11/7/2024

Design for Additive Manufacturing

Dr. Radha Raman Mishra

BITS Pilani Mechanical Engineering Department

Pilani Campus

Numerical

A prototype of a tube with a square cross-section is to be

fabricated using stereolithography. The outside dimension of the
square = 100 mm and the inside dimension = 90 mm (wall
thickness = 5 mm except at corners). The height of the tube (z-
direction) = 80 mm. Layer thickness = 0.10 mm. The diameter of
the laser beam (“spot size”) = 0.25 mm, and the beam is moved
across the surface of the photopolymer at a velocity of 500 mm/s.
Compute an estimate for the time required to build the part, if 10
s are lost each layer to lower the height of the platform that holds
the part. Neglect the time for post-curing.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

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Layer area Ai is same for all layers.

Ai = 1002 - 902 = 1900 mm2

Time to complete one layer Ti is same for all layers.

Ti = (1900 mm2)/(0.25 mm)(500mm/s)+10 s = 25.2 s

Number of layers

ni = (80 mm)/(0.10 mm/layer) = 800 layers

Tc = 800(25.2) = 20,160 s = 336.0 min = 5.6 hr

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Numerical

•In a selective laser melting process, the scanning speed was kept equal to 500 mm/s,
laser power was 100 W, hatch spacing was 0.2 mm and layer thickness was 0.08 mm.
During the building of the part, it was observed that the energy density was not sufficient
for sintering of the metal particles. Therefore, the energy density was doubled to affect
the scan speed, keeping other parameters constant. If the material requires, 20 J/mm3.
Calculate the following –
• Energy density after increment
New scanning velocity
Excess/deficient energy

v = 500 mm/s, P = 100 w, h = 0.2 mm and t =0.08 mm, energy required by material = 20 J/mm3
a. E = 100/ (500 × 0.2 × 0.08) = 12.5 J/mm3 ; New energy density = 2×12.5 = 25 J/mm3
b. New scanning velocity = P/ (E × h × t) = 100/ (25×0.2×0.08) = 250 mm/s
c. Excess energy = 25-20 = 5 J/mm3

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Numerical

A solid part (see figure) of polymer material is to be fabricated by additive

manufacturing (AM) in square-shaped layers starting from the bottom of the part
working upwards. The nozzle diameter of the (AM) machine is a/10 mm and the
nozzle follows a linear serpentine path parallel to the sides of the square layers
with a feed rate of a/5 mm/min.
Ignore any tool path motions other than those involved in adding material, and any
other delays between layers or the serpentine scan lines.
The time taken to fabricate this part is ____________ minutes.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Nozzle dia., D = a/10 mm, Feed rate = a/5 mm/min

No. of passes in the horizontal

plane = 3a/0.1a = 30
3a
Total lt. covered in one layer =
3a×30 = 90a

Total no. of layer = 1.5a/0.1a= 15

Total lt. of bottom layer = 15×90a = 1350a 3a

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

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 11/7/2024

Total lt. of middle layer = 400a

Total lt. of top layer = 50a

Total lt. travelled by the nozzle = 1800a

Total time requires = 9000 min

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Numerical

In a powder feed AM system , the steel metal is injected using an off-

axis nozzle at an angle of 60° from vertical through a nozzle of
diameter 5mm; if the laser power is 1kW, find out the catchment
efficiency of the process. Given Tm=1425°C, To=25°C, k= 50 W/mK.

ɳ = 10.34%

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

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Numerical

In a powder feed-based AM Process, the side feeding nozzle is used

to feed material into the molten pool. If with the same setup and
laser power the material is changed from A to B. And the melting
point of materials A and B is the same, but the thermal conductivity
of material B is 4 times higher than the thermal conductivity of
material A; find out the ratio of catchment efficiencies of both
materials.

ɳA/ɳB = 16

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Numerical

A manufacturer is using a laser-based metal powder bed fusion

machine (cost: USD 10 lakhs) for the fabrication of a part (200 mm
× 200 mm × 200 mm). The average time taken by the recoater for
placing a new layer (layer thickness 25 µm) was 9 s. The laser beam
scans the powder layer in raster pattern with a speed of 300 mm/s
and 0.1 mm hatch spacing. Calculate/discuss with respect to the
building of a single part –
(a) Total recoating time (s),
(b) Total recoating cost (USD),
(c) Total hatching time (s),
(d) Total hatching cost (USD),

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Economics of Additive Manufacturing

Machine hourly running costs =

(Machine purchase cost + interest)/(payback period × % running time × yearly hours)

