Unit Two Physical Quantities

2.1 Scales, Standards, Units (prefixes)

Measurement Scales
In Physics, every measuring device has a scale. A scale on a measuring device is a set of levels
or numbers that show the amount being measured. It usually uses a line or curve, each in the
form of short line segments. Often, some of these line segments are longer and marked with a
numeral, such as every fifth or tenth scale. The scales are spaced at a constant distance apart,
using units such as inches or millimeters. Understanding measurement scales is important to
interpreting the numbers assigned to that measurement. The numbers of marks on a measurement
device relay how precise a measurement can be. The more marks, the more precise.
Example 2.2: What is the reading on the scale shown in the figure?
Solution: Clearly, the value is somewhere between 130 and 140 on the
scale, but the graduations enable us to be more exact and place the
value between 134 and 135 and closer to 135 than 134. Thus, the
measurement can be estimated as perhaps 134.8.

Example 2.2: Determine the length of the red line in the figure below to two decimal places.

Solution: The figure shows there is a difference of 1 between the successively numbered values
and there are ten spaces between them. One-tenth (1/10) is 0.1; therefore, each smaller mark
represents 1/10 (0.1) of the distance to the next larger number. The line goes just past 1.3, but not
quite to 1.4. We can estimate the second decimal place. It looks like the line goes roughly
halfway between 1.3 and 1.4, so we will say it's 1.35.
Example 2.3: Determine the length of the red line in the figure below to three decimal places.
Solution: Each mark represents 1/20 (0.05) of the distance to the next larger number. The line
goes past 1.05, but is short of 1.1. We can estimate the third decimal place, giving us a final
answer of 1.054.
Practice question: What is the reading of the thermometer shown below? Answer:

Mechanical scales and Digital Scales

Scales could be mechanical (analog) or digital (electronic). Mechanical scales have labels on
them which indicate the value of the measured quantity. They do not require a power supply.
They are typically inexpensive, portable and easy to use. The common mechanical (analogue)
devices are meter rule, measuring tape, difference types of balances, analogue thermometer etc.
see the figure below.

Figure 2.1: Analog and digital scales of measurement

Digital or electronic scales are operated by a built-in electronics circuit and have a numeric
display to read the measurement. They work more accurate than the mechanical one. It can
provide multiple units of measurements and also can be attached to a computer. Some digital
measuring devices are shown above in Figure 2.1.

We can also measure distance digitally by using Google Maps. It gives the approximate distance
between any two places (cities) that you place on the map. When using Google Maps on a
computer, right-click a spot on the map and choose Measure distance, then just click to add more
points to measure the distance.

Standard Units of Measurement

The globally accepted set of units of measurement is called standard units. The term standard refers
to the physical object on which the unit of measurement is based. Standard units are the units we
usually use to measure the mass, length, time or volume of objects. It includes: grams, kilograms,
meters, kilometers, milliliters, second, minute, liters etc. that qualify as standard measurement
units. A standard serves as a model against which other measuring devices of the same kind are
made. Following are the important characteristics of standard unit:

1. It should not change with respect to place and time.

2. It should be of convenient size.
3. It should be easily to duplicate.
4. It should be properly defined.
5. It should be easily reproduced.
6. Be easy to measure things. etc.

Non-standard Units of Measurement

Although standard measurements are accepted worldwide, non-standard measurements are also
used. Non-standard units of measurement are units of measurement that has no fixed definition
in terms of standard units of measure. Hand span, thumb width, cubit, steps are some examples
of non-standard units of length. These body parts are not standard units because length of palm
and hand are different for different persons which cause error in measurement.

Figure 2.2: Non-standard units of length

Standards of Length, Mass, and Time

In mechanics there are three fundamental quantities which are subject to measurement. They are
length, mass, and time. Any other type of measurement in mechanics can be reduced to some
combination of measurements of these three quantities. The international system of units (SI)
standardized the units for these basic quantities: the meter for length, kilogram for mass, and
second for time. These three units form the mks-system --after the first initials of the names of
the units of length, mass, and time, respectively.

The metric system

The need for universal conformity gave birth to the standard system of measurement, what is
known as the S.I. unit today. The S.I. unit is actually an abbreviation of the French word “System
International”. The SI unit is the standard system of measurements which are universally
accepted and used for scientific research. The metric system is a decimal-based system of
measurement widely used in science and many parts of the world. What is special about metric
system (or SI) is that:

 It is built on fundamental units like the meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, and
second (s) for time.

 It uses prefixes to indicate multiples or fractions of the base units. Common prefixes
include: Kilo (k) = 1,000, Centi (c) = 0.01, milli (m) = 0.001.

This makes the metric system easy to use and convert between different units. For example, 2.5
kilometers can be easily converted to 2,500 meters.

The Meter: The meter, (abbreviated m) is the SI unit of length in the metric system. The
definition of the standard meter has changed over time to become more precise. When the metric
system was established in 1791 by the French Academy of Sciences, the meter was defined as
1/10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. This measurement was
improved in 1889 by redefining the meter to be the distance between two lines on a standard bar
of 90 percent platinum and 10 percent iridium bar, now kept near Paris. In 1960 the meter was
thus defined to be equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of light emitted by krypton-86 atom in
a vacuum. In 1983, the meter was given its current definition as the distance light travels in a

vacuum in of a second in vacuum with time measured by a cesium-133 atomic

clock which emits pulses of radiation at very rapid, regular intervals.

Figure 2.2: The meter is defined to be the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 seconds

The Second: The second (abbreviated s) is the SI unit for time. For many years it was defined as
the amount of time the earth needs to make 1/86,400 of a rotation (a mean solar day). This factor
derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally to 60
seconds each (24 × 60 × 60 = 86400). Because the solar day is getting longer as a result of the
very gradual slowing of Earth’s rotation, recently, a new standard was adopted to gain greater
accuracy and to define the second in terms of a non-varying or constant physical phenomenon. It
is defined as the time required for 9,192,631,770 vibrations of radiation emitted from the
radioactive Cs-133 isotope. This definition was adopted in 1967 and remains the current standard
as of 2023.

The Kilogram: "The kilogram (kg) has evolved as the SI unit of mass over time. Originally in
1795, it was defined as the mass of one liter of pure water at the temperature of melting ice,
which was imprecise and difficult to reproduce. In 1889, the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures introduced the International Prototype Kilogram (IPK) - a physical platinum-iridium
cylinder kept in Sèvres, France. This artifact became the official definition of the kilogram, but
its mass drifted over time, making the definition unstable.

In the 1970s, scientists sought to redefine the kilogram using a fundamental physical constant to
provide a more reliable and reproducible standard. Several constants were considered, including
the Avogadro constant and the Planck constant. In 2019, the kilogram was officially redefined in
terms of the Planck constant, h. The new definition states that the kilogram is the unit of mass,
where the fixed numerical value of h is . The Planck constant
definition connects the kilogram to the already defined meter and second, which are based on the
speed of light and an atomic property. This ties the kilogram to an invariant of nature,
eliminating reliance on a physical artifact and enhancing the consistency and reliability of the
entire SI system of units."

Scientific Notation

In physics we usually deal with very small quantities (like mass of electrons) and very big
objects (like mass of Earth). If you write down such big or small numbers, it will be time
consuming and prone to errors. A shorter method of writing numbers that are too large or too
small is called scientific notation. It is based on powers of 10. In scientific notation all numbers
are written in the form of:

where: M is an integer between 1 and 10 (1 ≤ M < 10), and n denotes the powers of ten and is
called the exponent. The exponent is the number of places the decimal point must be shifted to
give the number in long form. A positive exponent show that the decimal point is shifted that
number of places to the right. A negative exponent show that the decimal point is shifted that
number of places to the left.

Converting from ordinary decimal notation to scientific notation

To convert from ordinary decimal notation to scientific notation, move the decimal point the
desired number of places to the left or right. If you moved the decimal point n places to the left
then multiply by 10n; if you moved the decimal point n places to the right then multiply by 10−n.

Example 2.2:

1. An electron's mass is about 0.00000000000000000000000000000091093822 kg. In scientific

notation, this is written 9.10 × 10−31 kg.
2. The mass of Earth is about 5973600000000000000000000 kg. In scientific notation, this is
written 5.97 × 1024 kg.

