Environmental Management (2023) 72:135–146

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-021-01510-w

Scoping the Need of Mainstreaming Indigenous Knowledge for

Sustainable Use of Bioresources in the Indian Himalayan Region
Vikram S. Negi1 Ravi Pathak1 Shinny Thakur1 Ravindra K. Joshi1 Indra D. Bhatt1 Ranbeer S. Rawal1
● ● ● ● ●

Received: 31 March 2021 / Accepted: 20 July 2021 / Published online: 2 August 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
Globally, Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKSs), which have evolved through rigorously tested methods and practices, are
a testimony of human intelligence and endurance. The diversity of goods such as food, beverages, herbs, etc., and its
associated systems, which form an integral part of modern cuisine and healthcare systems, are deeply rooted in IKS and
immensely contributing to overall well-being of mankind. The present study is an attempt to document and understand the
contribution of indigenous and local knowledge to biodiversity conservation and management. Appreciation to the value of
traditional and indigenous knowledge is globally recognized for their principles of coexistence and sustainable use practices.
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Past studies indicate a strong relationship between indigenous knowledge and sustainable development goals. This
knowledge is valuable not only to dependent communities, but also to the modern world for ensuring food security and
human well-being. The documentation of such valuable knowledge is therefore fundamentally essential for mainstreaming
and strengthening the discourses on sustainable ecosystem management, and to address the preponderance of poverty among
indigenous communities. Amid the changing scenario of consumption and the trend of revisiting nature-based solutions, the
IKS hold a tremendous scope of engaging the community people in sustainable harvest and utilization of natural resources.
Keywords Indigenous and local knowledge Indigenous community Medicinal plants Wild edible plants Biodiversity
● ● ● ●

management Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

●

Introduction the indigenous and traditional communities, who have been

managing and conserving the biodiversity and natural
Conservation of biodiversity faces multipronged challenges, resources for centuries. It is reported that almost 20% of our
which are increasing with climate change and growing list planet is home to some 370 million indigenous people,
of threatened species. Environmental perturbations and described as ‘first’ or ‘original’ people, having a historic
anthropogenic disturbances call for increased attention to and cultural bond with their biodiversity (UNESCO 2016;
the conservation and sustainable use of bioresources. The Karki et al. 2017). Their diverse knowledge is deeply rooted
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN Agenda within the environment and cultural cohesion, ensuring
2030 and the agreement on the Aichi Biodiversity Targets sustainable management of natural resources, and environ-
(ABT) by the Parties of the Convention on Biological ment protection in the changing world (Magni 2017). CBD
Diversity (CBD) are the encouraging global responses to defines traditional knowledge as ‘the knowledge, innova-
promote biodiversity conservation (Navarro et al. 2017). tions, and practices of indigenous and local communities
Besides the governmental initiatives, there is a large group around the world’; this knowledge is developed from
of people particularly residing in rural and remote areas, i.e., experience gained over the centuries by trial and error
(Gadgil et al. 1993). Furthermore, this knowledge symbo-
lizes mutual relationships between them and their environ-
ments, and transferred through generations by cultural
* Indra D. Bhatt transmission (Berkes et al. 2000; Upadhaya et al. 2007).
id_bhatt@yahoo.com Traditional and indigenous knowledge systems related to
1 biodiversity conservation are fundamental to human life,
Center for Biodiversity Conservation and Management, G.B. Pant
National Institute of Himalayan Environment, especially in rural and remote areas across the globe
Almora, Uttarakhand, India (Langton and Rhea 2005). Traditional knowledge systems
136 Environmental Management (2023) 72:135–146