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Time factors that are not affected by design

• In metal AM part production, some factors take time, and

therefore cost, but are not affected by the part design
• Recoater time (used in spreading a layer of powder
before the laser can start to scan)
• Typical recoater times: around 4–15 s per layer (based
on machine)
• Average recoater time 8 s, for a 100 mm tall part with
layer thickness is 50 μs (2000 layers)
• Total recoater time = 16,000 s (about 4.5 h) which,
• Average machine hourly price = above of $65/h
• Total recoating cost = about $290
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Surface Engineering

Dr. Radha Raman Mishra

BITS Pilani Mechanical Engineering Department

Pilani Campus

Numerical

A block of mass, m = 5 kg is placed on a horizontal surface. The

coefficient of static friction (µs) between the block and the
surface is 0.3. The coefficient of kinetic friction (µk) between the
block and the surface is 0.25. Find
▪ The maximum static friction force
▪ The frictional force when block is in motion

Max. static friction force, F = µRN = µs.m.g

Max. kinetic friction force, F = µRN = µk.m.g

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

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Numerical

A steel pin slides against a steel plate with a load (L) of 100 N.
The sliding distance (d) is 500 m and the wear coefficient is
1×10-8 mm3/N.m. Find the wear volume

Wear volume, (V) = k.L.d

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Numerical

A journal bearing has a shaft diameter (D) of 50 mm and a length

(L) of 100 mm. The shaft rotates at a speed (N) of 1500 rpm. The
lubricant viscosity (ƞ) is 0.1 Pa. The radial clearance between the
shaft and the bearing is 0.1 mm. Find the minimum lubrication
film thickness.
1
Hmin = c 2𝜋𝑁𝐷𝜂
1+( )
𝐿𝑃

Where P is the bearing pressure. For this problem, assume a

uniform pressure distribution.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

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Numerical

A journal bearing has the following specifications: journal dia.

100 mm, bearing length 150 mm, radial clearance 0.1 mm,
journal speed 1500 rpm, lubricant viscosity 0.02 Pa.s. Calculate
▪ The minimum film thickness
▪ The maximum film thickness

Hmin = C(1-Ɛ)

Hmin = C(1+Ɛ)

For hydrodynamic lubrication, Ɛ = 0.8

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Numerical

A slider bearing with the following specifications:

Bearing length: 300 mm, Bearing width: 200 mm
Sliding speed: 5 m/s, Lubricant viscosity: 0.015 Pa.s, Film
thickness: 0.02 mm. Calculate the maximum pressure developed
in the lubrication film.

6𝜂𝑈𝐿
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
ℎ2

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

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Numerical

A steel pin slides against a steel disc under dry conditions. The
applied load is 200 N, and the sliding distance is 500 meters. The
volume of material worn away is measured to be 0.02 cm3.
Calculate the wear rate in terms of volume loss per unit distance.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑛 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦

𝑉=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Numerical

A material undergoes wear test where the applied load is 150 N,

and the sliding speed is 2 m/s. The test duration is 30 minutes.
The mass loss of the material after test is 0.05 gm. The density of
material is 7.8 g/cm3. Calculate the specific wear rate.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (Δ𝑚)

Volume loss, Δ𝑉 = 𝜌

Sliding distance, L = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

∆𝑉
Specific wear rate, 𝐾 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑×𝐿

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

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Micromanufacturing

Dr. Radha Raman Mishra

BITS Pilani Mechanical Engineering Department

Pilani Campus

In a laser microwelding process, a pulsed Nd laser is used to weld two thin titanium sheets,
each with a thickness of 100 μm. The laser operates with pulse shaping, where the power
increases linearly during the first half of the pulse and decreases linearly during the second
half. The total pulse duration is 10 ms.
The peak power of the laser pulse is 1000 W, and the base power (at the start and end of the
pulse) is 100 W. The thermal conductivity of titanium is 22 W/m·K, and its specific heat
capacity is 520 J/kg·K. The density of titanium is 4500 kg/m³.
Assume the energy absorption efficiency of the laser is 30%, and the weld area has a circular
cross-section with a diameter of 0.5 mm.
1. Calculate the total energy delivered to the weld during one laser pulse.
2. Estimate the temperature rise in the titanium sheets during one pulse, assuming all the
absorbed energy is used to raise the temperature.

