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Interoceptors, or visceroceptors, respond to stimuli
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Interoceptors are found in the linternal
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sum joints, ligaments, and connective tissue coverings of
skeletal muscles, tendons,
bones and muscles. They provide information about body movements and
position by monitoring the amount of stretch of those structures.
p r o d u ce.
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Figure 22.1 Examples of cutaneous
s e l y -1 5
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Figure 22.1 Full Alternative Text
Structure of General Sensory Receptors
p r o d u ce.
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Anatomically, general sensory receptors are nerve endings
o e are either nonencapsulated or encapsulated.
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Table 22.1 Full Alternative Text

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Activity 1 Studying the Structure of Selected Sensory ,Receptors o t re
s e y
onl slides 1of5lamellar
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1. Obtain a compound microscope
s o a l u
and
2 4
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corpuscles. Locate,
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corpuscle in the dermal layer of the
1 found in the dermal papillae. Then switch
skin. As mentioned above, these umusually
sare
to the oil immersion lens for a detailed study. Notice that the free nerve fibers within
the corpuscle are aligned parallel to the skin surface. Compare your observations to
the photomicrograph of a tactile corpuscle (Figure 22.1b).
2. Next observe a lamellar corpuscle located much deeper in the dermis. Try to identify
p r o d u ce.
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the slender naked nerve ending in the center of the receptor and the many layers of
ly , d o n
l u s e othenlamellar
connective tissue surrounding it (which looks rather like an onion cut lengthwise). Also,
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22.1d). sum
3. Obtain slides of muscle spindles and tendon organs, the two major types of
proprioceptors (Figure 22.2). In the slide of muscle spindles, note that minute
extensions of the nerve endings of the sensory neurons coil around specialized

r o d u e.
slender skeletal muscle cells called intrafusal fibers. The tendon organs are
c
d o n o t re p
composed of nerve endings that ramify through the tendon tissue close to the
attachment between muscle ando
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interpretation. Compare your observations
u m
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Figure 22.2 Proprioceptors.
(a) Diagram of a muscle spindle and tendon organ. Myelin has been omitted from all nerve
fibers for clarity. (b) Photomicrograph of a muscle spindle (80×).

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Figure 22.2 Full Alternative Text

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Receptor Physiology

p r o d u ce.
Transduction is the process by which environmental stimuli change into nerve impulses that are relayed to

, d o n o t re
the CNS. Sensation (awareness of the stimulus) and perception (conscious interpretation of the stimulus)
occur in the brain. Nerve impulses e
s on
from ly receptors
cutaneous
1 5 are relayed to the primary somatosensory
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represented by a specific cortical area. is this organization that allows us to know exactly where a
sensation comes from on the body. Further interpretation of the sensory information occurs in the
somatosensory association cortex.

Two-Point Discrimination Test

A stimulus must be applied to a sensory neuron’s receptive field—the area served by that neuron. Some
areas in the body have a higher density of receptors in their receptive field. The two-point discrimination

p r o d uce.
test is used to determine a crude map of the density of tactile receptors in the various regions of the skin. In
e
d o n
general, areas that have the greatest density of tactile, receptors
t r a heightened ability to “feel.” These
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On the basis of this information, which areas of the body do you predict will have the greatest density of
touch receptors? Write your prediction below.

p r o d u ce.
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Activity 2 Determining the Two-Point Threshold
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s te . u of the subject to
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1. Using calipers or
1 3 tx
@skin
the
s u
differentiate two distinct sensations m
when the is touched simultaneously at two
points. Beginning with the face, start with the caliper arms completely together.
Gradually increase the distance between the points, testing the subject’s skin after
each adjustment. Continue with this testing procedure until the subject reports that two
points of contact can be felt. This measurement, the smallest distance at which two
points of contact can be felt, is the two-point threshold.