are thus fundamental to the livelihoods of millions of peo- communities; culture is strengthened by their relationship
ple. Indigenous people are involved in the management of with biodiversity and environment (Negi 2010; Negi et al.
diverse ecosystem, natural resources, and conservation of 2017; Joa et al. 2018). Nature worship and management
biodiversity; a number of success stories on resource through promoting sacred landscape, forests, and groves are
management have been reported globally (Langton et al. excellent examples of in-situ biodiversity conservation by
2014; Negi and Maikhuri 2013). This knowledge has con- local communities (Sharma and Devi 2014; Singh et al.
tributed to sustainable utilization and conservation of bio- 2014; Negi et al. 2017; Sigh et al. 2019). This is an effective
diversity, including the rare species (Colding et al. 2003; approach for sustainable management and utilization of
Bisht and Ghildiyal 2007; Gandile et al. 2017; Berkes et al biodiversity in climate change scenarios. Therefore, the
2000; Irakiza et al. 2016; Upreti and Tewari 2020). The present study is an attempts to document the indigenous
indigenous knowledge systems also play an important role knowledge of natural resource-based communities in the
in socioeconomic development of developing countries due IHR for mainstreaming and strengthening the discourses on
to their higher dependency on bioresources and biodiversity sustainable ecosystem management.
(Langton et al. 2009). For example, documentation of tra-
ditional biodiversity-related knowledge on the status, uses,
and management of biological resources constitutes the Materials and Methods
People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) in India (Langton
and Rhea 2005). The documentation is therefore vital for The present study is the synthesis of secondary information
appreciation and protection of this valuable knowledge. extracted from available literature related to indigenous
Among the world’s mountains, Asia has the largest, knowledge and its arrays. Various research articles, reports,
highest, and most populated mountain systems—the books, book chapters, and proceedings were explored using
Himalaya. This region forms a diverse geographic and Google Scholar, ResearchGate, PubMed, Science Direct,
ecological entity endowed with overwhelming richness, and Springer Link. Various Keywords such as ‘SDGs’,
representativeness, and uniqueness of biodiversity (Rawal ‘traditional knowledge’, ‘indigenous knowledge’, ‘tradi-
et al. 2013). Undoubtedly, the Himalayan Biodiversity tional knowledge system’, ‘indigenous knowledge system’,
provides a resource base and ecosystem services that sustain ‘indigenous and local knowledge’ etc. were used for
life of millions of people in uplands and billions in down searching the literature. The literature pertaining to Indian
streams (Negi et al. 2019). Within the Himalaya, Indian Himalayan Region was further used for the synthesis and
Himalayan Region (IHR) contributes to a large proportion analysis. A total of 66 studies on the topic with respect to
of the Himalayan biodiversity, and is attributed to the wide the Indian Himalayan were finally further reviewed for the
variety of bio-physical conditions. IHR comprises two bio- synthesis of this document.
geographical zones, i.e., Trans-Himalaya-Tibetan Plateau,
and Himalaya. These two zones include seven bio-
geographical provinces (Rodgers et al. 2002) i.e., Ladakh Results and Discussion
Mountains (Jammu and Kashmir), Tibetan Plateau (Jammu
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand), Sikkim Role of IKS in Sustainable Forest Management
(Northern Sikkim), North-West (Jammu and Kashmir and
Himachal Pradesh), West (Uttarakhand), Central (Sikkim- Management of biodiversity by indigenous communities is
Darjeeling Himalaya), and East (Arunachal Pradesh an age-old practice across the globe particularly in the
including north-east region). The rich biodiversity in the developing countries. The knowledge of phyto-resource use
region is the outcome of conservation and management significantly add to conservation of specific species,
practices of the local inhabitants. IHR is well recognized for including the threatened species (Berkes 2007; Negi et al.
prevalence of Indigenous Knowledge Practices (IKP); these 2018). Traditional knowledge system and practices are
practices have helped them to ensure food security, and play more common in the IHR due to their high dependency on
an important role in biodiversity conservation and man- the natural resources. The indigenous communities of the
agement (Farooquee et al. 2004; Negi et al. 2010; Laishram region have developed a symbiotic relationship with nature
et al. 2020). with a long history of spiritual and cultural heritage (Jaryan
In the IHR, indigenous knowledge and resource use et al. 2010; Kala and Sharma 2010; Vidyarthi et al. 2013).
practice has been passed on through generations. Various Inhabitants of the region have lived in harmony with nature
cultural and indigenous groups in the region have developed and thereby are protecting and managing the forests and
these unique practices, which are mostly a part of their forest resources, ensuring the flow of ecosystem services
culture. Moreover, biodiversity management and con- through traditional ecological knowledge. Indigenous
servation are aggravated by beliefs and culture of these practices of forest management and biodiversity
Environmental Management (2023) 72:135–146 137

Table 1 Some important sacred natural sites in IHR and their characteristics
S. No. Sacred site State/UT Area (hectare) Dominant plant species