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The power of the pulse is shaped such that it increases linearly from 100 W to 1000 W in the first half of the
pulse (5 ms), and then decreases linearly back to 100 W in the second half (5 ms).
The average power for each half of the pulse is given by:
First half (from 100 W to 1000 W):
Pavg1= 550 W
Second half (from 1000 W to 100 W):
Pavg2= 550 W
Energy at first 5 ms, E1: Pavg1*t1 = 2.75 J
Energy at last 5 ms, E2: Pavg2*t2 = 2.75 J
Total energy: E1 + E2 = 5.5 J
The energy absorbed by the material: 0.3*5.5 J = 1.65 J

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
𝜋 2
𝑉= 𝑑 = 1.9635×10−11m3
4
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉

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The grit used during micro-grinding of stainless steel behaves like a spring that has an edge
radius of 100 µm and stiffness of 100 N/m. Find out the normal force experienced by grit.
Given that the flow strength of SS is 295 GPa. Can the grit penetrate through the SS
surface? If yes find out the normal force and tangential force when the grit penetrates SS
material. Also, find out the specific energy required for primary rubbing if the number of
grit used is 50, velocity of grit is 175 mm/sec and MRR is 10 mm3/mm-sec.

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A microchannel is etched in a {100} Si wafer with KOH solution. Determine

(a)Angle between the channel wall and the front surface.
(b)If top width of the channel, Wt= 100 µm, etching rate = 1 µm/min, what is the bottom
channel width, Wb after 20 minute of etching.
(c)How long will it take until the etching process stops.

➢ Based on the crystal structure, the angle between fast etching plane [100] and slow
etching plane [111] i.e.
ABC = α

➢ In ΔDAE, LDAE = 90º

B
D

√2 α
√3/2
B √2/2
1
√2/2
√2/2

A 1 C
A 1 E

➢ tan α = 1/√2/2 = √2
➢ α = 54.75º

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➢ After 20 minutes of etching, the channel depth will be

➢ Wb = Wt – (d/tanα)
➢ d = total time * E.R = 20 µm
➢ Wb = 71.7 µm

➢ The etching will stop if Wb = 0 µm

A microwelding process uses a laser to weld two stainless steel micro-wires, each with a
diameter of 100 μm. The laser operates with a power of 0.5 W for 5 seconds. The specific
heat capacity of stainless steel is 500 J/kg·K, and its density is 8000 kg/m³. The process is
50% efficient in converting laser energy into heat for welding.
Assume the weld area is a circular cross-section with a diameter equal to the wire diameter,
and the temperature of the micro-wires rises from room temperature (300 K) to 1500 K
during the welding process.
After welding, the micro-joint is subjected to a tensile test. The joint has a cross-sectional
area of 0.01 mm² and breaks under a load of 70 N.
1. Calculate the total heat energy absorbed by the micro-wires during the welding process.
2. Estimate the temperature rise in the micro-wires based on the heat absorbed.
3. Calculate the tensile strength of the micro-weld joint.

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Micro-manufacturing

Contents

• Overview of micromanufacturing

• Fundamentals and working principles of –

 Micro-machining

 Micro-forming

 Micro-casting

 Micro-joining

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Size ranges

Size ranges

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Micromanufacturing
Micromanufacturing is the use of machine, tools, and labor to produce either micro
components, or micro features on the large components.

• The objective of miniaturization is –

either to create small parts with more capabilities or
to create small features on large components to increase its functionality

• Miniaturization involves many areas of science and engineering –

 Physics
 Chemistry
 material science
 computer science
 ultra-precision engineering
 fabrication processes, and
 equipment design 5

Micro-manufacturing Classification

LBM – laser beam micromachining; EBMM – electron beam micromachining;, EDMM – electric discharge micromachining; ECMM – electrochemical micromachining;
USMM – ultrasonic micromachining; AJMM – abrasive jet micromachining; CVD – chemical vapor deposition; PVD – physical vapor deposition.

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Micro/Nano-Machining & Finishing

Micro Machining
Micro Machining

Removal of material at micro level

1. Macro components but material removal is at micro/nano level

2. Micro/nano components and material removal is at micro/nano level (Ex. MEMS, NEMS)

MORE CORRECT DEFINITION

LEG OF A HOUSE FLY

Material removal is at micro/nano

level with no constraint on the size
of the component

SIZE : 2mm x 2mm 8

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Traditional Micromachining (MICRO MILLING)

• Downscaling of macro to micro milling by

using sub-millimeters end mills

• It has two major requirements

1. Ultra precision machines (CNC) Conventional size cutting: the Micro-cutting: the forming
actual rake angle corresponds chip experiences a negative
to the nominal one rake angle of high modulus.
2. Micro tools
• End mills of diameter 50 µm are
available
• Basically, manufactured by three
techniques –
Mechanical grinding
Focused ion beam
Micro EDM Conventional cutting: cut geometry Micro-cutting: cut geometry and
the grain sizes of the workpiece
and the grain sizes of the workpiece
material are not comparable material are comparable
9 9