Example 2.2: Write the numbers (a) 1,230,000 and (b) 0.000000456 in scientific notation.

Solution:

(a) Moving the decimal point six places to the left yields 1.23, and multiply by 106, to give the
result 1.23×106.
(b) Similarly, moving the decimal point seven places to the right yields 4.56, and multiply by
10−7, to give the result 4.56×10−7

Converting from scientific notation to ordinary decimal notation

To convert from scientific notation to ordinary decimal notation, take the significant and move
the decimal point by the number of places indicated by the exponent: left if the exponent is
negative, or right if the exponent is positive. Add leading or trailing zeroes as necessary.

Example 2.6: Write the number 9.5 × 1010 in ordinary decimal place.

Solution: move the decimal point ten places to the right to yield 95,000,000,000.
Exercise 6.6
1. Write in scientific notation: 0.000467
2. Write in scientific notation: 32000000
3. The Earth's circumference is approximately 40000000 m.
Answers: (1) 4.67 x 10-4; (2) 3.2 x 107 (3) In scientific notation, this is 4×107 m.

SI Prefixes or Metric prefixes

In Physics, SI prefixes or simply prefixes are symbols placed before a basic unit of measure to
indicate a multiple or sub-multiple of the unit. It is the words or letters added before SI units
such as milli (m), centi (c) and kilo (k) that are known as prefixes. They are called so because
they are placed before quantities. Because SI units are multiples and sub-multiples of ten, they
can be conveniently expressed using prefixes. The most frequently used prefixes and their
symbols are shown in the table below.
Table 1.1: SI Prefixes

Converting SI Prefixes
To convert SI prefixes, you need to know the prefix value and then multiply by that quantity.
Example 2.6: Convert kilometers to meters.
Solution: Since kilo- means 1 000, one kilometer (km) is equal to 1000 meters (m).
Similarly:
1. 75 kilograms (kg) = 75 000 grams (g).
2. 14 kilowatts (kW) = 14 000 watts (W).
3. A 3 megawatt (MW) = 3 000 000 watts (W).
4. A 2 gigajoule (GJ) = 2 000 000 000 joules (J).
Exercise 2.2:
1. Up on completion, the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance dam will provide an electric power of

5250 MW. How much is this in Watt? Answer:

2. The diameter of a cell is 0.000002 m. Rewrite this in standard form then using prefix.

Answer:

Significant Figures

The number of figures or digits required to specify a certain measurement are called significant
figures. All accurately known digits in a measurement plus the first uncertain digit together form
significant figures. The last figure of a measurement is always doubtful, but is included in the
number of significant figures. For example, when we measure the length of a straight line using a
meter rule and it lies between 7.4 cm and 7.5 cm, we may estimate it as = 7.43 cm. This
expression has three significant figures out of these 7 and 4 are precisely known but the last digit
3 is only approximately known.

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

Rule 1. All non-zero digits are significant. For example, 2567m has four significant figures.

Rule 2. The zeros appearing between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where the
decimal point is, if any. For example, 6.028 has 4 significant figures.

Rule 3. If the number is less than 1, all zeros that are on the right of a decimal point and also to
the left of a non-zero digit (leading zeros) are not significant. They're nothing more than "place
holders. For example, 0.00798 contained three significant digits.

Rule 4. In a number with decimal, zeros to the right of last non-zero digit (trailing zeros) are
significant. For example, 4.600 or 0.002300 have four significant figures each.
Rule 5. If a measurement contains no decimal point, the number of final zeros is ambiguous.
These zeros may or may not be significant. For example, 1300 could have two, three, or four
significant figures. To avoid this ambiguity, write such numbers in scientific notation. When
1300 is written as 1.3 x103 it will have two significant figures. When written as 1.30 x103 it will
have three significant figures, and when written as 1.300 x103 it will have four significant
figures.

Note that the numbers of significant figures do not change if we measure a physical quantity in
different units. For example, 14.5 cm = 145 mm = 0.145 m. All have three significant figures.

Rule 6. The power of 10 is irrelevant to the determination of significant figures. For example, in
the measurement: 2.30 x102 m. The significant figures are three, 10 and the power 2 are not
counted.

Exercise 1.5. Determine the number of significant figures in the following measurements:
a. 0.0009 b. 15,450.0 c. 6×103 d. 87.990 e. 30.42

Significant Figures in Algebraic Operations

In Addition, or Subtraction: When adding or subtracting measured quantities, the final result
should have the same number of decimal places as there are in the quantity with the fewest
decimal places. Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures:

1. Identify the number with the least number of decimal places among the values being
added or subtracted.
2. Perform the addition or subtraction operation.
3. Round the final result to have the same number of decimal places as the value with the
least significant figures.
4. The final result should have the same number of significant figures as the value with the
least significant figures.

Example 2.2: Perform the following addition: 12.34 + 5.678 + 0.9

The value with the least decimal place is 0.9 (1 decimal place)
Perform the addition: 12.34 + 5.678 + 0.9 = 18.918

The final result should have only one decimal place hence it is equal to 18.9.

Example 2.2: Perform the following subtraction: 123.45 - 4.678

The value with the least decimal place is 123.45 (2 decimal places)

Perform the subtraction: 123.45 - 4.678 = 118.772

The final result should have only two decimal places hence = 118.77

In Multiplication or Division: Rules for Multiplication and Division with Significant Figures:
The number of significant figures in the final result is determined by the number of significant
figures in the input values. The final result should have the same number of significant figures as
the input value with the fewest number of significant figures.

Problem Solving Strategy

1. Identify the input value with the fewest number of significant figures.
2. Perform the multiplication or division operation (without rounding).
3. Round the final result to the same number of significant figures as the input value with the
fewest significant figures.

Example 2.2: If the height of a rectangle is h = 12.5 m and its breadth is b = 4.125 m. Calculate
its area.

The input value with the fewest significant figures is 12.5 (3 sig figs)

Perform the multiplication: Area = base X height = 12.5 x 4.125 = 51.5625 m2.

Round the final result to 3 significant figures: 56.6 m2

Example 2.2: Find the speed of a car that travels 11.21 meters in 1.3 seconds.

The input value with the fewest significant figures is 1.3 (2 sig figs)

Perform the division:

Round the final result to 2 significant figures: 8.6 m/s

Exercise 1.6.

1. Use the rules for significant figures to find the answer to the addition problem 21.4 + 15 +
17.17 + 4.003.
2. A water tank has a mass of 3.64 kg when it is empty and a mass of 51.8 kg when it is filled to
a certain level. What is the mass of the water in the tank to the correct number of significant
figures?
3. A rectangular plot of land measures 32.30 m by 210 m. Find the area, taking into account the
correct number of significant figures.
4. The density of an object is equal to its mass divided by its volume. What is the density of an
unknown material of mass 1.80 kg and volume 6.0  10-4 m3?
Rules of Rounding Off Significant Figures

1. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
Example: 1.54 is rounded off to 1.5.
2. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Example: 2.46 is rounded off to 2.5.
3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digit other than zero, then the preceding digit is
raised by one.
Example: 3.55 is rounded off to 3.6.
5. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by
one, if it is odd and left unchanged if it is even.
Example: 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8 and 4.650 is rounded off to 4.6.

Exercise 1.7: Round off the following numbers to three significant digits

(a) 15462, (b) 14.745, (c) 14.750, (d) 14.650 × 1012

Answers:

(a) 15462 becomes 1.55 x 103 on rounding to three significant digits.

(b) 14.745 become 14.7 on rounding to three significant digits.
(c) 14.750 will become 14.8 because the digit to be rounded is odd and the digit next to it is 5.
(d) 14.650 × 1012 will become 14.6 × 1012 because the digit to be rounded is even and the digit
next to it is 5.