1 Shankaracharya Jammu & Kashmir 138 Platanusorientalis, Pinus helepansis, Ephedra gerardiana
2 BakhuDevban Himachal Pradesh 6.0 Cedrus deodara, Quercus leucotrichophora
3 Bhujani Uttarakhand 12 Betula utilis, Juniperus indica, Rhododendron campanulatum
4 Sangfa Fu Uttarakhand 20 Juniperus communis, Rhododendron anthopogon
5 Thal Kedar Uttarakhand 15 Quercus leucotricophora, Q. floribunda, Myrica esculenta
6 EncheyMonastry Sikkim 1.61 Cryptomeria japonica, Cupressus torulosa, Toona spp.
7 Langsomepi Assam 65 Areca catechu, Bauhinia scandens, Phyllanthus emblica
8 HeingangMarjing Manipur 7.08 Pinus kesiya, Albizia lucida, Albizia stipulate, Eugenia praecox
9 Khloo Paiu Ram Pyrthai Meghalaya 9.0 Betula alnoides, Fraxinus Floribunda, Elaeocarpusfloribundus
10 Akashi Ganga Arunachal Pradesh 8.0 Altingia excelsa, Artocarpus lakoocha, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Ficus
palmata, Pterosepermum acerifolium
Sources: Jamir and Pandey 2003; Khumbongmayum et al. 2005; Negi and Nautiyal 2005; Vasan and Kumar 2006: Anonymous 2010;
Agoramoorthy and Kumar 2011; Gokhale and Pala 2011; Negi et al. 2012; Murtem and Chaudhry 2014

conservation involve delineation of sacred forests, sacred attributed to the nature worship tradition of the communities
groves, and devoted forest patches. This is one of the (Khumbongmayum et al. 2005). The sacred groves in five
important practices of conserving forest patches; dedicating states of north-east India i.e., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
forest or forest patch to the local deity automatically con- Manipur, Meghalaya, and Sikkim, covers >40,000 hectares
serves the biodiversity in the region (Gadgil and Vartak of natural forest area (Upadhyay et al. 2019). In Jaintia hills
1976; Negi and Maikhuri 2013). These are mostly asso- of Meghalaya, there are many sacred groves, however, three
ciated with temples and are also culturally important. These sacred groves namely Khloo Paiu Ram Pyrthai, Urkhla, and
sites serve as a refuge to diverse group of floral and faunal Khloo Langdoh are of great significance as the species
biodiversity elements, and hence are important means for recorded from these groves are 12% of the flora of the state
conservation and management. and 26% of the flora of Jaintia hills (Jamir and Pandey
Sacred groves and forests are rich with many rare, 2003). In Sikkim, traditional and community knowledge
endemic, and threatened plant species along with important strengthens conservation policies and has paved the way for
fauna in the Indian Himalayan Region (Negi and Nautiyal its adaptive capacity (O’Neill et al. 2017), thus ensuring
2005; Rai 2007; Singh et al. 2010; Anthwal et al. 2010; sustainable forest and biodiversity management. The details
O’Neill et al. 2017; Upadhyay et al. 2019). In IHR more of some of the important sacred forest/groves of IHR are
than 5800 sacred groves have been reported, with Himachal presented in Table 1.
Pradesh alone having 5000 sacred groves (Sharma and Resource use in terms of lopping, felling of trees is
Kumar 2020; CPREEC ENVIS 2020). In a study from strictly prohibited in sacred forests; dead wood or twigs
Uttarakhand, Negi et al. (2018) reported unique threatened may however be harvested only for the purposes of reli-
and endemic species of medicinal plants (MPs) in the sacred gious rituals during specific occasions (Negi et al. 2018).
groves/forests. One of the best examples of sacred forest is Religious sanction of the resources for use purpose from the
the Tarkeshwar Sacred forest in Uttarakhand, representing forest granted in times or in need of people. Thus, sus-
343 plant species of which at least 50 are medicinal plant tainable management of forest in Uttarakhand by sacred
species (Bisht and Ghildiyal 2007). Hariyali Devi SG is one forests/groves is an important means of conservation and
of the oldest sacred grove in Uttarakhand, well known for sustainable use of biological diversity; also addressing
rich floral and faunal diversity; around 80 species of plants fundamental objectives of the CBD (Convention on Bio-
in 44 families reported having high economic values (Singh logical Diversity 2021). Another forest management prac-
et al. 2017). This grove also represent 9 mammals; Capri- tice that shows the significant role of IKS, is community
cornis sumatraensis, Cervus unicolor, and Felis benga- forest. Community Forests (Van Panchayat) are the
lensis are some common mammalian species. Tungnath important means of poverty reduction, biodiversity con-
sacred grove is known to harbor threatened MPs like servation, and ecological sustainability (Agrawal 2007;
Picrorhiza kurroa and Nardostachys jatamansi. Some Newton et al. 2015; Germain et al. 2018; Pandey et al.
endangered animals like musk deer, and Himalayan black 2017). Community-based forest management is widely
bear are also reported from the grove. In Eastern and popular in the developing countries indicated by the fact
Northeast region of the IHR, many sacred groves are well that 31% of the total forests are being managed by the
known for contributing toward biodiversity conservation community themselves in several countries (Wangchuk
138 Environmental Management (2023) 72:135–146

et al. 2018; Maraseni et al. 2019; Gatiso 2019). Most of the

Quercus leucotrichophora, Pinus roxburghii, Lantana camara, Rhus parviflora, Ageratina adenophora, Reinwardtia