Classification of advanced micromachining processes

AWJMM - abrasive water jet micromachining,

WJMM - water jet micromachining
PAMM - plasma arc micromachining,
PCMM - photochemical micromachining
ECSMM - electrochemical spark
micromachining,
ELID - electrolytic in-process dressing
ECG – electrochemical grinding,
EDG - electric discharge grinding

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Mechanical advanced micromachining processes

Mechanism of material
Ductile material Brittle material

Forces acting on each particle and particle size will decide the scale of material
removed : macro, micro, nano
11

11

Beam-based micromachining (Ion beam)

Focused ion beam milling process

SEM image of –
(a) Template for fabricating
interdigited electrodes,
(b) Nanochannels connecting
two bigger channels,
(c and d) Templates for making
micron/nanosize dies

FIB-Induced Etching Process

Insulator-enhanced etching (IEE) on SiO2 substrate

12

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Classification of Advanced Micro/Nano Finishing Processes

AFF - abrasive flow finishing, CMP – chemo-mechanical polishing, MRF – magnetorheological finishing, MAF – magnetic
abrasive finishing, MRAFF -magnetorheological abrasive flow finishing, MFP - magnetic float polishing 13

13

AFF - Abrasive Flow Finishing

Forces in finishing region in (a) AFF process and (b) R-AFF process

14

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Magnetorheological finishing processes

MR fluid – micron-sized magnetic carbonyl iron particles (CIPs) and nonmagnetic abrasives

15

15

Magnetorheological Abrasive Flow Finishing (MRAFF)

Absence of external magnetic field

Presence of external magnetic field

MRAFF process. (MR: magnetorheological; CIP: carbonyl iron particle) 16

16

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Surface finish obtainable from different finishing processes

S.NO. FINISHING PROCESS WORK-PIECE Ra (nm)

- 25 - 6250
1. GRINDING

2. - 25 - 1500
HONING

3. - 13 - 750
LAPPING

4. ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING

HARDENED STEEL
50
(AFM) WITH SIC ABRASIVES

5. MAGNETIC ABRASIVE FINISHING STAINLESS STEEL 7.6

(MAF) WITH DIAMOND ABRASIVES rods
6. MAGNETIC FLOAT POLISHING Si3N4 4.0
(MFP) WITH CEO2 ABRASIVES

7. MAGNETORHEOLOGICAL 0.8
FLAT BK7 GLASS
FINISHING (MRF) WITH CEO2

8. ELASTIC EMISSION MACHINING SILICON <0.5

(EEM) WITH ZRO2 ABRASIVES

9. ION BEAM MACHINING (IBM) CEMENTED CARBIDE 0.1

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Micro-Forming

18

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Micro-forming
Challenges

19

19

Micro-forming
Micro-forging

20

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Micro-forming
Micro-forging

Fig. (a) Schematic illustration of the experimental setup; (b) The vacuum chamber installed on the precision press; (c) The
components of the vacuum chamber and die; (d) The produced micro copper parts.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.10.868 21

21

Micro-forming
Severe plastic deformation processes for getting
Micro-hydroforming ultra-fine-grained microstructures

(a) tube hydroforming and (b) sheet hydroforming.

(a) high-pressure torsion, (b) equal channel angular extrusion, (c)

cyclic closed-die forging, (d) accumulated roll bonding.
22

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Micro-Joining

23

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Micro-Joining

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Friction Welding
• Heat required for welding is generated
through friction at the interface of the two
components
Removed (machining/ grinding)

• One workpiece component remains

stationary while the other is rotated at a
high constant speed Distance moved
inward during welding

• The two members to be joined are then

brought into contact under an axial force

The shape of the welded joint

depends on the rotational speed
and on the axial pressure applied

25

Friction Welding Linear Friction Welding

Inertia Friction Welding

Friction Stir Welding

26

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Micro-casting

27

27

Micro-casting
• Process for producing small structures (micro size range) or larger parts carrying
microsized structures with high AR (ratio of flow length to diameter) using a metal
melt, which is cast into a micro-structured mold
• Permanent mold and investment casting are being used for parts in large quantities
• Capable of manufacturing very complicated structures, scalable, economically efficient
for mass production and requiring minimal subsequent machining
• Process can more easily fabricate structures with curved surfaces and with higher
throughput than other processes
• Applications –
 instruments for surgery
 dental devices & dental casting
 miniaturized devices (biotechnology & mechanical engineering)
 jewelry
Schematic diagram of an
illustrative microcasting part
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Micro-casting
Investment Casting

a) Pattern with 15 injection-molded

polymer tensile test specimens
fixed on a sprue system made of
wax;
b) equivalent cast part manufactured
in a gold base alloy
29

