CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

Logic is often treated simultaneously as a field of study and as an instrument. As a field of study, it is a branch
of philosophy that deals with the study of arguments and the principles and methods of right reasoning. As
an instrument, it is something, which we can use to formulate our own rational arguments and critically
evaluate the soundness of others‘

arguments. Before logic itself has become a field of study, philosophers have been using it as a basic tool to
investigate issues that won their philosophical attention, such as, reality, knowledge, value, etc. Philosophy is
the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, truth, beauty,
law, justice, validity, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical enterprise that tries to answer fundamental
questions through an intensive application of reason- an application that draws on analysis, comparison, and
evaluation. It involves reason, rational criticism, examination, and analysis. In this chapter, we will learn the
fundamental nature, concepts, features and areas of philosophy.

Definition Because of its universal nature, it is difficult to define philosophy in terms of a specific subject
matter.
It is important to note first that giving a clear-cut definition of philosophy is difficult. It may be easy to define
other disciplines, such as, chemistry, physics, geography, etc in terms of a subject matter, for they have their
own specific subject matters to primarily deal with. However, it is difficult to do the same with philosophy,
because philosophy has no a specific subject matter to primarily deal with. Philosophy deals primarily with
issues.
Etymologically, the word ―philosophy‖ comes from two Greek words: ―philo‖ and ―sophia‖, which
mean ―love‖ and ―wisdom‖, respectively. Thus, the literal definition of philosophy is “love of wisdom”.
-Philosophy refers to the development of critical habits, the continuous search for truth, and the questioning of
the apparent.
But, questioning/criticism is not the final end of philosophy, though raising the right question is often taken not
only as the beginning and direction of philosophy but also as its essence. Raising the right question is an art
that includes the ability to foresee what is not readily obvious and to imagine different possibilities and
alternatives of approaching the apparent. When we ultimately wonder about the existing world, and thus raise
different questions about its order, each question moves us from the phenomenal facts to a profound
speculation. The philosophical enterprise, as Vincent Barry stated, is “an active imaginative process of
formulating proper questions and resolving them by rigorous, persistent analysis”.

Therefore, philosophy is a rational and critical enterprise that tries to formulate and answer fundamental
questions through an intensive application of reason- an application that draws on analysis, comparison, and
evaluation. It involves reason, rational criticism, examination, and analysis. Accordingly, we can say that
Philosophy has a constructive side, for it attempts to formulate rationally defensible answers to certain
fundamental questions concerning the nature of reality, the nature of value, and the nature of knowledge and
truth. At the same time, its critical side is manifested when it deals with giving a rational critic, analysis,
clarification, and evaluation of answers given to basic metaphysical, epistemological, and axiological
questions.

The other thing, which is worthy of noting, is that philosophy is an activity. It is not something that can be
easily mastered or learned in schools. A philosopher is a great philosopher, not because he mastered
philosophy, but because he did it. It is not his theory, but his extraordinary ability to critically think, to
conceptualize, to analyze, to compare, to evaluate, and to understand- i.e., to philosophize- that makes him so.
Of course, the product of philosophizing is philosophy as a product. However, what makes someone a great
philosopher is not the produced philosophy, but his/her outstanding ability to philosophize.

1.2: Basic Features of Philosophy

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 As an academic discipline, philosophy has its own salient features that distinguishes it from other
academic disciplines, be it natural, social and humanistic disciplines. In this lesson, students will
be introduced with the generally fundamental features of philosophy.
1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are often held
uncritically.
We refer to this meaning as the informal sense of philosophy or ―having‖ a philosophy.
Usually when a person says ―my philosophy is,‖ he or she is referring to an informal
personal attitude to whatever topic is being discussed.
2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions
and beliefs.
This is the formal sense of ―doing‖ philosophy. These two senses of philosophy-
‖having‖ and ―doing‖- cannot be treated entirely independent of each other, if we did not
have a philosophy in the formal, personal sense, then we could not do a philosophy in the
critical, reflective sense. However, having a philosophy is not sufficient for doing
philosophy.
A genuine philosophical attitude is searching and critical; it is open-minded and tolerant-
willing to look at all sides of an issue without prejudice. To philosophize is not merely to
read and know philosophy; there are skills of argumentation to be mastered, techniques of
analysis to be employed, and a body of material to be appropriated such that we become
able to think philosophically. Critical evaluations often differ. Philosophers, theologians,
scientists, and others disagree, first because they view things from different points of view
and with different assumptions.
Their personal experiences, cultural backgrounds, and training may vary widely. This is
especially true of people living at different times and in different places. A second reason
philosophers disagree is that they live in a changing universe. People change, society
changes, and nature changes. Some people are responsive and sensitive to change; others
cling to tradition and the status quo, to systems that were formulated some time ago and
that were declared to be authoritative and final.
A third reason philosophers disagree is that they deal with an area of human experience in
which the evidence is not complete. Different people may interpret the evidence we do
have in various ways. Despite these disagreements, however, philosophers continue to
probe, examine, and evaluate the material with the hope of presenting consistent principles
by which we can live.
3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole.
Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences and human experience
into some kind of consistent worldview. Philosophers wish to see life, not with the
specialized slant of the scientist or the businessperson or the artist, but with the overall
view of someone cognizant of life as a totality.