Alnus nepalensis, Cupressus torulosa, Pyracantha crenulata, Principia utilis, Origanum vulgare, Anaphalis contorta

Abies spectabilis, Rhododendron arboreum,, Berberis jeshkiana, Rosa macrophylla, Anaphalis contorta, Roscea
Quercus glauca, Myrica esculenta, Q. leucotrichophora, Randia tetrasperma, Pyracantha crenulata, Origanum

Quercus floribunda, Alnus nepalensis, Berberis chitrea, Pyracantha crenulata, Araesema tortuosum, Anaphalis
earlier studies on community forests at global level (Hayes

Quercus leucotrichophora, Q. glauca, Pyracantha crenulata, Rubus ellipticus, Leucas lanata, Thymus linearis
Pinus roxburghii, Myrica esculenta, Inula cappa, Rubus ellipticus, Reinwardtia indica, Ageratina adenophora
and Persha 2010; Persha et al. 2011; Porter-Bolland et al.
2012) and regional level (Somanathan 1991; Agarwal 2007;

Pinus wallichiana, Betula alnoides, Taxus wallichiana, Berberis jeshkiana, Viola pilosa, Carum carvi
Quercus floribunda, Aesculus indica, Ilex dipyrena, Berberis chitrea, Fragaria indica, Viola biflora
Somanathan et al. 2009; Negi et al. 2012; Thapliyal 2013),

Quercus glauca, Q. leucotrichophora, Rubus ellipticus, Ageratina adenophora, Reinwardtia indica

suggest that community forestry performs better in man-
agement of forests and also maintain sustainable supply of
goods to the dependent inhabitant. By formulating a set of
rules, indigenous community ensures that the forest under
their management fulfill their needs and the community in
return helps toward conservation of the forest. Studies have
reported that over half a billion people depend on the
community-managed forests (Agrawal 2007; Niraula and
Pokharel 2016). Traditional practice of managing forest
resources in the IHR are most common and vital mean of
sustainable resource utilization and conservation. Among
other, Uttarakhand is often cited for good management of
forests through institutions like Van Panchayat (Agrawal
2007; Negi et al. 2012). The VPs in Uttarakhand are one of
the oldest examples of co-management of forest resources
by the community themselves. State forest department is
managing most of the forests in the state, however, 15% of
the forest is under the control of village community, com-
monly known as Van Panchayat (VP) or Forest Council
(UFS 2018). The example of few well-managed Van Pan-
chayat in Uttarakhand is presented in Table 2.
Year of establishment Area (hectare) Dominant plant species

vulgare, Bidens pilosa

Role of IKS in Non-timber Forest Products

Management
Table 2 Some of well-managed community forests in Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand

contorta

procera
indica

Global and national markets for Non-timber Forest Products

(NTFPs) have been growing rapidly, and significant eco-
nomic gains are being realized. The natural resource-based
communities have strong relationship with forests in the
IHR, as forests play an important role in the economy and
16.05

37.94
44.56
125.2

112.4
15.06

4.55
121

112

319

ecology of the region (Negi et al. 2018). In recent decades,

particular attention has been paid to mainstream local bio-
diversity for food and nutrition security by several UNGA
resolutions including World Health Assembly (WHO
2015). It is reported that forest products contribute to the
livelihood of millions of people across the globe (Mamo
et al. 2007). Reports indicate that wild edibles are used as
1975

Gangolihat 1948

2004
Gangolihat 1933
Munsiyari 2003
Munsiyari 1955

Dharchula 1962
Munsiyari 1997
Dharchula 1963

Gangolihat 2000

sources of food in many developing countries, and provide

an adequate level of nutrition to human beings (Maikhuri
Didihat

Didihat

et al. 2004; Murphy et al. 2005). The wide use of non-

S. No. Van Panchayat Block

timber forest products (NTFPs) particularly in the rural/

remote areas totally depends on the indigenous knowledge
system. Among other, conservation and sustainable use of
Rawal gaon
Topradhar
Hat-Tharp