29

Micro-casting Vacuum micro-casting process

Feature size: 150 µm
AR higher than: 50
Permanent mold micro-casting Surface roughness:5 µm
Accuracy: 10%

Al-bronze casting (mold: steel)

Centrifugal micro-casting

Graphite mold (narrow cross runner) and Al bronze casting 30

30

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Micro-casting
Micro-casting of metals using silicon master

Microcast metal. (A) Metal with 10 μm diameter holes 15 μm

deep. 400 nm ridges from the Bosch process are viewable in the
picture showing a single 25 μm diameter hole. (B) Metal pillars 50
μm diameter and 100 μm tall.
31

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Microcasting
Micro-casting of a metal roller

Microcast roller with100 μm diameter holes and 15 μm deep.

32

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LIGA Processes

33

33

Lithographie Galvanik Abformung (LIGA)

• Fabrication process for high aspect ratio microstructures

• Very high aspect ratio structures can be achieved (typical height 20-500 μm)

• Have more material selectivity in final products - metal, polymer, and even ceramics

• Vertical and better surface roughness in sidewall –

 Vertical slope <1μm/mm,
 Surface roughness 0.03-0.05 μm (max. peak to valley)

• Application: MEMS and traditional precision manufacturing

34

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PROCESS STEPS (LIGA)

1. X-ray lithography
(LI=lithographie)
• To generate primary microstructures
• DXRL=deep X-ray lithography
• UDXRL=ultra-deep X-ray lithography

2. Electroplating/Electro-deposition
(G=Galvanik)
• To produce microstructures in metal

3. Molding
(A=Abformung)
• To batch produce secondary
microstructures in polymers, metals,
ceramics etc.

35

35

Process capabilities (LIGA)

Limitations -

• X-ray source – expansive

• Exposure and develop – time

consuming

• The X-ray lithography process can be

replaced to reduce the cost

High aspect ratio microstructure Micro turbine rotor

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Thank you

37

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Additive Manufacturing

Manufacturing of products..….?

Metallic
structures

Polymeric
structures

Complex
medical
elements
Designed skull! Prosthetic limbs Skull repair
https://setandbma.wordpress.com/2012/05/18/3d-printing/
2

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Need of a process?

Additive Manufacturing (AM)

Process can address such issues

Let us explore the AM process!!

Fig. Three axis model of manufacturing products
#Conner et. al., (2014). Making sense of 3-D printing: Creating a map of AM products and services. Additive Manufacturing, 1, 64-76. 3

Additive Manufacturing

Definition
Additive Manufacturing (AM) refers to a process by which digital 3D
design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing
material.
(from the International Committee F42 for Additive Manufacturing Technologies, ASTM)

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Additive Manufacturing

Also known as:

• 3D Printing (3DP)
• Rapid Prototyping (RP)
• Direct Digital Manufacturing (DDM)
• Layered manufacturing (LM) and
• Additive fabrication (AF)

However, the AM is more accurate

As it describes a professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from
subtractive manufacturing

Basic attributes of AM

o Fully automatic operation

o Digital to physical

o No part-specific tooling

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Principle of AM
3D Sculpture puzzle:

Principle...

• Layer by layer manufacturing

• Each layer must have a finite thickness

“Thinner each layer is, the closer the final part will be to the original”

CAD image of a teacup Thick layer Thin layer

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Additive vs Subtractive manufacturing

Property SM AM
Material Metals and alloys All engineering
materials
Speed Multi-stage and Single stage and
slow fast
Part • Limited • More
Complexity flexibility flexibility
• Needs more • Easy to
process manufacture
planning
Part Low Higher
Quantity
Cost High Low

Additive vs Subtractive manufacturing

Deep cavity: Difficult
to machine

Sharpe internal features:

need a tool radius

Undercut: 3-axis
machining is required

Cup base: can not be machined

(fixture requirement)
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AM: Process Chain

11
Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

11

Classification of AM Processes

Vat photopolymerization

Powder bed fusion

Classification as per the ASTM –
AM Processes

Material extrusion
• Machine architecture and
Material jetting
• Materials transformation physics
Binder jetting

Sheet lamination

Directed energy deposition

12
Ian Gibson, David W. Rosen, Brent Stucker, Additive manufacturing technologies: rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing Springer, 2010.