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2. Repeat this procedure on the body areas listed and record your results in the Activity
2 chart.
ot r e p r
3. Which area has the smallestly , d o nthreshold?
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22.2-2 Full Alternative Text

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Tactile Localization
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P e r 2 0
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Tactile localization is the brain’s ability to determine which portion
su m
receptive field of the body periphery has a corresponding “touch” field in the brain’s primary somatosensory
cortex. Some body areas are well represented with touch receptors, allowing tactile stimuli to be localized
with great accuracy, but in other body areas, touch-receptor density allows only crude discrimination. In
general, the smaller the receptive field of the sensory neurons serving the area, the greater the brain’s ability
to detect the location of the stimulus.

p r o d u ce.
Activity 3 Testing Tactile Localization
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1. The subject’s eyessshouldonbelyclosed1 - 1 5 the testing.
during The experimenter touches the
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@ with his or her own marker, which should be of a
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sthemexact
then try to touch u
different color. Measure the error of localization (the distance between the two marks)
in millimeters.
2. Repeat the test in the same spot twice more, recording the error of localization for
each test. Average the results of the three determinations, and record it in the Activity
3 chart.

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22.2-2 Full Alternative Text

3. Repeat the procedure on the body areas listed and record the averaged results in the
chart above.
4. Which area has the smallest error of localization?
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5. Which body area tested smallest field?
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Adaptation of Sensory Receptors

The number of impulses transmitted by sensory receptors often changes both with the intensity of the
stimulus and with the length of time the stimulus is applied. In many cases, when a stimulus is applied for a
prolonged period without movement, the rate of receptor discharge slows, and conscious awareness of the

r o duc e.
stimulus declines or is lost until some type of stimulus change occurs. This phenomenon is referred to as
r e p
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adaptation. The touch receptors adapt particularly rapidly, which is highly desirable. Who, for instance,
n l y, d
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would want to be continually aware of the pressure of clothing on their skin?
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Activity 4 Demonstrating Adaptation of Touch Receptors
1. The subject’s eyes should be closed. Obtain four coins. Place one coin on the anterior
surface of the subject’s forearm, and determine how long the sensation persists for the
subject. Duration of the sensation:

sec

p r o d uce.
2. Repeat the test, placing the coin at a different forearm location. How long does the
e
sensation persist at the second location?
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umbeen
3. After awareness of the sensationshas 13lost
coins atop the first one.
 Does the pressure sensation return?

If so, for how long is the subject aware of the pressure in this instance?

sec
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Explain how perception of the stimulus intensity has changed.

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Activity 5 Demonstrating Adaptation of Temperature Receptors
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1. Obtain three large fingersbowls beakers and fill the first with 45°C water.
Have the subject immerse her or his left hand in the water and report the sensation.
Keep the left hand immersed for 1 minute, and then also immerse the right hand in the
same bowl.

What is the sensation of the left hand when it is first immersed?

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What is the sensation minute
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Had adaptation occurred in the left hand?

2. Rinse both hands in tap water, dry them, and wait 5 minutes before conducting the next
test. Just before beginning the test, refill the finger bowl with fresh 45°C water, fill a

e p r o d uce.
second with ice water, and fill a third with water at room temperature.
o r hand in the 45°C water. What is the
ntheotright
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3. Place the left hand in the ice water and
,
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The right hand:

Referred Pain

Pain receptors are densely distributed in the skin, and they adapt very little, if at all. This lack of adaptability

e p r o uce.
is due to the protective function of the receptors. The sensation of pain often indicates tissue damage or
d
, d o n ot r
trauma to body structures. Thus no attempt will be made in this exercise to localize the pain receptors or to
prove their nonadaptability, since both would causee
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However, the phenomenon of referred pain is easily demonstrated and such experiments
provide information that may be useful in explaining common examples of this phenomenon. Referred pain
is a sensory experience in which pain is perceived as arising in one area of the body when in fact another,
often quite remote area, is receiving the painful stimulus. Thus the pain is said to be “referred” to a different
area.

Activity 6 Demonstrating the Phenomenon of Referred Pain

p r o d u ce.
, d o n ot re ice water. In the Activity 6 chart,
e ly as discomfort,
Immerse the subject’s elbow in a finger
on(such
bowl containing

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record the quality of
r s o l u
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he or she reports tate indicated. The elbow should be removed
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from ice water after thesu2-minute
removal of the subject’s elbow from the ice water.

The ulnar nerve, which serves the medial third of the hand, is involved in the phenomenon of
referred pain experienced during this test. How does the localization of this referred pain
correspond to the areas served by the ulnar nerve?

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