Ghorpata
Sarmauli

medicinal plants (MPs) and wild edibles is receiving

Balatadi

Sirdang
Papri

increased attention due to their significant role in global

Sosa
Jwal

healthcare system and nutritional security (Shahidullah and

Haque 2015, Chen et al. 2016). The collection of MPs and
10

wild edibles also form a critical source of income in many

1

3
4
5
6

7
8
9
Environmental Management (2023) 72:135–146 139

rural and remote areas in the Himalayan region (Maikhuri affordable healthcare in the rural and remote areas (Goraya
et al. 2007; Negi et al. 2011; Singh et al. 2021). The indi- and Ved 2017; Negi et al. 2018; Singh et al. 2021). The
genous communities have inherited knowledge related to MPs are also known for making various life-saving drugs
the use of MPs and wild edibles in traditional system of and provide livelihood options. It is interesting that inspite
herbal medicine through generations; this has played a key the majority of old people from the region less educated, but
role in the healthcare system and formulation of new drugs they possess deep understanding and knowledge of tradi-
across the globe (Nautiyal et al. 2008; Bhatia et al. 2015; tional healthcare. Sustainable collection practices by indi-
Negi et al. 2018). genous people are significant in conservation of resources
Wild fruits contribute to diet diversity and flavour, and to fulfill their daily need of resources. Rotational har-
thereby, forming an essential part of nutritionally rich diet vesting practice is adopted by rural people for collection of
of rural people, and provide essential micronutrients (Negi MPs; this is important practice for protecting populations of
et al. 2011; Bhatt et al. 2017; Aryal et al. 2018; Ray et al. plants in the wild. These practices ensure sustainable supply
2020). Further, wild edibles enrich dietary quality of food, of MPs and provide incremental benefits to the villagers in
and are frequently taken as supplementary nutrition by and around the forests. Indigenous communities conserve
indigenous communities in the IHR. The wild edibles are species that are likely to be at most risk from destructive
not only known for their nutritional value but also for their harvesting, to ensure their viable populations in their habi-
preventive properties against various diseases (Maikhuri tats. MP sector across the globe has received high
et al. 1994, 2004, 2018; Dhyani et al. 2011; Rawat et al. momentum in view of its potential for the source of raw
2011; Bhatt et al. 2017). The nutritional strength along with material of modern therapeutics and precursor molecules for
medicinal and therapeutically value highlighted the nutra- synthesis and preparation of new drugs (Shahidullah and
ceutical potential of wild resource in meeting the SDGs. Emdad 2010). The global market for plant-derived drugs
Consumption of fruits rich in minerals and nutrients, have was valued US$1.2 billion in 1990s, US$25.6 billion in
been linked with reduced risk of chronic diseases (Bhatt 2015 (Roosta et al. 2017), US$27.93 billion in 2019 and is
et al. 2013). A number of wild edibles i.e., Hippophae projected to reach US$35.81 billion by 2027 (Anonymous
salicifolia (Dhyani et al. 2011), Rhododendron arboreum, 2021). With increased global interest in nature-based solu-
Embelica officinalis (Maikhuri et al. 2004; Negi et al. tions (NBS) people are looking toward MPs as potential
2011), Myrica esculenta (Bhatt et al. 2000), Spondias immunity-boosting elements. Amid COVID-19 pandemic
axillaris (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2003), Parkia speciosa, situation, the attention on herbal products as immunity
Amorphophallus bulbilfer, and Diplazium esculentum (Deb booster has grown considerably (Rawal et al. 2021).
et al. 2013) have begun to draw attention for being the Understanding market-driven economy, indigenous com-
income-generating avenue; thereby sustainably harvested munities are now cultivating MPs to meet the raw material
and managed by the indigenous communities in the IHR. demand; this is automatically conserving the wild resources.
Indigenous communities in many IHR states are harvesting For example, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Sassurea costus, Valeri-
wild edibles for long, with prevailing sense of maintaining ana jatamansi, Innula racemosa, Allium stracheyi, Arnebia
ecological integrity. For example, Hippophae rhamnoides benthamii, Bergenia stracheyi, Rosmarinus officinalis,
in the union territory of Ladakh is sustainably harvested for Asparagus racemosus, Cinnamomum tamala, Aconitum
their culinary and medicinal uses (Stobdan et al. 2017). heterophyllum, Angelica glauca, and Swertia chirata are
Herbal system of medicines is rooted in the indigenous important MPs that are being cultivated in different parts of
knowledge systems across the globe. Even today with so IHR (Kuniyal et al. 2005; Samant et al. 2007; Maikhuri
much of progress in drug industries, the fact remains that et al. 2017; Negi et al. 2010, 2018), thus creating enormous
70–95% population in developing countries still depends on opportunity for economic gains through nutraceutical and
MPs for their primary healthcare (Rawal et al. 2021). In pharmaceutical sectors. Hence, protection of the genetic
fact, this knowledge made an outstanding contribution to pool is urgently required for long-run sustainability and
the origin and evolution of many traditional herbal therapies making it available for future generations.
and modern drug formulations (Dhar et al. 2000; Kala 2005;
Bhatt et al. 2013). With over 50,000 herbal formulations in Role of IKS in Conserving Traditional Agro-
the codified medical tradition are known to rural commu- biodiversity
nities in India, and 671,124 registered medical practitioners
practicing traditional systems of medicine, and 9000 regis- Traditional farming systems are the original method of
tered and licensed manufacturing units, India occupies a farming practiced by traditional farmers from generation to
unique position in traditional system of medicine in the generation. These practices develop a balance between
world (Goraya and Ved 2017; Sarkar et al. 2020). MPs in meeting our present needs and the needs of future genera-
the IHR are reported to contribute significantly toward tions. Indigenous knowledge practices of agriculture and
140 Environmental Management (2023) 72:135–146