12

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Vat Photopolymerization Process

An additive manufacturing process in which liquid photopolymer in a vat is selectively

cured by light activated polymerization

13

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Powder bed fusion

An additive manufacturing process in which thermal energy selectively fuses regions of
a powder bed.
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• Selective Laser Melting
(SLM)/ Direct Metal
• Laser Sintering (DMLS)
• Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
• Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)

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Material extrusion - FDM

An additive manufacturing process in which material is selectively dispensed through a
nozzle or orifice.

15

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Material jetting
An additive manufacturing process in which droplets of build material are selectively
deposited

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Binder jetting
An additive manufacturing process in which a liquid bonding agent is selectively
deposited to join powder materials.

17

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Sheet lamination
An additive manufacturing process in which sheets of material are bonded to form an
object.

18

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Directed energy deposition

An additive manufacturing process in which focused thermal energy is used to fuse
materials by melting as they are being deposited.

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AM Attributes
Table: Achievable tolerances of select traditional and AM processes*

Thompson et. al. (2016). Design for Additive Manufacturing: Trends, opportunities, considerations, and constraints. CIRP annals, 65(2), 737-760.
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AM Attributes

Fig. Conventional vs Additive manufacturing

Thompson et. al. (2016). Design for Additive Manufacturing: Trends, opportunities, considerations, and constraints. CIRP annals, 65(2), 737-760.
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Advantages
1. Complexity is Free 2. Variety is Free

3. No Assembly Required

4. Zero Lead Time 5. Zero Constraints

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Advantages
6. Zero Skill Manufacturing 7. Compact & Portable Manufacturing

8. Less Waste By-product

10. Precise Replication

9. Infinite Shades of Materials

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Disadvantages
• Limited Materials
• Restricted Build Size
• Post Processing
• Large Volumes
• Part Structure
• Reduction in Manufacturing Jobs
• Design Inaccuracies
• Copyright Issues

https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-3d-printing/pros-and-cons 24

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Applications

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Future: Home manufacturing

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Thank you

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Semiconductor: Introduction and Fabrication

Semiconductor
• A conductor is a material which “conducts” electricity easily (such as
metals).

• An insulator is a material which is a very poor conductor of electricity

(such as glass).

• A semiconductor (silicon) is a material which acts like an insulator, but

can behave like a conductor when it is combined with other materials.

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Silicon
• Silicon is the seventh-most abundant element in the universe and the
second-most abundant element on the planet, after oxygen.

• Silicon makes up about 25 percent of the Earth's crust.

• Silicon has good thermal conductivity.

Silicon Wafer

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Silicon Wafer

Silicon Wafer Production

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Silicon Wafer Devices

Basic Microfabrication Techniques

Deposition and Etching and

Lithography Electroplating
Doping Substrate Removal

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Lithography

• Technique used to transfer a

computer-generated pattern onto a
substrate (silicon, glass, GaAs, etc.).

• This pattern is subsequently used to

etch an underlying thin film (oxide,
nitride, etc.) for various purposes
(doping, etching, etc.).

Fig. Schematic drawing of the photolithographic

steps with a positive photoresist (PR) 9

Oxidation

• Used to obtain a thin film

of SiO2 from Si
• Excellent quality (very low
density of defects) and
thickness homogeneity.
• Temperature: range of Fig. Schematic representation of a typical oxidation furnace
900–1200 °C
• O2 (dry oxidation) or
• H2O (wet oxidation)

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Doping

• Typical impurities or dopants used in silicon

include
 boron (to form p-type regions) and
 phosphorous or arsenic (to form n-type
regions).

• Techniques used to introduce impurities into

a semiconductor substrate are –
 Diffusion (above 800° C; liquid or solid Fig. Formation of an n-type region on a p-type silicon
substrate by diffusion of phosphorous
sources for dopants)
 Ion implantation (ionized impurities
bombardment; annealing is required)

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Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

• Use chemical reactions in gas phase to form the deposited thin film.

• The energy needed for the chemical reaction to occur is usually supplied by
maintaining the substrate at elevated temperature.

• The most common CVD processes in microfabrication are –

 Low-pressure CVD (LPCVD) and
 Plasma-enhanced (PECVD)

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Low Pressure CVD

• Low pressures required
(0.1–1.0 Torr)

• Process temperature
(550–900 °C).