Conceptual questions with explanation

Question: Why is measurement an essential aspect of physics?
Explanation: Measurement is fundamental to physics because it allows for the quantification of
physical phenomena, enabling the accurate description, analysis, and prediction of the behavior
of the natural world. Precise measurements are the foundation for scientific theories and the
development of new technologies.
Question: What do you mean by measurement explain why is it necessary?
Explanation: Measurement is basically a process of comparison of some unknown quantity
with some known quantity (unit). We need both the number as well as the unit to express the
measurement in a proper and complete way. Explanation: Proper measurement are very
important in our day-to-day life.
Question: Why do scientists use common system of measurement?
Explanation: To avoid confusion when measuring scientists use a shared system of
measurement called the International System of Units (SI). A common measurement
system allows us to make direct comparisons instead of having to know things like how
much a certain animal weights.
Question: Why do we need to include unit in describing the magnitude of a measured value?
Explanation: While describing various physical quantities it is best to use appropriate units of
measure. Using other units of measure to describe a quantity gives either very small or very
large number value. It becomes difficult to estimate the magnitude of the quantity if
inappropriate units are used.
Question: What are the key characteristics of a good measurement?
Explanation: A good measurement should be accurate, precise, and consistent. Accuracy refers
to how close the measured value is to the true value, precision relates to the degree of detail in
the measurement, and consistency means the ability to obtain the same result repeatedly under
the same conditions.
Question: How do the international system of units (SI) and the metric system differ from other
measurement systems?
Explanation: The SI and metric systems are based on a coherent set of base units and decimal-
based prefixes, which enables easy conversion between different units of the same quantity. This
contrasts with other measurement systems, like the imperial system, which uses a less consistent
and more cumbersome set of unit relationships.
Question: Explain the importance of using appropriate units when measuring length.
Explanation: The choice of length units (e.g., meters, centimeters, millimeters) can significantly
impact the interpretation and communication of measurements. Selecting the most suitable unit
based on the scale of the object or distance being measured helps ensure accurate and meaningful
results.
Question: What are the standard units and why are they important?
Explanation: Standard unit refers to a definite magnitude that is taken as a standard for
measuring physical quantities. Standard units are important because they do not change from
person to person and one gets the same measurement irrespective of the person doing the
measurement.
Question: You are measuring the length of a pencil using a ruler. The ruler is marked in
centimeters and millimeters. What are the advantages of using millimeters over centimeters for
this measurement?
Explanation: Millimeters provide a higher level of precision compared to centimeters. Since the
pencil is a relatively small object, measuring in millimeters allows you to capture more detailed
information about its length compared to just using whole centimeters.
Question: Suppose you need to measure the width of a desk in your classroom. Would you use a
meter stick or a tape measure? Explain your reasoning.
Explanation: For measuring the width of a desk, a tape measure would be more appropriate than
a meter stick. A tape measure can provide a continuous, flexible measurement, whereas a meter
stick may not be long enough to span the full width of the desk. The tape measure allows you to
read the measurement to a higher degree of precision.
Question: Why is it important to use the appropriate unit of measurement when recording data?
Explanation: Using the appropriate unit of measurement ensures that the data is recorded
accurately and can be easily interpreted by others. Different units have different scales, so using
the wrong unit can lead to significant errors in the measured value.
Question: Imagine you are planning a trip and need to measure the distance between two cities.
Would you use millimeters, centimeters, meters, or kilometers as the unit of measurement?
Explain your choice.
Explanation: For measuring the distance between two cities, kilometers would be the most
appropriate unit of measurement. Kilometers are a larger unit than meters, centimeters, or
millimeters, and are commonly used for expressing large distances.
Question: Describe a situation where it would be more appropriate to use scientific notation
when expressing a physical quantity.
Explanation: Scientific notation is particularly useful when dealing with extremely large or
small measurements, such as the distance to a star, the mass of an atom, or the thickness of a
sheet of paper. By representing these values in scientific notation, students can more easily
comprehend and manipulate the numbers, as well as communicate them effectively.
Question: The distance to the nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is about 40,000,000,000,000
kilometers. How can scientific notation be used to express this distance more compactly?
Explanation: Scientific notation expresses 40,000,000,000,000 kilometers as
kilometers. This format is easier to write and reduces the number of zeros.
Question: What is the difference between 5 micrometers (µm) and 5 millimeters (mm)?
Explanation: SI prefixes like "micro-" (µm, meaning 1/1,000,000) and "milli-" (mm, meaning
1/1000) are used with base units like meters. Here, 5 micrometer is a much smaller distance
compared to 5 millimeter because the micrometer prefix indicates a million times smaller unit.
Question: A digital scale displays the weight of an apple as 125.0 grams. How many significant
figures does this measurement have?
Explanation: The measurement 125.0 grams has 4 significant figures. All the digits are
considered significant.
Question: What are the advantages of using a measurement scale with fractional divisions, such
as a ruler marked in centimeters and millimeters, compared to a scale with only whole number
divisions?
Explanation: Measurement scales with fractional divisions allow for more precise
measurements. The smaller increments, such as millimeters, provide greater resolution and the
ability to measure smaller distances or thicknesses more accurately. This is particularly useful
when working with small objects or when high precision is required.
Question: Explain the difference between standard units of measurement and non-standard units
of measurement, and provide an example of each.
Explanation: Standard units of measurement are part of internationally recognized systems,
such as the metric system (e.g., meters, grams, liters), and are used for scientific and technical
applications. Non-standard units are not part of these formal systems and are often based on
arbitrary or historical references (e.g., feet, pounds, cups). Standard units are preferred for their
consistency, ease of conversion, and universal understanding.
Question: Comparison measurements done using standard units and non-standard units.
Explanation: Measurements using standard units are preferred for most practical applications
due to their consistency, precision, and universal understanding, whereas nonstandard units are
limited in their usefulness and comparability. The use of standard units facilitates accurate data
collection, analysis, and communication across different contexts.
Question: What are the advantages of using the metric system for measuring length, mass, and
time?
Explanation: The metric system, with its base units (meter, gram, and second) and standardized
prefixes (kilo-, centi-, milli-, etc.), offers several advantages over other measurement systems. It
allows for easy conversion between units, facilitates scientific calculations, and is widely used
internationally, making it the preferred system for scientific and technological applications.
Question: Explain the purpose and benefits of using scientific notation to represent very large or
very small numbers.
Explanation: Scientific notation provides a compact and standardized way to express numbers
that are either exceedingly large or exceedingly small. It helps to avoid unwieldy strings of zeros
and makes it easier to compare and perform calculations with these numbers.
Question: How do the SI prefixes used in the metric system (e.g., kilo-, centi-, milli-) relate to
the base unit? Provide an example.
Explanation: The SI prefixes in the metric system represent powers of 10. For example, the
prefix "kilo-" represents a factor of 1000, so 1 kilometer is equal to 1000 meters. The prefix
"centi-" represents a factor of 1/100, so 1 centimeter is equal to 1/100 of a meter. Understanding
these prefix-to-base unit relationships is crucial for converting between different metric units.
Question: Explain the concept of significant figures and why it is important when reporting
measurements.
Explanation: Significant figures represent the meaningful digits in a measurement, including
both certain and uncertain digits. The number of significant figures reflects the precision of a
measurement and is important for properly representing the uncertainty associated with the
value.
Question: When adding or subtracting measurements, how is the number of significant figures
in the result determined?
Explanation: When adding or subtracting measurements, the number of significant figures in
the result is determined by the measurement with the fewest decimal places.
Question: When multiplying or dividing measurements, how is the number of significant figures
in the result determined?
Explanation: When multiplying or dividing measurements, the number of significant figures in
the result is determined by the measurement with the fewest significant figures. This is because
the precision of the result is limited by the least precise input value, just as in addition and
subtraction.
Question: How do the rules for determining significant figures differ between
addition/subtraction and multiplication/division?
Explanation: The key difference is that for addition and subtraction, the number of significant
figures in the result is determined by the measurement with the fewest decimal place, while for
multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the result is determined by the
measurement with the fewest significant figures.
Question: Explain why it is important to properly apply the rules of significant figures when
reporting the results of calculations.
Explanation: Correctly applying the rules of significant figures ensures that the reported results
reflect the appropriate level of precision and uncertainty. This is critical for scientific and
technical work, as it prevents the over-reporting or under-reporting of measurement accuracy,
which could lead to incorrect interpretations or faulty conclusions.
Exercise 2.1
True or False questions

1. A ruler with markings only for centimeters (cm) can be used to accurately measure 3
millimeters (mm).
2. When converting between units of the same measurement (e.g., inches to centimeters), the
value of the quantity itself doesn't change.
3. It's always best to use the smallest possible unit for measurement.
4. When measuring the length of a pencil, it is better to use a ruler marked in millimeter rather
than one marked in centimeters.
5. A thermometer with markings for every degree Celsius (°C) provides a more precise
measurement scale than one with markings for every 5°C.
6. Meters (m), kilograms (kg), and seconds (s) are all examples of non-standard units of
measurement.
7. Scientific notation is a way to write very large or very small numbers in a more compact and
easier-to-read format.
8. Prefixes like "kilo-" (meaning 1000) and "centi-" (meaning 1/100) are used with SI units to
indicate multiples or fractions of the base unit.
9. All digits in a measured value are considered significant figures.
10. Measurement scales can only be divided into whole numbers.
11. The metric system uses the same prefixes for all physical quantities.
12. The prefix "deci-" in the metric system represents a factor of 100.
13. When adding or subtracting measurements, the resulting number of significant figures is
always the same as the measurement with the fewest significant figures.
14. When multiplying or dividing measurements, the resulting number of significant figures is
always the same as the measurement with the most significant figures.
15. The number 3.400 has 3 significant figures.