seed conservation thus are important for agrodiversity in the generation. Indigenous classification of agricultural land use
region (Maikhuri et al. 1997, 2001). Indigenous into seven different categories for efficient land manage-
biodiversity-related knowledge is of great significance to ment is an example of innovative ecological design by the
food security in the region; reflected by a huge diversity of farmer groups in North-East Himalaya (Dollo et al. 2009).
crops/landraces in diverse farming systems across IHR Among others, terrace system of cultivation and Bamboo
(Negi and Maikhuri 2013). The farmers ensure adequate drip irrigation system in Meghalaya, and ZABO system and
supply of organic inputs to their fields from the surrounding Alder based agriculture in Nagaland are important tradi-
forests. This system of nature-based farming has evolved tional systems of agriculture. Thus, indigenous people are
and flourished over millennia following trial and error not only the custodians but also managers of crop diversity;
approach. The traditional methods of maintaining seed the key elements of sustainable agricultural system in
stock and cultivars have been critical for sustenance of the IHR.
indigenous people in the region and play an important role
in in situ conservation. For example, farmers of Central Biodiversity Act in Ensuring Biodiversity
Himalaya grow about 170 varieties of kidney beans, 100 Management and ABS for Local Peoples
varieties of paddy, 8 varieties of wheat, and more than 12
varieties of pulses each year in the traditional mixed farm- The foundation of international environmental law was laid
ing system (Rao et al. 2005; Saxena et al. 2005). Uttarak- with the United Nations Stockholm Conference on the
hand in west Himalaya harbors over 40 different crop Human Environment in 1972, wherein the United Nations
species and hundreds of their local cultivars, grown and Environment Programme (UNEP) was established (Jeffery
conserve through a variety of crop composition and crop 2008). The Earth Summit of Rio de Janeiro, also known as
rotations along wide altitudinal transect (Semwal and Mai- the United Nations Conference on Environment and
khuri 2015). Agrodiversity maintained by the indigenous Development (UNCED), resulted in the Convention on
knowledge system plays a significant role in (i) increasing Biodiversity, a multilateral treaty, which entered into force
productivity per unit area, (ii) improving soil fertility by on December 1993 (Jeffery 2008). India enacted its own
incorporating legumes, (iii) minimizing crop loss to insect national legislation to fulfill its commitment agreed under
pest attacks, (iv) increasing productivity per unit area, (v) the CBD. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 aimed at the
providing diversity to food, (vi) conserving soil erosion, and conservation of biodiversity in the country, sustainable
(vii) insurance against absolute crop failure (Semwal and utilization of the components of biodiversity, and equitable
Maikhuri 2015). sharing of benefits arising out of the biological resources
The cropping patterns in the western Himalaya are built and the associated traditional knowledge. Regulation of
around two major cropping seasons viz. Kharif access to the nation’s biological resources and traditional
(April–October) and Rabi (October–April). Mixed cropping knowledge through the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 can
(commonly known as Baranaja) of millet and pseudo-millet prevent misuse and appropriation of these resources and
with grain legumes and some vegetables in Uttarakhand is a knowledge through patents on intellectual property rights
common and unique practice of in situ seed conservation, (IPR). The Biodiversity Act in India has established a three-
maximizing yield per unit area (Maikhuri et al. 2001; tier structure for implementation. The National Biodiversity
Nautiyal et al. 2008; Negi et al. 2012). The advantage of Authority (NBA) is responsible for all matters at the
mixed cropping is that it ensures yield even if one of the national level, and the State Biodiversity Board (SBBs) is
crops fails due to any reason (Zardhari 2000; Maikhuri et al. responsible at the state level through the formation of
1997, 2001; Nautiyal et al. 2008; Negi and Maikhuri 2013). Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs). The NBA
Furthermore, crop rotation and mixed farming is an provides technical assistance and guidance to the SBBs and
important feature to maintain soil fertility in the traditional BMCs for sustainable use of its biodiversity, fair and
agroecosystem (Sen 1997; Maikhuri et al. 2001). In the equitable sharing of benefits arising out of their utilization.
North-East Himalaya, the rural forestry management prac- BMC regularly assists the SBBs and the NBA in matters of
tices and the agriculture-forestry inter-phase linkages of access and benefit-sharing related to the local biological
Apatani peoples of Arunachal Pradesh are examples of their resources and traditional knowledge through preparing
nature-culture interconnections (Rai 2007). The traditional People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs). The NBA and
wet rice cultivation of the Apatani peoples is an example of SBBs consult BMCs while granting approval for access to
sustainable agriculture as it ensures and maintains sustain- biological resources or associated knowledge sought by the
able productivity (Rai 2005). The agro-ecosystems in researchers or companies. In India, preparation of PBRs for
North-East Himalaya are sustainable, self-sufficient, and the villages has been undertaken in a few states, i.e., Kerala
efficient due to strong organizations and sharing of ecolo- and Uttarakhand earlier, but as per the recent update (April
gical knowledge among farmers from generation to 2021) on website of NBA, 248,156 PBRs have been
Environmental Management (2023) 72:135–146 141