• Mechanical properties are good

compared with others such as
PECVD,

• Often used as structural

Fig. Low-pressure CVD (LPCVD)
materials in microfabricated
devices

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Plasma Enhanced CVD (PECVD)

• Radiofrequency (RF) energy is used
to create highly reactive species in
the plasma

• Process temperature (150–350 °C).

• Conformality is good for low-

aspect-ratio structures

• Becomes very poor for deep

trenches (20% of the surface
thickness inside through-wafer
Fig. Plasma Enhanced CVD (PECVD) holes with an aspect ratio of 10)

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Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)

• Material to be deposited is transported from a source to the wafers, both being in
the same chamber.

• Two physical principles are used to do this: evaporation and sputtering.

Fig. e-beam evaporators 15

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Electroplating

• A process typically used to obtain thick (tens of

μm) metal structures.

Fig. Principle of electroplating

Fig. Formation of isolated metal structures by
electroplating through a mask 16

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Atomic Layer Deposition

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is a gas-phase self-limiting deposition method capable
of depositing atomic layer thin films with excellent large-area uniformity and
conformality.

Fig. Atomic Layer Deposition

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Pulsed Laser Deposition

Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) is

a simple technique that uses an
intense (1GW within 25 ns) UV
laser (e.g., a KrF excimer) to
ablate a target material.

Fig. typical PLD deposition setup

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Etching and Substrate Removal

• Etching of thin-film and substrate (silicon,
glass, GaAs, etc.) also needed to create
various mechanical micro/nanostructures
(beams, plates, etc.).

Etchant attacks the material in all directions at the

• Important points for merit for any same rate
etching process –
Selectivity (degree to which the etchant can
differentiate between the masking layer and
the layer to be etched)
Directionality (etch profile under the mask)
Dissolution rate depends on specific directions
• Types of Etching:
Dry and
Fig. Profile for (a) isotropic and (b) Anisotropic
Wet etching through a photoresist mask

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Dry Etching
Ion milling:

High-pressure
plasma etching:

Reactive-ion etching
(RIE):

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Anodic Bonding

Boding mechanism:
• In heating period, glass sodium ions
move toward the cathode and create
a depletion layer at the silicon–glass
interface.
• A strong electrostatic force is created
at the interface, which pulls
substrates into intimate contact.
Fig. Glass–silicon anodic bonding setup

• Used for microsensor packaging and device fabrication

• Advantage: its lower bonding temperature, which is around 300–400 ◦C.

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11
Basics of Surface Technologies
Introduction

Surface of a piece of metal, generally, consists of several layers: Dirt, dust, grease, lubricant
residues, cleaning-compound
residues, and pollutants

Generally much harder

than the base metal

• Deformed plastically and work hardened to a greater extent

Structure depends on during the manufacturing process
the composition and • The depth and properties depends on:
processing history ✔ The processing method
✔ Amount the frictional sliding the surface encountered
Introduction

Surface integrity describes:

• Topological (geometric) features of surfaces
• Mechanical and metallurgical properties

Surface integrity influences:

• Fatigue strength
• Resistance to corrosion
• Service life

Surface defects caused due to inadequate surface integrity:

• Defects in the original material
• The method by which the surface is produced
• Improper control of the process parameters
Surface Texture and Roughness

• Surface Texture: regardless of the method of

production, surface characteristics

• Surface texture identification and

measurable quantities:
• Flaws or defects: random irregularities,
such as scratches, cracks, holes,
depressions, seams, tears, or inclusions.

• Lay (directionality): direction of the

predominant surface pattern, usually
visible to the naked eye.
Surface Texture and Roughness

• Roughness:
✔ closely spaced, irregular deviations on a
small scale
✔ Expressed in terms of its height, width,
and distance along the surface

• Waviness:
✔ A recurrent deviation from a flat
surface
✔ Measured in terms of the space
between adjacent crests of the waves
(waviness width) and height between
the crests and valleys of the waves
(waviness height).
Surface Texture and Roughness
Surface Texture and Roughness

Surface roughness is characterized by two methods.