Multiple choice questions

1. You need to measure the length of a pencil accurately. Which of the following measuring
tools would provide the most precise measurement scale?
a) Ruler marked only in centimeters (cm)
b) Ruler marked in millimeters (mm) and centimeters (cm)
c) Meter stick with markings for every 10 centimeters (cm)
d) Measuring tape marked in inches (in)
2. A graduated cylinder is filled with 150 milliliters (mL) of water. Which of the following
markings on the cylinder would allow you to verify this volume most accurately?
a) Markings for every 100 mL only
b) Markings for every 50 mL and 10 mL
c) Markings for every 10 mL and 1 mL
d) Markings for liters (L) only
3. Which of the following is an example of a non-standard unit of measurement?
a) Kilogram b) Liter c) feet d) Meter
5. The diameter of an atom is about 0.000 000 1 millimeter (mm). How can scientific notation
be used to express this diameter more compactly?
a) b) c) d)
6. A digital balance displays the mass of an object as 20.0 grams. How many significant figures
does this measurement have?
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
7. The length of a pencil is measured to be 5.2 cm and its width is 1 cm. What is the sum of
their lengths rounded to the appropriate number of significant figures?
a) 6.2 cm b) 6.1 cm c) 6.0 cm d) 6 cm
8. If your friend asks for "a handful" of sugar. What is a potential problem with using a
"handful" as a unit?
a) It's not a scientific unit.
b) The amount can vary depending on the person's hand size.
c) Both a and b are true.
 d) There's no issue if everyone uses the same size hand.
9. Which of the following prefixes in the metric system represents a factor of 1/1000?
a) Kilo- b) Centi- c) Milli- d) Micro-
10. What is the purpose of using scientific notation to represent very large or very small
numbers?
a) To make the numbers easier to read
b) To avoid writing out long strings of zeros
c) To perform calculations more efficiently
d) All of the above
11. How many significant figures are in the number 0.00450?
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5
12. When multiplying or dividing measurements, how is the number of significant figures in the
result determined?
a) By the measurement with the most significant figures
b) By the measurement with the fewest significant figures
c) By the average of the significant figures in the measurements
d) There is no set rule, it is determined on a case-by-case basis
13. What is the main benefit of the metric system's use of prefixes and base units?
a) It allows for more precise measurements
b) It makes conversions between units easier
c) It is more widely used internationally
d) All of the above

2.2 Measurement and Safety

Physics is a science of measurement. To measure a physical quantity, we need some standard

unit of that quantity. The comparison of any physical quantity with its standard unit is called
measurement. From this point of view, the process of measuring consists of three steps.
1. Select an object and a quantity to be measured (length, weight, temperature, etc.)
2. Choose a unit of measure.
3. Compare the unit to the size of the object to be measured.
Thus, measurement is a process of obtaining the magnitude of a physical quantity by comparing
that unknown quantity with some standard quantity of same type. It consists of two parts: the
unit and the number indicating how many units are in the quantity being measured. For example,
when we say a door is 2.75 meters long, we mean that it is 2.75 times as long as a meter stick,
which we define to be 1 meter long.
Measuring Length, Mass, and Time
Measuring Length: Length is a measure of the separation between two points. It is a
fundamental physical quantity. The SI unit of length is meter (m). A variety of instruments are
used to measure length. Some of these are measuring tape, meter rule, micrometer screw gauge
and vernier caliper (Figure 2.2).

Figure 1.2 Length measuring devices

When choosing a measuring device, it is important to select one that is appropriate for the size
and scale of the quantity being measured. The following is an explanation of how to choose the
right device for different size objects:
Small objects - Calipers: Calipers are ideal for measuring small objects, such as the dimensions
of small parts, electronic components, or other small-scale items. Calipers typically have a
resolution of 0.01 mm or 0.001 inches, allowing for precise measurements of small objects.
The jaws of the calipers are designed to fit around and measure the length, width, or depth of
small parts accurately.

Medium-size Objects (up to around 1 meter): Rulers and micrometers are appropriate. Rulers
are simple and versatile for quick measurements of straight lengths. Available in various lengths
(cm, inches) and resolutions (millimeters, inches). Micrometers are used to measure medium-
sized objects with higher precision than a ruler or tape measure. Micrometers have a resolution
of 0.01 mm or 0.001 inches, providing more accurate measurements than a standard ruler. They
are often used to measure the thickness of materials, the diameter of wires or shafts, and other
medium-scale dimensions.

Large objects - Tape measures or Laser distance meters: For larger objects, such as
buildings, furniture, or outdoor structures, tape measures or laser distance meters are more
appropriate. Tape measures can measure lengths up to several meters or feet, with markings
typically in increments of 1 mm or 1/16 inch.
Laser distance meters use laser technology to measure distances accurately, often with a range of
several hundred meters or feet. These devices are particularly useful for measuring the
dimensions of large objects or spaces where a tape measure may be impractical.
Very large objects - Surveying equipment: For extremely large-scale measurements, such as
land surveys, construction sites, or the dimensions of large structures, specialized surveying
equipment is typically used. This includes instruments like theodolites, total stations, or GPS
surveying systems, which can measure distances, angles, and elevations with high precision over
large areas. Surveying equipment is essential for accurate mapping, land development, and
infrastructure projects where precise measurements of large-scale features are required.
The key is to choose a measuring device that is appropriate for the size and scale of the object
being measured, ensuring that the resolution and accuracy of the device match the needs of the
measurement task. This will provide the most reliable and meaningful data for your specific
application. Measuring Wheels are also efficient for measuring long distances on uneven
surfaces. They roll along the ground and measure the distance traveled.

a) Measuring mass

The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter it contains. Mass like length is a
fundamental physical quantity. Its SI unit is kilogram (kg). Mass is also measured in tons, grams,
centigrams and more. The mass of an object is measured using devices such as simple balance,
top pan balance, and spring balance, see the figure below.
 Figure 2. Mass measuring devices

When choosing a mass measuring device, the key factors to consider are the expected range of
the mass and the desired resolution or precision of the measurement.

For small masses (milligram to gram): Use analytical balance. These are the most precise for
tiny quantities, often used in labs. They can measure down to 0.01 milligrams. Electronic balance
is also a good general-purpose option for powders or small objects. They offer high accuracy
(typically 0.01 grams) and a digital display for easy reading.

For medium masses (gram to few kilogram): For measuring masses in this range, a digital or
mechanical scale would be suitable. These types of scales are commonly used to measure the
weight of packages, food items, or small household objects. Digital kitchen balances a common
household tool for measuring ingredients or small packages. They have an easy-to-read display
and can handle weights up to a few kilograms. A balance scale is also useful for measuring such
size objects.

For large masses: For measuring very large masses, such as the weight of furniture, equipment,
or even vehicles, a platform scale or industrial scale would be the best option. Platform scales
can have capacities ranging from tens of kilograms up to several metric tons, with resolutions
typically in the range of 0.1 kg to 1 kg. Industrial scales, often found in shipping and logistics
applications, can measure masses of hundreds or even thousands of kilograms with good
accuracy.
When measuring the mass of an object, it is better to use a balance than a spring scale. This is
because, a balance is a more precise instrument for measuring mass than a spring scale. Balances
use the principle of equal arms to directly measure the mass of an object, whereas spring scales
indirectly measure mass by the object's weight, which can be affected by factors like gravity.

b) Measuring time

Time can be defined as the duration between two events or the period in which something
happens. Time is a fundamental quantity. Its SI unit is second (s). There are several non-SI units
of time. A variety of devices are in use nowadays to measure time. The common types are: clock,
watch and stopwatch, see Figure 2.4.