Although there are difficulties and dangers in setting forth any worldview, there also are
dangers in confining attention to fragments of human experience. Philosophy‘s task is to
give a view of the whole, a life and a worldview, and to integrate the knowledge of the
sciences with that of other disciplines to achieve a consistent whole. Philosophy, according
to this view, attempts to bring the results of human inquiry- religious historical, and
scientific into some meaningful interpretation that provides knowledge and insight for our
lives.

4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of
words and concepts.
Certainly, this is one function of philosophy. In fact, nearly all philosophers have used
methods of analysis and have sought to clarify the meaning of terms and the use of
language. Some philosophers see this as the main task of philosophy, and a few claim this

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 is the only legitimate function of philosophy. Such persons consider philosophy a
specialized field serving the sciences and aiding in the clarification of language rather than
a broad field reflecting on all of life‘s experiences.

This outlook has gained considerable support during the twentieth century. It would limit
what we call knowledge to statements about observable facts and their interrelations i.e., to
the business of the various sciences. Not all linguistic analysts, however, define knowledge
so narrowly. Although they do reject and try to ―clean up‖ many non-scientific assertions,
many of them think that we can have knowledge of ethical principles and the like, although
this knowledge is also experientially derived. Those who take the narrower view neglect,
when they do not deny, all generalized worldviews and life views, as well as traditional
moral philosophy and theology. From this narrower point of view, the aim of philosophy is
to expose confusion and nonsense and to clarify the meaning and use of terms in science
and everyday affairs.
5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which
philosophers always have sought answers.
Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human existence. Some of the
philosophical questions raised in the past have been answered in a manner satisfactory to the
majority of philosophers. Many questions, however, have been answered only tentatively, and
many problems remain unsolved.

What are philosophical questions? The question ―Did Ram make a false statement on his
income tax return?‖ is merely a question of fact. However, the questions ―What is truth?‖
and ―What is the distinction between right and wrong?‖ have philosophical importance.
Sometimes we think seriously about fundamental life issues: What is life and why am I here?
Why is there anything at all? What is the place of life in this great universe? Is the
universe friendly or unfriendly?

Do things operate by chance or through sheer mechanism, or is there some plan, purpose, or
intelligence at the heart of things? Is my life controlled by outside forces, or do I have a
determining or even a partial degree of control? Why do people struggle and strive for their
rights, for justice, for better things in the future? What do concepts like ―right‖ and ―justice‖
means, and what are the marks of a good society? Often men and women have been asked to
sacrifice their lives, if need be, for certain values and ideals.

What are the genuine values of life and how can it attained? Is there really a fundamental
distinction between right and wrong, or is it just a matter of one‘s own opinions? What is
beauty? Should religion count in a person‘s life? Is it intellectually valid to believe in God? Is
there a possibility of a ―life after death?‖ Is there any way we can get an answer to
these and many related questions? Where does knowledge come from, and can we have any
assurances that anything is true?

The above questions are all philosophical. The attempt to seek answers or solutions to them has
given rise to theories and systems of thought, such as idealism, realism, pragmatism, analytic
philosophy, existentialism, phenomenology, and process philosophy. Philosophy also means
the various theories or systems of thought developed by the great philosophers, such as
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, Locke, Berkeley, Kant,
Hegel, Nietzsche, Royce, James, Dewey, Whitehead, and others. Without these people and their
thoughts, philosophy would not have the rich content it has today. Even though we may be
unconscious of the fact, we are constantly influenced by ideas that have come down to us in the
traditions of society.

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 Core Fields of Philosophy
1.3: Metaphysics and Epistemology
1.3.1. Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the ultimate nature of reality or existence. It
deal with issues of reality, God, freedom, soul/immortality, the mind-body problem, form and
substance relationship, cause and effect relationship, and other related issues. Metaphysicians
seek an irreducible foundation of reality or ‗first principles‘ from which absolute knowledge or
truth can be induced and deduced. The term metaphysics is derived from the Greek words
“meta” means (―beyond‖, ―upon‖ or ―after‖) and physika, means (―physics‖). Literally, it
refers those things after the physics.‘ Aristotle‘s writings on ‗first philosophy‘ came after his
treatise on physics, therefore, Aristotle‘s editor, Andronicus of Rhodes, named them
metaphysics.

