Motivation

What is Motivation; Early Theories

of Motivation; Contemporary
Theories of Motivation; Current
issues in Motivation..
A general term applying the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes,
and similar forces that induced or instigate to act in a desired manner.
Motivation is the set of forces that cause people to behave in certain
ways.

Motivation refers to the process by which a person’s efforts are energized,

directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal. This definition has three
key elements: (1) energy, (2) direction, and (3) persistence.

Performance=Ability X Motivation.
 Characteristics/nature of motivation
 Motivation can be expressed differently;
 Motivation changes;
 Individual are not aware of motivation;
 Motivation is highly situational;
 Individual differs in motivation; and
 It is internal feeling.
 Sources of Motivation

Personal Characteristics Nature of the Job

Individual
Motivation

Nature of the Organization

 Core Phases of Motivation Process

1. Employee 2. Employee 3. Employee

identifies searches for selects goal-
ways to satisfy directed
needs.
these needs. behaviors.

6. Employee 5. Employee
reassesses receives either 4. Employee
rewards or
need punishments. performs.
deficiencies.
 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

 Intrinsically Motivated Behavior: Behavior that is

performed for its own sake.

 Extrinsically Motivated Behavior: Behavior that is

performed to acquire material or social rewards or to
avoid punishment.
 Douglas McGregor Model: Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X Theory Y
 People are lazy.  People are energetic.

 People lack ambition and dislike  People are ambitious and

responsibility. seek responsibility.
 People are self-centered.  People can be selfless.

 People resist change.  People want to contribute to

business growth and change.
 People are gullible and not very
bright.  People are intelligent.
 Abraham Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory

Maslow hierarchy suggest that human needs can be

classified into five categories and these can arranged in a
hierarchy of importance.
 Abraham Maslow Need: Hierarchy Theory

Needs Description Examples

Highest-level
Self- Realize one’s Use abilities
needs
actualization full potential to the fullest

Feel good Promotions

Esteem
about oneself and recognition

Social Interpersonal
Belongingness
interaction, love relations, parties

Job security,
Safety Security, stability
health insurance

Lowest-level Food, water, Basic pay level

Physiological
needs shelter to buy items

Lower-level needs must be satisfied before

higher-level needs are addressed.
 Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory

 Existence Needs: Basic needs for human survival such as

the need for food, water, clothing, shelter, and a secure
and safe environment.
 Relatedness Needs: The needs to have good
interpersonal relations, to share thoughts and feelings,
and to have open two-way communication.
 Growth Needs: The needs for self-development and
creative and productive work.
 Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Needs Description Examples

Highest-level
needs
Self-development, Continually
Growth creative work improve skills

Interpersonal Good relations,

Relatedness relations, feelings accurate feedback

Food, water, Adequate pay

Lowest-level Existence clothing, and shelter for necessities
needs

After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. When
unable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.
 Federick Herzberg Two Factor Theory

 The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)

 People’ssatisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two
independent sets of factors—motivation factors and hygiene factors.
 Two distinct continuums:
Motivational factors (work content) are on a continuum that ranges
from satisfaction to no satisfaction.
Hygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate continuum that
ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.
Motivation is a two-step process:
 Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not blocking motivation.
 Giving employees the opportunity to experience motivational factors through job enrichment.
 Federick Herzberg Two Factor Theory
Herzberg asserted that intrinsic factors are related to
Motivation Factors job satisfaction whereas extrinsic factors are
• Achievement associated with dissatisfaction. So, he called company
policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working
• Recognition
conditions, and salary hygiene factors. When these
• The work itself
factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied;
• Responsibility
however, they will not be satisfied either. He believed
• Advancement that achievement, recognition, the work itself, growth,
and growth and responsibility are motivational because people
find them intrinsically rewarding.
Satisfaction No satisfaction

Hygiene Factors
• Supervisors
• Working conditions
• Interpersonal relations
• Pay and security
• Company policies and
administration

Dissatisfaction No dissatisfaction
 David C. McClelland’s Needs Theory of Motivation

Need for
Achievement
(nAch)
The desire to accomplish a goal or task more The Theory
effectively than in the past.
of Needs
Need for
Affiliation
(nAff)
The desire for human companionship and David
acceptance.
McClelland
Need for
Power
(nPow)
The desire to be influential in a group and to
control one’s environment.
 Victor H. Broom’s Expectancy Theory

A perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of
performance. This theory suggests that motivation depends on two things-how
much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it.

Individual Individual Organizationa Personal

Effort Performance l Rewards Goals

Effort- Performance- Rewards-

Performance Reward Personal
Issue Issue Goals Issue
 Victor H. Broom’s Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based
on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. It includes three variables (A,
B, and C) or relationships
 Equity Theory
Motivation is influenced by an individual’s subjective judgment about the fairness of he
reward he or she gets, relative to the inputs, compared with the rewards of others.

