
unit of polymers are different.
 Two synthetic condensation polymers will be discussed. They are nylon and terylene.
NYLON
 Nylon is a condensation polymer formed from the two monomers;
a dicarboxylic acid a diamine

actual structure actual structure

O O H H

HO C C4H8 C OH H N C6H12 N H

simplified as simplified as

O O H H

HO C C4H8 C OH H N C6H12 N H

box representing the C4H8 box representing the C6H12

hydrocarbon chain hydrocarbon chain

 To simplify the structure a box is used to represent the carbon-hydrogen chain. The
atoms in the box (carbon-hydrogen chain) do not undergo any chemical change

Page 238
 during the polymerisation process. Only the functional groups take part in the
reaction.
Formation of Nylon
 During the process, the amino group (-NH2) in one monomer reacts with the carboxyl
group (-COOH) in the next monomer with the elimination of a water molecule.

O O H H O O H H

HO C C4H8 C OH H N C6H12 N H HO C C4H8 C OH H N C6H12 N H

water molecules eliminated

Once the water molecules are eliminated, the monomers join to form a long chain.
amide linkage
O O H H O O H H
C C4H8 C N C6H12 N C C N C6H12 N
repeating unit

O H
N
 The units of nylon are joined together by the amide linkage ( C ). Hence nylon is
also called a polyamide.

Properties and Uses of Nylon

 Nylon is strong yet light. It can be stretched without breaking.
 Nylon is made into fibres to produce strong ropes, fishing lines and carpets.
 It is woven into cloth to manufacture raincoats, parachutes and tents.
 It is used to make curtain rail fittings cupboard hinges and gear wheels.

PET (poly ester)

 PET or polyethylene terephthalate to give its full name, is a polyester made from

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  dicarboxylic acid monomers (a carboxylic with a -COOH group at either end) and
 diols (alcohol with an -OH group at either end)
 Each -COOH group reacts with another -OH group on another monomer
 An ester linkage is formed with the subsequent loss of one water molecule per link
 For every ester linkage formed in condensation polymerisation, one molecule of
 water is formed from the combination of a proton (H ) and a hydroxyl ion (OH )
 PET is also used in synthetic fibres as is sold under the trade name of terylene.

a dicarboxylic acid a diol

actual structure actual structure
O O

HO C C6H4 C OH H O CH2 CH2 O H

simplified as simplified as

O O

HO C C4H8 C OH H O C6H12 O H

box representing the C6H4 box representing the CH2CH2

hydrocarbon chain hydrocarbon chain

Formation of PET
 During the process, the carboxyl group (-COOH) in the acid monomer reacts with the
hydroxyl (-OH) group in the alcohol monomer, eliminating water molecules.
O O O O

HO C C4H8 C OH H O C6H12 O H HO C C4H8 C OH H O C6H12 O H

water molecules eliminated

ester linkage
O O O O
C C4H8 C O C6H12 O C C O C6H12 O
repeating unit

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 The monomer units are linked together by an ester linkage ( ).
Therefore terylene is a polyester.
Properties and Uses of PET
 Terylene is made into fibres which are woven into cloth. This polymer lasts longer
than cotton. It is easier to wash and dry. Therefore polyester is used widely to
produce clothes such as T-shirts.
 Terylene can also be used to produce films which are then used for making recording
tapes.

PLASTICS
All man made polymers are plastics. Some common examples are nylon and
poly(ethene). There are several advantages of using plastics:
 Plastics can be easily moulded into a variety of shapes.
 They are strong but light.
 They are considerably cheap.
 Plastics are corrosion resistant (do not corrode) and durable (long lasting).
 They can be made in different forms (e.g. films, fibres, rigid solids, solid foam).
However there are several disadvantages of using plastics.
 Since plastics are carbon compounds, they can burn easily causing fire risk in
buildings.
 Disposing plastics is a major problem because it is corrosion resistant. Most plastics
are non-biodegradable. That is, they are not decomposed by bacteria in the ground.
 Plastics are often disposed of by burning. However this produces toxic gases which
cause health hazards.
 Many sea-animals die each year as a result of eating plastic or getting tangled in
plastic nets.
NATURAL MACRO MOLECULES

Page 241
 All living organisms contain natural macromolecules, such as proteins, starch and
fats.
 Most of these substances are large molecules made from smaller molecules. For
example proteins are made from amino acids.
 Most carbohydrates and all proteins are polymers. However fats are not polymers.

PROTEINS
 Proteins are natural condensation polymers made up from monomers called amino
acids. Proteins contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.
 There are many types of amino acids but only about 20 are found in nature.
 Each amino acid monomer has two functional groups;
the amine group (-NH2) and the carboxylic acid group (-COOH).

AMINO ACID

 The amino acid monomer can be represented as:

H O

H N C6H12 C OH

Formation of Proteins
 When amino acids combine, the –OH from the carboxyl group (-COOH) of one amino
acid combines with a –H from the amino group (-NH2) of the next amino acid, to form
water molecules which are then eliminated.
H O H O

H N C4H8 C OH H N C6H12 C OH

- H2O

H O H O
H N C4H8 C N C6H12 C OH

peptide linkage

 The peptide link found in proteins is the same as the amide linkage found in nylon.

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 Chemistry – Grade 10

 When amino acids combine to form a long chain, the polymer formed is a
polypeptide chain. Thus proteins are polypeptides.

Hydrolysis of Proteins

 Proteins can be broken down into their constituent amino acids by hydrolysis
(addition of water).
 Hydrolysis is carried out by heating the protein with a dilute acid or alkali or even
enzymes.
 Hydrochloric acid can be used as a catalyst in hydrolysis of protein.
HCl
protein + water amino acids
Summary
condensation
-H2O
amino acids protiens
+H2O
hydrolysis

Comparison of Nylon and Proteins

Nylon Protein
 Nylon is a synthetic polymer.  Protein is a natural polymer.
 Nylon is made up of only two types of  Proteins are made up of many types of
monomers. monomers (amino acids).
 Nylon has amide linkage.  Proteins have amide (peptide) linkage

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