Here are some of the questions that Metaphysics primarily deals with:
 What is reality?
 What is the ultimately real?
 What is the nature of the ultimate reality?
 Is it one thing or is it many different things?
 Can reality be grasped by the senses, or it is transcendent?
 What makes reality different from a mere appearance?
 What is mind, and what is its relation to the body?
 Is there a cause and effect relationship between reality and appearance?
 Does God exist, and if so, can we prove it?
 Are human actions free, or predetermined by a supernatural force?
 What is human being? A thinking mind? A perishable body? Or a combination of both?
 What is time?
 What is the meaning of life?

At first, questions like, ‗What is real?‘ seem too simple to bother asking. But consider George
Knight‘s example about the existence of a floor and one will see that the question has far
reaching implications: What is exactly the nature of the floor upon which you stand? It may
seemto have a rather straightforward existence. It is obviously flat, solid, and smooth; it has a
particular color; it is composed of an identifiable material, such as wood or concrete; and it
supports your weight. Suppose, however, that a physicist enters the room and questioned about
the reality of the floor. She will reply that the floor is made of molecules; that molecules consist
of atoms, electrons, protons, and neutrons; and these, finally, of electric energy alone. A third
position is offered by a passing chemist. To him the floor is a hotbed of hydrocarbons associated
in a particular way and subject to certain kinds of environmental influences, such as heat, cold,
wetness, dryness, and oxidation.

It is evident that the question of reality is not as simplistic as it appears. If the reality of common
floor is confusing, what about the larger problems that presents themselves as humankind
searches for the ultimate reality of the universe?Metaphysical questions are the most basic to
ask because they provide the foundation upon which all subsequent inquiry is based.
Metaphysical questions may be divided into four subsets or aspects.
Cosmological Aspect: Cosmology consists in the study of theories about the origin, nature, and
development of the universe as an orderly system. Questions such as these populate the realm of
cosmology: ―How did the universe originate and develop? Did it come about by accident or
design? Does its existence have any purpose?‖

Theological Aspect: Theology is that part of religious theory that deals with conceptions of and
about God. ―Is there a God? If so, is there one or more than one? What are the attributes of
God? If God is both all good and all powerful, why does evil exist? If God exists, what is His
relationship to human beings and the ‗real‘ world of everyday life?‖
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 Anthropological Aspect: Anthropology deals with the study of human beings and asks questions
like the following: What is the relation between mind and body? Is mind more fundamental than
body, with body depending on mind, or vice versa? What is humanity‘s moral status? Are people
born good, evil, or morally neutral? To what extent are individuals free? Do they have free will, or
are their thoughts and actions determined by their environment, inheritance, or a divine being?
Does each person have a soul? If so, what is it? People have obviously adopted different
positions on these questions, and those positions influence their political, social, religious, and
educational ideals and practices.

Ontological Aspect: Ontology is the study of the nature of existence, or what it means for anything
to exist. Several questions are central to ontology: ―Is basic reality found in matter or
physical energy (the world we can sense), or is it found in spirit or spiritual energy? Is it composed
of one element (e.g., matter or spirit), or two (e.g., matter and spirit), or many?‖ ―Is reality orderly
and lawful in itself, or is it merely orderable by the human mind? Is it fixed and stable, or is
change its central feature? Is this reality friendly, unfriendly, or neutral toward humanity?

1.3.2.Epistemology
Epistemology is the other field of philosophy that studies about the nature, scope, meaning, and
possibility of knowledge. It deals with issues of knowledge, opinion, truth, falsity, reason,
experience, and faith. Epistemology is also referred to as ―theory of knowledge‖.
Etymologically, the word epistemology has been derived from the Greek words episteme, meaning
―knowledge, understanding‖, and logos, meaning ―study of‖. In other words, we can say that
Epistemology is the study of the nature, source, and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer of the
basic questions as ―What is true?‖ and ―How do we know?‖ Thus, epistemology covers two
areas: the content of thought and thought itself. The study of epistemology deals with issues related
to the dependability of knowledge and the validity of the sources through which we gain
information.
The following are among the questions/issues with which Epistemology deals:
 What is knowledge?
 What does it mean to know?
 What is the source of knowledge? Experience? Reason? Or both?
 How can we be sure that what we perceive through our senses is correct?
 What makes knowledge different from belief or opinion?
 What is truth, and how can we know a statement is true?
 Can reason really help us to know phenomenal things without being informed by sense
experiences?
 Can our sense experience really help us to know things beyond our perception without the
assistance of our reasoning ability?
 What is the relationship and difference between faith and reason?
Epistemology seeks answers to a number of fundamental issues. One is whether reality can even be
known. Skepticism in its narrow sense is the position claiming that people cannot acquire reliable
knowledge and that any search for truth is in vain. That thought was well expressed by Gorgias, the
Greek Sophist who asserted that nothing exists, and that if it did, we could not know it. A full-
blown skepticism would make intelligent action impossible. A term closely related to skepticism is
agnosticism. Agnosticism is a profession of ignorance in reference to the existence or nonexistence
of God.