Fig. 1 Steps toward conservation of indigenous knowledge

prepared in all the 28 states and 3 union territories (i.e., always play a significant role in managing and operating
Andaman & Nicobar islands, Jammu & Kashmir, and most of the household and agricultural activities (Maikhuri
Lakshadweep). In particular, section 36(iv) of the Indian et al. 2011). However, the gender dynamics and their roles
Biodiversity Act 2002 provides for the protection of tradi- in biodiversity conservation are complicated and debatable.
tional knowledge through knowledge/biodiversity registers. For example, in Uttarakhand, there are four reserved seats in
Sections 19 and 21 of the Biodiversity Act require prior the forest council (van panchayat) out of the nine committee
approval from NBA to access the resources, which ensure members. However, we did not found any female members
equitable sharing of benefits. Section 6 provides intellectual in most of these committees during field visits in Pithor-
property rights on research-based needs to obtain prior agarh district. Few studies (Schmink and Gómez-García
approval from the NBA. 2015; Germain et al. 2018) reported male always under-
estimate the knowledge of women. Our field-based studies
Role of IKS in Gender Inclusiveness also indicated that women are not able to contribute much in
decision-making (Thakur et al. 2020). In developing
In indigenous communities, women and elders play a spe- countries like India and Nepal, participation of women is
cial role (Ramphele 2004); they are not only the main mostly passive (Chhetri et al. 2013; Thapliyal 2013). Pant
caregivers, but also the custodians of traditional knowledge, and Pandey (2007) reported that women were indulged in
culture, and biological diversity (Negi and Rawat 2010). most of the household activities and community work,
Women in mountain are naturally more familiar and con- however, they are less appreciated in any committees in the
cerned for biodiversity use and its conservation because of villages and any type of decision-making process. The CBD
their close association and connection with the surround- clearly mentions the role of women for sustainable use and
ings. Women in the Himalayan region work harder and for conservation of biodiversity, but the role of women in
longer hours than men, and have a vital role in ecosystem policy-making is still underestimated. Still there is limita-
management (Negi and Rawat 2010). They hold extensive tion on evidence-based and empirical studies on gender
traditional knowledge related to forest management and dimensions. There is a need to highlight the role and con-
agricultural practices (Howard 2003; Chambers and Mom- tribution of women in biodiversity conservation and
sen 2007; Abdelali-Martini et al. 2008); women and elders recognize their participation at all levels of policy-making
are considered as primary holders and communicators of and decisions (Howard 2003; Oakley and Momsen 2007).
traditional knowledge (Magni 2017). Women in the IHR Many studies reported that 80–90% of the seed
142 Environmental Management (2023) 72:135–146