Atomic clocks, revolutionized timekeeping. Modern atomic clocks were so accurate that it would
only gain or lose one second in three hundred years. These clocks underpin satellite technology,
like GPS or the internet.

At different times of a day the height of a shadow is different.

This can be used to have a traditional shadow clock knows as
Sundial. In 1500 B.C simple sundials were used to divide the
time interval between sunrise and sunset in 12 different
parts. The Ancient Egyptian were known to use it. The shadows
that move to different marks enabled the Egyptians to calculate
time which helped to divide day into two parts.

Physics Laboratory Safety rules

Physics should be taught hands-on supported with laboratory classes. While many of the labs
involve everyday items, a few require the use of equipment which can be hazardous if used
improperly. To ensure a safe physics lab, you are expected to strictly follow the following
general guidelines.
1. Always wear safety goggles, a lab coat or apron, and closed-toe shoes when working in the
physics lab. Avoid loose clothing or jewelry that could get caught in equipment.
2. Carefully listen to and follow all instructions provided by the instructor or lab supervisor. Do
not deviate from the specified procedures.
3. Do not consume food or beverages in the lab, as this can lead to accidental ingestion of
chemicals or contamination.
4. Keep your work area organized and free of clutter. Wipe up any spills immediately using the
appropriate cleaning materials.
14. Operate all lab equipment, instruments, and devices according to the manufacturer's
instructions. Do not attempt to modify or tamper with equipment.
15. Notify the instructor immediately if you experience any accidents, injuries, or equipment
malfunctions in the lab. Seek medical attention if necessary.
16. Dispose of all waste, including broken glass, chemicals, and biological materials, in the
designated containers following the lab's waste management protocols.
17. Refrain from engaging in any disruptive or dangerous behavior, such as running, playing
pranks, or distracting other students.
18. Familiarize yourself with the location of fire extinguishers, emergency showers, and eye
wash stations, as well as the proper procedures for evacuating the lab in case of an
emergency.

Remember, safety is the top priority in a physics lab. By following these rules, you can ensure a
safe and productive learning environment for yourself and your classmates.

Conceptual questions with explanation

Question: What are some examples of instruments used to measure length in a student's local
area?
Explanation: Rulers, tape measures, calipers, micrometers, and surveying equipment. These
tools allow for the measurement of lengths on different scales, from small objects to large
distances.
Question: How do modern length-measuring devices differ from traditional instruments?
Explanation: Modern length-measuring devices, such as laser distance meters and digital
calipers, often provide more precise and convenient measurements compared to traditional
instruments like rulers and tape measures.
Question: How can a student measure the mass of an object using different types of scales?
Explanation: Students should be able to identify and use various scales to measure the mass of
an object, such as balance scales, spring scales, and digital scales. Each type of scale has its own
advantages and limitations, and students should understand how to properly use and interpret the
measurements from these different instruments.
Question: Explain the importance of measuring time accurately in physics experiments.
Explanation: Accurate time measurement is crucial in physics experiments, as many physical
phenomena, such as motion, oscillations, and decay processes, are inherently time-dependent.
Students should understand the need for precise timekeeping devices, such as stopwatches,
clocks, and timers, to ensure the validity and reliability of their experimental data.
Question: Describe how the use of digital and analog instruments can affect the precision of
length measurements.
Explanation: Digital instruments, such as electronic calipers, can provide more precise length
measurements than analog instruments, such as traditional rulers, by displaying measurements to
a higher number of decimal places. However, the accuracy and precision of both types of
instruments depend on proper usage and calibration.
Question: What are the key factors to consider when selecting a mass measurement instrument?
Explanation: When choosing a mass measurement instrument, factors to consider include the
expected range of masses, the required accuracy and precision, the type of object being weighed
(e.g., solid, liquid, powder), and the environmental conditions in which the measurement will be
taken.
Question: Explain the importance of calibrating time measurement devices in physics
experiments.
Explanation: Accurate time measurement is crucial in many physics experiments, as it allows for
the analysis of phenomena that occur over time, such as motion, oscillations, and decay
processes. Proper calibration of stopwatches, clocks, and timers ensures the reliability and
reproducibility of experimental results.
Question: Describe the importance of following laboratory safety rules in a physics classroom or
research setting.
Explanation: Adhering to established laboratory safety rules is essential to protect students and
researchers from potential hazards, such as chemical spills, fires, or equipment malfunctions.
These rules help maintain a safe and productive learning or research environment, ensuring the
well-being of all participants.
Question: Explain how the proper disposal of waste materials in a physics laboratory contributes
to overall safety and environmental responsibility.
Explanation: Responsible waste disposal in a physics lab, including the handling of broken
glass, chemical substances, and other potentially hazardous materials, is crucial to prevent
accidents, minimize environmental impact, and comply with relevant regulations. Following
established waste management protocols helps maintain a clean and safe laboratory space.
Exercise 2.2
True or False Questions
1. A ruler is an example of a modern instrument used to measure length.
2. A kitchen scale can only be used to measure weight, not mass.
3. It's important to use the same unit of measurement (e.g., centimeters) throughout an
experiment to avoid confusion.
4. A digital thermometer is a more modern and precise tool for measuring temperature
compared to a mercury thermometer.
5. Stopwatches and digital clocks are examples of modern time-measuring devices.
6. Analog scales are more accurate than digital scales for measuring mass.
7. A micrometer is used to measure the volume of an object.
8. A digital balance provides a more accurate measurement of mass compared to a spring scale.
9. The mass of an object can be measured using a balance or a spring scale.
10. Calipers are typically used to measure the dimensions of large objects, such as buildings or
furniture.
11. Laser distance meters are useful for measuring the dimensions of large objects or spaces
where a tape measure may be impractical.
12. Micrometers have a lower resolution than a standard ruler, usually around 0.1 mm or 0.01
inches.
13. Working in a physics lab alone is acceptable as long as you are careful.
14. Wearing safety goggles is not necessary in a physics laboratory if you are not working with
any chemicals.
15. Eating and drinking in a physics laboratory is allowed as long as it does not interfere with the
ongoing experiments.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. You need to measure the width of a textbook. Which of the following instruments would be
most appropriate?
a) Graduated cylinder b) Meter stick with markings every centimeter (cm)
c) Microscope d) Spring scale
2. You want to time how long it takes a ball to roll down an incline. Which of the following
would be the BEST tool for this purpose?
a) Ruler b) Graduated cylinder c) Stopwatch d) Thermometer
3. Safety is a top priority in a science lab. Which of the following actions would be a safety
hazard?
a) Wearing safety goggles while working with chemicals.
b) Working alone in the lab without supervision.
c) Following your teacher's instructions for an experiment.
d) Recording your measurements in a clear and organized way.
4. Which of these tools would be most appropriate for measuring the thickness of a piece of
paper?
a) Metric ruler b) Spring scale
c) Analog balance d) Digital caliper
5. You need to measure the diameter of a marble accurately. Which of the following tools
would be most appropriate?
 a) Meter stick b) Vernier caliper
c) Tape meter d) Bathroom scale
6. Scientists often measure very short time intervals. Which of the following is the most
suitable tool for measuring such intervals?
a) Stopwatch b) Wall clock
c) Sand timer d) Atomic clock
7. Before starting an experiment, it's important to:
a) Taste a small amount of any unknown chemicals.
b) Put on safety goggles and an apron if instructed.
c) Work alone in the lab to avoid distractions.
d) Immediately leave the lab if you feel unwell.
10. Working in a physics lab is only safe if:
a) You follow all safety rules and instructions provided.
b) You wear comfortable clothing and shoes.
c) You complete the experiment as quickly as possible.
d) You listen to music to stay focused.
11. Which of the following safety rules is most important when working in a physics laboratory?
a) Wear safety goggles b) Tie back long hair
c) Avoid eating or drinking d) All of the above
12. Why is it important to properly dispose of broken glass in a physics laboratory?
a) To prevent injury b) To maintain cleanliness
c) To protect the environment d) All of the above
13. Which type of measuring device is ideal for measuring small objects, such as the dimensions
of small parts and electronic components?
a) Rulers b) Micrometers
c) Calipers d) Tape measures
14. Which of the following measuring devices is best suited for measuring medium-sized objects
up to around 1 meter?
a) Laser distance meters b) Rulers and micrometers
c) Surveying equipment d) Tape measures
15. What type of specialized equipment is typically used for extremely large-scale
measurements, such as land surveys or the dimensions of large structures?
a) Rulers and calipers
b) Tape measures and laser distance meters
c) Micrometers and measuring wheels
d) Theodolites, total stations, and GPS surveying systems
2.3 Classification of Physical Quantities
A physical quantity is the physical property of a material that can be measured. Examples of
physical quantities are mass, time, speed, acceleration etc. There are two types of physical
quantities namely fundamental or base quantity and derived quantity.
Fundamental Physical Quantities
Physical quantities that cannot be expressed in terms of any other quantities are known
as fundamental quantities. They cannot be expressed by combinations of other physical
quantities, that is they do not depend on any other physical quantities for their measurement.
There are seven fundamental physical quantities in SI Units. The units of the fundamental
quantities are known as fundamental units. The seven fundamental quantities with their SI units
are shown in the table below.
Table 2.2: The Seven Fundamental Quantities
Fundamental
S. No Unit Symbol
quantities
1. Length Meter m
2. Mass Kilogram kg
3. Time Second s
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Electric current Ampere A
6. Amount of substance Mole mol
7. Luminous intensity Candela cd