Most people claim that reality can be known. However, once they have taken that position, they
must decide through what sources reality may be known, and must have some concept of how to
judge the validity of their knowledge. A second issue foundational to epistemology is whether all
truth is relative, or whether some truths are absolute. Is all truth subject to change? Is it possible
that what is true today may be false tomorrow? If the answer is ―Yes‖ to the previous questions,
such truths are relative. If, however, there is Absolute Truth, such Truth is eternally and universally
true irrespective of time or place. Closely related to the issue of the relativity and absoluteness of
truth are the questions of whether knowledge is subjective or objective, and whether there is truth
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 that is independent of human experience.

A major aspect of epistemology relates to the sources of human knowledge. Ifone accepts the fact
that there is truth and even Truth in the universe, how can human beings comprehend such truths?
How do they become human knowledge? Central to most people‘s answer to that question is
empiricism (knowledge obtained through the senses). Empirical knowledge appears to be built into
the very nature of human experience. Thus, when individuals walk out of doors on a spring day and
see the beauty of the landscape, hear the song of a bird, feel the warm rays of the sun, and smell the
fragrance of the blossoms, they ―know‖ that it is spring. Sensory knowing for humans is immediate
and universal, and in many ways forms the basis of much of human knowledge. The existence of
sensory data cannot be denied. Most people accept it uncritically as representing ―reality.‖ The
danger of naively embracing this approach is that data obtained from the human senses have been
demonstrated to be both incomplete and undependable. (For example, most people have been
confronted with the contradiction of seeing a stick that looks bent when partially submerged in
water but appears to be straight when examined in the air.) Fatigue, frustration, and illness also
distort and limit sensory perception. In addition, there are sound and light waves that are inaudible
and invisible to unaided human perception.

Humans have invented scientific instruments to extend the range of their senses, but it is impossible
to ascertain the exact dependability of these instruments since no one knows the total effect of the
human mind in recording, interpreting, and distorting sensual perception. Confidence in these
instruments is built upon speculative metaphysical theories whose validity has been reinforced by
experimentation in which predictions have been verified through the use of a theoretical construct
or hypothesis. In general, sensory knowledge is built upon assumptions that must be accepted by
faith in the dependability of human sensory mechanisms. The advantage of empirical knowledge is
that many sensory experiences and experiments are open to both replication and public
examination.

A second important source of human knowledge is reason. The view that reasoning, thought, or
logic is the central factor in knowledge is known as rationalism. The rationalist, in emphasizing
humanity‘s power of thought and the mind‘s contributions to knowledge, is likely to claim that the
senses alone cannot provide universal, valid judgments that are consistent with one another. From
this perspective, the sensations and experiences humans obtain through their senses are the raw
material of knowledge. These sensations must be organized by the mind into a meaningful system
before they become knowledge. Rationalism in a less extreme form claims that people have the
power to know with certainty various truths about the universe that the senses alone cannot give. In
its extreme form, rationalism claims that humans are capable of arriving at irrefutable knowledge
independently of sensory experience. Formal logic is a tool used by rationalists. Systems of logic
have the advantage of possessing internal consistency, but they risk being disconnected from the
external world. Systems of thought based upon logic are only as valid as the premises upon which
they are built.
A third source of human knowledge is intuition- the direct apprehension of knowledge that is not
derived from conscious reasoning or immediate sense perception. In the literature dealing with
intuition, one often finds such expressions as ―immediate feeling of certainty.‖ Intuition occurs
beneath the threshold of consciousness and is often experienced as a sudden flash of insight.
Intuition has been claimed under varying circumstances as a source of both religious and secular
knowledge. Certainly many scientific breakthroughs have been initiated by intuitive hunches that
were confirmed by experimentation. The weakness or danger of intuition is that it does not appear
to be a safe method of obtaining knowledge when used alone. It goes astray very easily and may
lead to absurd claims unless it is controlled by or checked against other methods of knowing.
Intuitive knowledge, however, has the distinct advantage of being able to bypass the limitations of
human experience.