Condition Person Referent Example

Worker contributes
Outcomes = Outcomes more inputs but
Equity
Inputs Inputs gets more outputs
than referent

Worker contributes
Underpayment Outcomes < Outcomes more inputs but
Equity Inputs Inputs gets the same outputs
as referent

Worker contributes
Overpayment Outcomes > Outcomes same inputs but
Equity Inputs Inputs gets more outputs
than referent
 Equity Theory

Equity theory proposes that

employees compare what
they get from a job
(outcomes) in relation to
what they put into it
(inputs), and then they
compare their inputs-
outcomes ratio with the
inputs-outcomes ratios of
relevant others
 Goal Setting Theory of Motivation

Goal
What a person is trying to accomplish.
Goal Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher
performance.

“SMART” Goals
Characteristics of Motivating Goals Specific
Specific and not vague in providing direction Measurable
Difficult but not impossible to attain Attainable
Accepted and committed to by workers Results oriented
Feedback on goal attainment is important. Time bound

Goals point out what is important to the firm.

Workers should be encouraged to develop action plans to attain
goals.
 Goal Setting Theory of Motivation
This theory suggests that managers and subordinates should set goals for the individual on a
regular basis which is moderately difficult and very specific.

Goal Goal Organizational Intrinsic

Difficulty Acceptance Support Rewards

Goal-directed
Performance Satisfaction
Acceptance

Goal Goal Individual Extrinsic

Specificity Commitment abilities & traits Rewards
 Reinforcement / Behavior Modification Theory

Approach to motivation that explains the role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or
remain the same over time. Specifically, reinforcement theory argues that behavior that results in
rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing
consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Punishment

When negative consequences are attached directly to

undesirable behavior

Positive Reinforcement

When rewards are tied directly to performance

 Reinforcement / Behavior Modification Theory

Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations

Positive reinforcement - Strengthens behavior with rewards or
positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed.
Avoidance - Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant
consequences that would result if the behavior is not performed.
Punishment - Weakens undesired behavior by using negative
outcomes or unpleasant consequences when the behavior is
performed.
Extinction - Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not
reinforcing that behavior.
 Current Issues in Motivation
1 Managing cross-cultural challenges
2 Motivating unique groups of workers
Diverse workforce
Professionals
Contingent workers
3. Designing appropriate rewards programs
Open book management (organization’s financial statements are
shared with all employees)
Employee recognition program (encourage specific behaviors by
formally appreciating specific employee contributions)
Pay for performance (vary with some measure of individual or
organizational performance)
Designing Motivating Jobs
Job Enlargement (Horizontal Expansion)
An early effort at overcoming the drawbacks of job specialization involved
horizontally expanding a job through increasing job scope—the number of
different tasks required in a job and the frequency with which these tasks are
repeated.
Job enrichment (vertical expansion)
increases job depth, which is the
degree of control employees have over
their works. In other words, employees
are empowered to assume some of
the tasks typically done by their
managers. Thus, an enriched job
allows workers to do an entire activity
with increased freedom,
independence, and responsibility.
Designing Motivating Jobs
Job Characteristics Model

Although job
enrichment may
improve the quality of
work, employee
motivation, and
satisfaction, research
evidence has been
inconclusive as to its
usefulness.
Integrating Contemporary
Theories of Motivation

Its basic foundation is the simplified expectancy

model. The individual effort box has an arrow
leading into it. This arrow flows from the
individual’s goals. Consistent with goal-setting
theory, this goals-effort loop is meant to
illustrate that goals direct behavior.

Expectancy theory predicts that an employee

will exert a high level of effort if he or she
perceives a strong relationship between effort
and performance, performance and rewards,
and rewards and satisfaction of personal goals.

A closer look at the model also shows that it

considers the achievement-need,
reinforcement, equity, and JCM theories.
 Money as a motivator

Money can never be overlooked as a motivator. It is often more than monetary

value; it can also mean status or power, or other things.

 Expectancy: pay (Money) is an instrumentality (and outcome), must be

high for motivation to be high.
 Need Theory: pay (Money) is used to satisfy many needs.
 Equity Theory: pay (Money) is given in relation to inputs.
 Goal Setting Theory: pay (Money) is linked to attainment of goals.
 Learning Theory: outcomes (pay-Money), is distributed upon performance
of functional behaviors.
 Is money a motivator?
All three theories studied show that money is a biological need; it is something every person
needs to sustain modern life. It is at the base of Maslow’s pyramid; it is in McGregor’s Theory
X which focuses around Maslow’s base of the pyramid and it is a hygiene factor in Herzberg’s
theory.
All of these theories show that money is a short-term motivator. If you do not have
money, which causes you to go hungry, you will be motivated to take any job to fill that basic
need. Once that need is met it no longer motivates you to grow in your career, it doesn’t drive
you to go above and beyond the bar set for your current position.
As a long-term motivator money loses its power over time and can not be considered one.
Because once the basic needs of an individual are met, they move to other factors to motivate
themselves: respect, relationships, advancement, satisfaction.
I agree with all three of our theorists that money is a necessity and if it is not present
people may become dissatisfied with their jobs, but at the same time it will not motivate the
individual to take the next steps in their current career. You can not just pay them more in
order to get the most out of them. You need to bring other factors to the workplace in order to
motivate your employees to give you their all.