Derived Physical Quantities

Physical quantities which depend on one or more fundamental quantities for their measurements
or which can be derived from fundamental quantities are known as derived quantities. For
example, velocity, acceleration, force, work, and power are derived quantities. The units used to
measure derived quantities are called derived units. The derived units are multiples and
combinations of the SI base units. Some of the derived units are listed below.

Table 1. 2: Derived quantities and their SI units

Derived quantitie
S.No Formula Unit Symbol
s
1. Area Length × Breadth square meter m2
2. Volume Length × Breadth × cubic m3
 Height meter

meter per
3. Speed Distance / Time m/s (or) ms−1
second

Change in velocity / meter per

4. Acceleration m/s2 (or) ms-2
Time second square

5. Density Mass/Volume kilogram per kg/m3 (or) kgm−3

cubic meter

Kilogram kg.m/s2 (or)

6 Force Mass x Acceleration x meter per second kg.ms-2
square
7 Work

8 Pressure

Example 2.2: Name some derived quantities and their SI units.

Solution: Derived quantities are obtained by some combinations of the fundamental quantities.
For example, area is a derived quantity obtained by multiplying two lengths whose unit is m. So,
the SI unit of area is: m m = m2. Similarly,
• Speed has an SI unit of m/s which is length divided by time.
• Volume has an SI unit of m3 which is the product of three lengths.
• Acceleration has an SI unit of m/s2 which is length divided by time squared.
So, we see that all derived quantities are obtained by combinations (i.e. multiplying or dividing)
of two or more derived quantities. Their SI units are also found similarly.
Scalar and Vector Quantities

Based on the concept of directionality, physical quantities are again divided into vectors or
scalars.

Scalar Quantities: Scalars are physical quantities that are fully described by a single numerical
value (magnitude) and do not have a specific direction associated with them. The addition of
scalars follows the generic rule of the addition of numbers. Examples of scalar quantities
include: distance, mass, area, volume, density, temperature, speed, time, and energy.

Vector Quantities: Vectors, on the other hand, are physical quantities that require both a
numerical value (magnitude) and a specific direction to be fully described. The addition of two
vectors does not follow algebra. Examples of vector quantities include: displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, and momentum.

Representation of Vectors
Geometrically, a vector is represented by a directed line segment. The line segment has an arrow
that has a head and a tail. here,
 The starting point of the vector is called its tail (or) the initial point of the vector.
 The ending point of the vector is called its head (or) the terminal point of the vector.
 The length of the line segment is proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being
measured.
The direction of the vector is the angle made by it with a reference line. A vector that starts from
a point A and ends at a point B is denoted by .

Conceptual Questions with Explanation

Question: What is the difference between a fundamental physical quantity and a derived
physical quantity?
Explanation: Fundamental physical quantities are basic measurements that cannot be expressed
in terms of other quantities, such as length, mass, and time. Derived physical quantities are
quantities that can be expressed in terms of fundamental quantities, such as area, volume, and
speed.
Question: Explain why length, mass, and time are considered fundamental units in the SI
system.

Explanation: Length, mass, and time are considered fundamental quantities because they cannot
be defined in terms of any other physical quantities. All other units in the SI system can be
derived from the units of these three fundamental quantities.
Question: What is the difference between a fundamental unit and a derived unit?
Explanation: Fundamental units are the base units of measurement, such as the meter, kilogram,
and second. Derived units are units that can be expressed in terms of the fundamental units, such
as the unit of area (square meters) or the unit of force (newtons).
Question: Classify the following physical quantities as either scalar or vector: displacement,
speed, acceleration, energy, force.
Explanation: Displacement, acceleration and force are vector quantities because they have both
magnitude and direction. Speed and energy are scalar quantities because they only have
magnitude.
Question: Why is it important to differentiate between scalar and vector quantities in physics?
Explanation: Differentiating between scalar and vector quantities is important because they
require different mathematical operations and have different behaviors in physical equations and
situations. Vectors, for example, must be added or subtracted using specific vector operations,
whereas scalars can be added or subtracted directly.
Question: Explain how the unit of velocity can be derived from the fundamental units of length
and time.
Explanation: Velocity is a derived quantity that can be expressed as the ratio of displacement (a
vector quantity) to time (a scalar quantity). The unit of velocity is therefore derived from the
fundamental units of length (meters) and time (seconds), resulting in the derived unit of meters
per second (m/s).
Question: A student is asked to classify the following physical quantities as either fundamental
or derived: mass, force, volume, and power. How would you guide the student to correctly
classify these quantities?
Explanation: Mass is a fundamental quantity, force is a derived quantity (force = mass ×
acceleration), volume is a derived quantity (volume = length × width × height), and power is a
derived quantity (power = work/time or power = force × velocity).
Question: Explain why area and volume are considered derived physical quantities, even though
they are commonly measured using a ruler (a length-measuring device).
Explanation: Area and volume are derived quantities because they can be expressed in terms of
the fundamental quantities of length. Specifically, area is the product of two lengths (length ×
width), and volume is the product of three lengths (length × width × height).
Question: How would you distinguish between the scalar quantity and the vector quantity?
Explanation: A scalar quantity has no direction, on the other hand, a vector quantity have both
magnitude and direction to be completely specified.
Question: How can a vector be represented graphically?
Explanation: A vector can be represented graphically using an arrow. The length of the arrow
represents the magnitude (or size) of the vector, and the direction of the arrow represents the
direction of the vector. The starting point of the arrow is called the tail, and the ending point is
called the head. This graphical representation allows for the visualization and manipulation of
vector quantities.
Question: What is the difference between the graphical representation of a scalar quantity and a
vector quantity?
Explanation: The key difference is that a scalar quantity is represented by a single value, whereas
a vector quantity is represented by both a magnitude and a direction. A scalar quantity can be
represented by a line segment or a point, but it does not have a specific direction associated with
it. In contrast, a vector is represented by an arrow, which indicates both the magnitude (length of
the arrow) and the direction (orientation of the arrow).
Question: A variety of instruments are used to measure length. List some of these measuring
instruments. b) Why is there a need for such a variety of instruments for measuring the same
quantity length? c) When do you use each of these instruments?
Explanation:
Question: Fill in each blank with the most reasonable unit (kg, g, mg or tone).
a) My friend has a mass of 48 ______________.
b) A carrot has a mass of 70 _______________.
c) A pencil has a mass of 10 _______________.
d) A container filled with spare parts on shop has 5 ______________.
Question: What is the difference between scalar and vector quantities?
Explanation: The table below shows the difference between scalar and vector quantities
S. No. Scalar quantities Vector quantities
Scalar quantities are described by Vector quantities are described by both
1.
magnitude only. magnitude and direction.
Vector quantities change with the change in
Scalar quantities change with change in
2. magnitude or with the change in direction or
magnitude only.
both.
Scalar quantities can be added or
Vector quantities cannot be added or subtracted
3. subtracted using ordinary rules of
using ordinary rules of algebra.
algebra.
Vector quantities are represented by letters
Scalar quantities are represented by
4.
ordinary letter. e.g. A
having arrow over them. e.g., .
Vector quantities can be resolved into their
Scalar quantities cannot be resolved into
5. components, using the sine or cosine of the
their components.
adjacent angle.
Vector quantities can exist in one, two, or three-
6. Scalar exists in one dimension only.
dimensions.