Fig. 2 Contribution of IKS toward achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

requirements were met through indigenous seed manage- methods and knowledge systems ensure the sustainability of
ment and exchange practices, in which women plays the the resources, as these resources are vital for subsistence of
crucial role (Aumeeruddy-Thomas and Shengji 2003). the indigenous people. The indigenous knowledge systems
Therefore, gender inclusiveness, especially inclusion of are being recognized to embrace most of the dimensions of
women in resource management and conservation, needs to SDGs toward achieving the goals. The indigenous knowl-
be ensured (Fig. 1). edge on MPs plays a crucial role in ensuring healthy living
and well-being. This is evident from the current pandemic
Contribution of IKS toward Global Obligations of COVID-19, wherein the role of MPs in treating the
(SDG’s) infectious viral disease is realized and recognized (Van-
debroek et al. 2021). Similarly, IKS contributes toward
The global obligations of sustainable development (The achieving SDGs like Quality education (through promoting
2030 agenda for sustainable development), as adopted by lifelong learning opportunities), No poverty (providing
all United Nations Member States, is envisaged to provide livelihood options), Zero hunger (ensuring food security
the road map for peace and prosperity of people and the through sustainable agricultural practices), clean water, and
planet in the present as well as in the future. The focus of sanitization (through spring management), and many more
the agenda is to achieve the 17 goals of sustainable devel- (Fig. 2). All these contributions of IKS thus ensure the sole
opment, i.e., SDGs, by both, developed and developing purpose of the 2030 agenda for achieving sustainable
countries, in concurrence. Toward achieving these sustain- development.
ability goals, the role of Indigenous people becomes puta-
tive. Indigenous people constitutes <5% of the total world’s
population, and manages 28% of the world’s land surface, Conclusion
which makes them the actual guardians of 80% of the
known global biodiversity (Jerez 2021). Indigenous people The current method and pace of development have con-
across the globe have a wide range of knowledge systems tributed irreversible and irreparable harm to natural
for natural resource management varying with geographical resources and diminished capacities of ecosystems to
and climate regime. This knowledge is complex, complete, emanate goods and services. Further, the contemporary use
dynamic, and practical having scientific validition (Battiste practices, often exploitive in nature have been emerging as a
2005; Bates et al. 2009; Sillitoe 1998). The traditional new way of living and transcending across various cultural
methods of resource management applied by the indigenous ethnic boundaries. The efforts of mainstreaming people
people have often proven their resilience and sustainability without their knowledge have further speed up the process
in the face of environmental changes. These traditional of homogenization, thus leaving our systems more
Environmental Management (2023) 72:135–146 143

vulnerable to further exploitation and degradation. Indi- edible plants in the Western Himalaya. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed
genous knowledge, which has evolved in consonance with 14(1):1–18
Aumeeruddy-Thomas Y, Shengji P (2003) Applied ethnobotany: case-
natural surroundings, climatic perturbations, and is often
studies from the Himalayan region. WWF
based on the principle of coexistence and communitarian- Bates P, Chiba M, Kube S, Nakashima D (2009) Learning & Knowing
ism is rather overlooked and considered obsolete in con- in Indigenous Societies Today. UNESCO
servation planning and management. The skills and Battiste M (2005) Indigenous knowledge: foundations for first nations.
WINHEC: Int J Indigenous Educ Scholarsh 1(1):1–7
techniques of indigenous people provide valuable infor-
Berkes F (2007) Community-based conservation in a globalized world.
mation to the global community and a useful model for Proc Natl Acad Sci 104(39):15188–15193
biodiversity policies. Research has demonstrated that par- Berkes F, Colding J, Folke C (2000) Rediscovery of traditional
ticipatory approaches are key to ensure the right and ecological knowledge as adaptive management. Ecol Appl 10
(5):1251–1262
balanced representation of different knowledge systems,
Bhatia H, Sharma YP, Manhas RK, Kumar K (2015) Traditional
particularly of traditional and scientific knowledge. The phytoremedies for the treatment of menstrual disorders in district
success of IKS when economies were closed and people Udhampur, J&K, India. J Ethnopharmacol 160:202–210
were interdependent needs to be duly appreciated by Bhatt ID, Rawal RS, Dhar U (2000) The availability, fruit yield, and
harvest of Myrica esculenta in Kumaun (west Himalaya), India.
affecting the mainstreaming of their knowledge as well as
Mt Res Dev 20(2):146–153
exploring its possibilities of upscaling. Bhatt ID, Rawat S, Badhani A, Rawal RS (2017) Nutraceutical
potential of selected wild edible fruits of the Indian Himalayan
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NIHE for providing facilities. Partial funding from GBP-NIHE In- Bhatt ID, Rawat S, Rawal RS (2013) Antioxidants in medicinal plants.
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jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. progress, and prospects. Chin Med 11(1):1–10
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