• Arithmetic mean value (Ra) :

where all ordinates are absolute values and n is the number of readings

• Root-mean-square roughness ( formerly identified as RMS):

Surface Texture and Roughness
Friction

Plays an important role in manufacturing processes –

• relative motion and
• forces that are always present on tools, dies, and workpiece

Friction –
• dissipates energy, thus generating heat, which can have detrimental effects on an
operation.
• Impedes free movement at interfaces, thus significantly affecting the flow and
deformation of materials in metalworking processes

• Friction is not always undesirable: for example, without friction, it would be impossible
to roll metals, clamp workpieces on machines, or hold drill bits in chucks.
Phenomenon of friction

Adhesion theory: Two clean and dry surfaces, contact each other at only a fraction of
their apparent contact area.
• The normal (contact) load, N, is supported by minute asperities.
• the normal stresses at these asperities are high; this causes plastic deformation at
the junctions.
• Their contact creates an adhesive bond—the asperities form micro welds.
Phenomenon of friction

Abrasion theory: an asperity from a

hard surface penetrates and plows
through a softer surface. Plowing
may:

✔ Cause displacement of the

material

✔ Produce small chips or

slivers.
Wear

• Wear has important technological and economic significance because:

• It changes the shapes of tools and dies.
• Affects the tool life, tool and die dimensions.
Uses of wear in manufacturing:
• Dull drill bits that have to be reground
• Worn cutting tools that have to be indexed
Types of Wear

ADHESIVE WEAR:
• If a tangential force is applied,
shearing can take place either: (a) two contacting

✔ At the original interface

asperities

✔ Along a path below or above the

interface causing adhesive (b) adhesion between two asperities
wear/sliding wear
✔ During sliding, fracture occurs
along a path in the weaker or
softer component
(c) the formation of a wear particle
Types of Wear

Adhesive wear can be reduced by:

• Selecting materials with weaker adhesive bonds
• Using a harder material as one member of the pair
• Using materials that oxidize more easily
• Applying hard coatings
• Using an appropriate lubricant
Types of Wear

ABRASIVE WEAR:

Caused by –
• a hard, rough surface or
• a surface containing hard, protruding particles
• sliding across another surface

• microchips or slivers are produced as wear particles.

Types of Wear

There are two basic types of abrasive wear:

• Two-body wear:
Abrasive action between two sliding
surfaces or between a hard, abrasive
particle in contact with a solid body.

• Three-body wear:
Abrasive particle is present between
two sliding solid bodies, such as a
wear particle carried by a lubricant.
Types of Wear
CORROSIVE WEAR:
Caused by chemical and electrochemical
reactions between the surface and the
environment.

• Corrosive wear can be reduced by:

✔ Selecting materials that will resist
environmental attack
✔ Applying a coating
✔ Controlling the environment
✔ Reducing operating temperatures
in order to lower the rate of
chemical reaction.
Types of Wear

FATIGUE WEAR:

• Caused when the surface of a material is

subjected to cyclic loading, such as rolling contact
in bearings.

• Thermal fatigue is another type of fatigue wear,

whereby surface cracks are generated by thermal
stresses from thermal cycling, as when a cool die
repeatedly contacts hot workpieces.
Types of Wear

FATIGUE WEAR Mechanism

• This type of wear can be reduced by –

• Lowering contact stresses
• Reducing thermal cycling
• Improving the quality of materials by
removing impurities, inclusions etc.
Types of Wear

• Erosion is caused by loose particles

abrading a surface

• Fretting corrosion occurs at interfaces that

are subjected to very small reciprocal
movements

• Impact wear is the removal (by impacting

particles) of small amounts of material
from a surface.
Thank you
 12/6/2024

Modelling and Simulation of Manufacturing Processes

Need of modelling and simulations

• Study internals of a complex system e.g. biological system
• Optimize an existing design e.g. routing algorithms, assembly line
• Examine effect of environmental changes e.g. weather forecasting
• System is dangerous or destructive e.g. atom bomb, atomic reactor, missile launching
• Study importance of variables
• Verify analytic solutions (theories)
• Test new designs or policies
• Impossible to observe/influence/build the system

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Importance of simulations
• Allows inspection of system internals that might not otherwise be observable
• Observation of the simulation gives insights into system behavior
• System parameters can be adjusted in the simulation model allowing assessment of
their sensitivity (scale of impact on overall system behavior)
• Verifies analysis of a complex system, or can be used as a teaching tool to provide
insight into analytical techniques
• A simulator can be used for instruction, avoiding tying up or damaging an expensive,
actual system (e.g., a flight simulation vs. use of multimillion dollar aircraft)

#Conner et. al., (2014). Making sense of 3-D printing: Creating a map of AM products and services. Additive Manufacturing, 1, 64-76. 3

Requirements?

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Types of models

Investigated domains of contemporary manufacturing

Mourtzis, D., Doukas, M., & Bernidaki, D. (2014). Simulation in manufacturing: Review and challenges. Procedia Cirp, 25, 213-229. 6

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Modelling approach

Mihaluta, M., Martin, P., & Dantan, J. Y. (2008). Manufacturing Process Modeling and Simulation.. 7

Thank you