Exercise 2.3
True or False Questions
1. Length, mass, and time are all considered derived quantities.
2. Area, which is calculated from length and width, is a fundamental quantity.
3. The meter (m) is a fundamental unit used to measure length.
4. We can express speed, a derived quantity, using a combination of fundamental units like
meters (m) and seconds (s).
5. Scalar quantities have both magnitude and direction.
6. Distance and speed are both examples of scalar quantities.
7. A vector can be represented graphically by an arrow.
8. All physical quantities can be represented by vectors.

9. The force acting on an object due to gravity is a vector quantity.

10. Velocity is a derived physical quantity.
11. The unit of force is a fundamental unit in the SI system.
12. All scalar quantities can be added or subtracted directly.
13. The unit of volume is a derived unit.
14. Acceleration is a scalar quantity.
15. The unit of power is a fundamental unit in the SI system.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is a DERIVED physical quantity?
a) Length b) Mass c) Speed d) Time
2. Temperature is an example of a:
a) Scalar quantity with magnitude and direction
b) Derived quantity based on length
c) Scalar quantity with magnitude only
d) Vector quantity with magnitude and direction
3. Which of the following is NOT a vector quantity?
a) Force acting on an object b) Distance traveled by a car
c) Speed of a moving airplane d) Mass of a book
4. The length of an arrow representing a vector indicates the:
a) Color of the arrow b) Direction of the vector
c) Magnitude of the vector d) Both b and c
5. You draw two arrows pointing in opposite directions. These arrows could represent:
a) Two identical scalar quantities
b) Two forces acting on an object
c) The same vector with different magnitudes
d) None of the above
6. Which of the following is most likely NOT a good way to represent a vector graphically?
a) An arrow with a specific length and direction
b) A colored dot on a graph
c) A line segment with an arrowhead
d) A mathematical equation with directional components (i.e., x and y components)
7. Which of the following is a fundamental physical quantity?
a) Velocity b) Force c) Energy d) Mass
8. Which of the following derived physical quantities is described in terms of the fundamental
quantities of length and time?
a) Acceleration b) Momentum c) Power d) None of the above
9. Which of the following is a derived unit in the SI system?
 a) Meter (m) b) Second (s) c) Kilogram (kg) d) Newton (N)
10. Which of the following physical quantities is a scalar quantity?
a) Displacement b) Velocity c) Force d) Acceleration
11. Which of the following units is a fundamental unit in the SI system?
a) Lumen (lm) b) Kelvin (K) c) Watt (W) d) Newton-meter (N·m)
12. You accidentally break a thermometer in the lab. The best course of action is to:
a) Sweep up the glass shards yourself and dispose of them.
b) Inform your teacher immediately and avoid touching the broken glass.
c) Continue with the experiment as planned.
d) Wash the glass shards with soap and water.

2.4 Unit Conversion and Conversion Factor

Unit conversion is the process of changing a measurement from one unit to another unit. For
example, converting centimeters (cm) to inches (in) or kilograms (kg) to gram (g). In order to
convert measurements given in one set of units into a different unit, we use a conversion factor
relating the two quantities. A conversion factor is a ratio that relates two different units of
measurement for the same physical quantity. It allows you to convert a measurement from one
unit to an equivalent measurement in another unit.

A conversion factor is a ratio that is equal to one. Since, multiplying any number by 1 you
always get the same value, multiplying a quantity by a conversion factor doesn’t change the
value, but express it in different unit.

To find the appropriate conversion factor, follow the following steps:

13. Write the relationship between the two quantities. For example, to convert minutes to
seconds, the appropriate relationship is: 1 minute = 60 seconds.
14. Write the conversion factor in ratio:

The basic steps in converting measurements from one unit to another using a conversion factor,
follow the following steps:

 Identify the two units involved in the conversion.

 Find the appropriate conversion factor relating those two units.
 Multiply the original quantity by the conversion factor.
 Round the result to the significant digit of the original value.

Note that, to convert a quantity from one unit to another, multiply by conversions factors in such
a way that you cancel the units you want to get rid of and introduce the units you want to end up
with. This means, the correct conversion factor is the one that cancels the unwanted unit and
leaves the desired unit in its place.

I. Converting one unit of length to another unit of length

The relationship between different units of length
Meter: Length is measured in meters. The unit is denoted by the alphabet (m). Subdivisions of
the meter are the millimeter, centimeter, and the decimeter, while multiples of meters include the
decameter, hectometer, and kilometer.

1 kilometer = 1000 m 1 meter = 1 000 mm 1 meter = 1 00 cm

1 centimeter = 10 mm = 0.001mm 1 decameter = 10 m 1 hectometer = 10 m

Example 2.2: Convert 50 centimeters (cm) to meters (m).

1. Starting unit: cm, Target unit: m

2. Conversion Factor: . Since we want to change to meter and hence cancel

out centimeter, the correct conversion factor is

3. Multiply the quantity by the conversion factor:

4. Calculation: (50 cm) (1 m / 100 cm) = 0.5 m

II. Converting one unit of mass to another unit of mass.

The relationship between different units of mass
Kilogram: Mass is measured in kilograms and the unit is denoted by (kg). It tells us how heavy
or how light an object is. We can multiply and divide the base units to measure smaller and
bigger units.
1 kilogram = 1000 g 1 gram = 0.001 kg 1 milligram = 0.001 g
1 quintal = 100 kg 1 hectogram = 100 g 1 tonne = 1000 kg

Example 2.2: Convert 25 grams (g) to kilograms (kg).

1. Starting unit: g, Target unit: kg

2. Conversion Factor: The correct conversion factor is

3. Multiply by the conversion factor:

4. Calculation: (25 g) (1 kg / 1000 g) = 0.025 kg

Example 2.4: How much is 1200 gram in kilogram?

Solution:
Example 2.3: Convert 5 kilogram to gram.

Solution: The conversion factor is, .

III. Converting one unit of time to another unit of time.

The relationship between different units of time
Second: Time is used to quantify the duration of the events. It also helps us to set the start time
or the end time of events. The base unit for time is seconds (s). Some of the conversion units of
time are:

1 minute = 60 seconds 1 hour = 60 minutes 1 day = 24 hours

1 week = 7 days 1 year = 12 months = 365 days 1 decade = 10 years

Example 2.2: Convert 120 seconds (s) to minutes (min).

1. Starting unit: s, Target unit: min

2. Conversion Factor: 1 minute (min) / 60 seconds (s)

3. Multiply the quantity by the conversion factoe: 120 s (1 min / 60 s)

4. Calculation: (120 s) (1 min / 60 s) = 2 min

Example 2.4. How many minutes are there in 3.5 hours?

The appropriate conversion factor is

Solution:
Exercise 2.4
1. Convert the following measurement: (a) 2.5 kg to gram, (b) 200 gram to milligram.
2. Convert 8.0m to centimeter
15. How many (a) minutes, and (b) seconds are there in one day?
16. Convert 72 kilometer per hour to meter per second.
17. Convert 0.5 m2 to cm2
18. Convert 2500 cm3 to m3

Conceptual Questions with Explanation

Question: Why is it important to use conversion factors when converting between units of
length, mass, and time?
Explanation: Conversion factors allow you to translate measurements from one unit to an
equivalent value in a different unit. This is crucial for ensuring consistent units and accurate
calculations when working with different measurement systems.
Question: How do the relationships between base units (e.g. meters, kilograms, seconds) and
derived units (e.g. centimeters, pounds, minutes) influence the conversion factors used?
Explanation: Conversion factors are determined by the ratios between base units and derived
units. Understanding these relationships is key to selecting the right conversion factor and
properly scaling measurements between different units of the same physical quantity.
Question: How would the conversion factor differ when converting 1 kilometer to meters versus
1 meter to kilometers?
Explanation: The conversion factor is the reciprocal when converting in the opposite direction.
For example, 1 km = 1000 m, but 1 m = 0.001 km. Recognizing this reciprocal relationship is
important for setting up the conversion correctly.
Question: You are planning a trip and need to know the distance in miles between two cities that
are 300 kilometers apart. What conversion factor would you use, and how would you apply it to
find the distance in miles?
Explanation: To convert 300 km to miles:
Identify the units - kilometers (km) and miles (mi)
Find the conversion factor - 1 km = 0.621371 mi
Multiply 300 km by the conversion factor: 300 km × (0.621371 mi/km) = 186.4113 mi
Round the result to an appropriate number of significant figures, e.g. 186 mi.
Question: A scientist is measuring the half-life of a radioactive isotope. The half-life is found to
be 5.27 days. Express this half-life in hours.
Explanation: To convert 5.27 days to hours:
Identify the units - days (d) and hours (h)
Find the conversion factor - 1 d = 24 h
Multiply 5.27 d by the conversion factor: 5.27 d × (24 h/d) = 126.48 h
Round the result to an appropriate number of significant figures, e.g. 126 h.
Question: An athlete can run 100 meters in 12.5 seconds. What is their speed in meters per
second?
Explanation: To convert 100 m in 12.5 s to meters per second (m/s):
Identify the units - meters (m), seconds (s), and meters per second (m/s)
The speed is the distance (100 m) divided by the time (12.5 s)
Calculate the speed: 100 m / 12.5 s = 8 m/s
Question: Which metric unit (kg, g, mg) would you use to measure the following?
a) Your mass, b) Your exercise book, c) A car, d) A pin, and e) A soccer ball
Explanation:

Exercise 2.4
True or False Questions
1. A conversion factor is a fraction that helps convert between different units of the same
quantity.
2. When converting units, the final answer will always have more significant figures than the
original measurement.
5. You can convert meters to kilometers by multiplying by a factor of 100.
6. When converting from centimeters (cm) to meters (m), you would multiply by a conversion
factor greater than 1.
7. It is not possible to convert between units of time and units of length.
3. You can use the same conversion factor to change mass from gram to kilogram and from
kilogram to gram.
8. When converting a measurement from a larger unit to a smaller unit, the resulting value will
always be a larger number.
9. To convert 30 minutes to seconds, you would multiply 30 by a conversion factor of 60
seconds per minute.
10. When converting a measurement from a smaller unit to a larger unit, the resulting value will
always be a smaller number.
11. There is no need to use conversion factors when working with derived units like miles per
hour or kilograms per square meter.
12. The conversion factor for converting days to seconds is 86,400 seconds per day.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. When converting measurement units, it's important to:
a) Round the final answer to a random number of digits.
b) Use the conversion factor directly without considering significant figures.
c) Maintain the appropriate number of significant figures throughout the conversion.
d) Always convert to the smallest possible unit.
2. What is the relationship between the metric prefixes "centi-" and "milli-"?
a) 1 centi- = 10 milli- b) 1 centi- = 100 milli-
 c) 1 centi- = 1000 milli- d) 1 centi- = 0.1 milli-
3. You measured the width of a textbook to be 22 centimeters (cm). What is the width in meters
(m)?
a) 0.022 m b) 0.22 m c) 220 m d)
4. A movie runs for 120 minutes. How many hours is that?
a) 0.2 hours b) 2 hours
c) 12 hours d) 1200 hours
5. The speed limit on a highway is 60 miles per hour (mph). What is the speed limit in
kilometers per hour (km/h)? (Conversion factor: 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers)
a) 37.5 km/h b) 96 km/h c) 150 km/h d)
6. How many milligrams are there in 5 grams?
a) 50 mg b) 500 mg c) 5000 mg d) 50000 mg
7. A marathon runner finishes a race in 2 hours and 30 minutes. What is the total time in
seconds?
a) 150 s b) 1800 s c) 9000 s d) 10800 s
8. You measure the length of a pencil in millimeters (mm). Which of the following is the
closest conversion to meters (m)?
a) Divide by 10 b) Divide by 100 c) Divide by 1000 d) Multiply by 1000
9. You have 750 seconds. How many minutes does that equal?
a) 0.125 minutes b) 1.25 minutes c) 12.
10. How many seconds are in 3.5 hours?
a) 12,600 s b) 10,800 s c) 12,000 s d) 14,400 s
11. The mass of a proton is approximately 1.67 × 10^-27 kg. What is the mass in milligrams?
a) 1.67 × 10^-24 mg b) 1.67 × 10^-30 mg
c) 1.67 × 10^-21 mg d) 1.67 × 10^-18 mg
12. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 5.3 years. How many days is this?
a) 1,900 days b) 1,935 days c) 1,950 days d) 1,975 days

Review Questions for Unit 2

1. Technique in which properties of an object are determined by comparing them to a standard
is known as
A. Skill B. Measurement C. Length D. Units
2. Which of the following is a non-standard unit of measure?
a) Kilogram c) meter
b) Liter, d) Hand span
3. A length of 0.05km is the same as
A. 50mm B. 50cm C. 50dm D. 50m
4. Another way of writing 0.055 cm is
A. 5.5 10-3 m C. 5.5 103m
B. 5.5 10-2 m D. 5.5 102m
5. Which one of the following is the longest?
A. 1mm B. 0.1cm C. 10-6km D. 0.01m

6. Which one of the following is not a traditional unit of length?

A. Meter B. Span C. Cubit D. Step
7. 2.5 106mm is equal to
A. 25000mm B. 2500000mm C. 250000mm D. 25000000mm
8. Which of the following is the same as 200m?
A. 20km B. 2000cm C. 0.02km D. 20,000cm
9. “Kebede has traveled a distance of 5m. “ In this statement, m is a
A. Quantity C. Length
B. Magnitude D. Unit

10. The distance from a person’s elbow to his fingertips is closest to:
A. 5cm B. 10cm C. 50cm D.1m
11. “Mass” is properly described as
A. a unit C. a variable quantity
B. a variable unit D. an invariable quantity
12. Another way of writing 7000kg would be

A. 7 103kg C. 700 103 kg

B. 70 103kg D. 7000 103 kg

13. In one of the spans of a beam balance the following standard masses are placed: 50g, 10g,
2g, 200mg and 1kg. What is the mass of the body in the other pan that balances these
masses?
A. 1062.2g B. 1064.9g C. 1642g D.263g
14. Which of the following devices could be used to measure mass?
A. Meter sticks C. Stopwatch
B. Beam balance D. Clock
15. Which of the following is not a fundamental physical quantity?

(a) Temperature (b) Density (c) Time (d) Mass

16. The SI standard of time is based on:

(a) The daily rotation of the Earth

(b) The yearly revolution of the Earth about the sun

 (c) 9,192,631,770 times the period of vibration of radiation from the cesium-133 atom

(d) A precision pendulum clock

17. Which of the following is a derived SI unit?

(a) Second (b) Joule (c) Kilogram (d) Kelvin

18. A nanosecond is:

(a) 10^9 s (b) 10^-9 s (c) 10^-6 s (d) 10^-12 s

19. Which pair of physical quantities has the same unit?

(a) Displacement and distance

(b) Mass and force

(c) Speed and acceleration

(d) Volume and area

20. How many minutes is 3 hours + 10 minutes + 120 seconds?

(a) 182 min (b) 202 min (c) 212 min (d) 192 min

21. If the masses of bodies A, B, and C are 2 ton, 100 kg, and 1 kg, respectively, the total mass
of the bodies is:

(a) 221 kg (b) 2,101 kg (c) 2,011 kg (d) 2,001 kg

22. Why are fundamental physical quantities different from derived physical quantities?

(a) Fundamental physical quantities are derived from derived physical quantities.

(b) Derived physical quantities are derived from fundamental physical quantities.

(c) Derived and fundamental physical quantities have no relation.

(d) All of the above.