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 A fourth influential source of knowledge throughout the span of human history has been revelation.
Revealed knowledge has been of prime importance in the field of religion. It differs from all other
sources of knowledge because it presupposes a transcendent supernatural reality that breaks into the
natural order. Christians believe that such revelation is God‘s communication concerning the divine
will. Believers in supernatural revelation hold that this form of knowledge has the distinct
advantage of being an omniscient source of information that is not available through other
epistemological methods. The truth revealed through this source is believed by Christians to be
absolute and uncontaminated. On the other hand, it is generally realized that distortion of revealed
truth can occur in the process of human interpretation. Some people assert that a major
disadvantage of revealed knowledge is that it must be accepted by faith and cannot be proved or
disproved empirically.

A fifth source of human knowledge, though not a philosophical position, is authority. Authoritative
knowledge is accepted as true because it comes from experts or has been sanctified over time as
tradition. In the classroom, the most common source of information is some authority, such as a
textbook, teacher, or reference work. Accepting authority as a source of knowledge has its
advantages as well as its dangers. Civilization would certainly stagnate if people refused to accept
any statement unless they personally verified it through direct, firsthand experience. On the other
hand, if authoritative knowledge is built upon a foundation of incorrect assumptions, then such
knowledge will surely be distorted.

1.4: Axiology and Logic

Axiology

Axiology is the study or theory of value. The term Axiology stems from two Greek words-
―Axios‖, meaning ―value, worth‖, and ―logos‖, meaning ―reason/ theory/ symbol / science/study
of‖. Hence, Axiology is the philosophical study of value, which originally meant the worth of
something. Axiology asks the philosophical questions of values that deal with notions of what a
person or a society regards as good or preferable, such as:
What is a value?
Where do values come from?
How do we justify our values?
How do we know what is valuable?
What is the relationship between values and knowledge?
What kinds of values exist?
Can it be demonstrated that one value is better than another?
Who benefits from values?

Axiology deals with the above and related issues of value in three areas, namely Ethics, Aesthetics,
and Social/Political Philosophy.
Ethics
Ethics, which is also known as Moral Philosophy, is a science that deals with the philosophical
study of moral principles, values, codes, and rules, which may be used as standards for determining
what kind of human conduct/action is said to be good or bad, right or wrong. Ethics questions
including:
 What is good/bad?
 What is right/wrong?
 Is it the Right Principle or the Good End that makes human action/conduct moral?
 Is an action right because of its good end, or it is good because of its right principle?
 Are moral principles universal, objective, and unconditional, or relative, subjective and
conditional?
 What is the ultimate foundation of moral principles? The supernatural God? Human reason?
Mutual social contract? Social custom?
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  Does God exist? If so, is He Benevolent and Omnipotent?
 If God is Benevolent, why He creates evil things? If God does not create evil things, then, there
must be another creator who is responsible to creation of the evil things? But, if it is so, how
can God be an Omnipotent creator?
 Why we honor and obey moral rules? For the sake of our own individual benefits?, or for the
sake of others?, or just for the sake of fulfilling our infallible duty?
Ethics, or ethical studies, can be grouped into three broad categories: Normative ethics, Meta-
ethics, and Applied Ethics.

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 has three main branches: meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Ethics raises various
Normative Ethics refers to the ethical studies that attempt to study and determine precisely the moral
rules, principles, standards and goals by which human beings might evaluate and judge the moral values
of their conducts, actions and decisions. It is the reasoned search for principles of human conduct,
including a critical study of the major theories about which things are good, which acts are right, and
which acts are blameworthy. Consequentialism or Teleological Ethics, Deontological Ethics, and Virtue
Ethics are the major examples of normative ethical studies.

Meta-ethics is the highly technical philosophical discipline that deals with investigation of the meaning
of ethical terms, including a critical study of how ethical statements can be verified. It is more
concerned with the meanings of such ethical terms as good or bad and right or wrong than with what
we think is good or bad and right or wrong. Moral Intuitionism, Moral Emotivism,
Moral Prescriptivism, Moral Nihilism, and Ethical Relativism are the main examples of meta- ethical
studies.

Applied Ethics is a normative ethics that attempts to explain, justify, apply moral rules, principles,
standards, and positions to specific moral problems, such as capital punishment, euthanasia, abortion,
adultery, animal right, and so on. This area of normative ethics is termed applied because the ethicist
applies or uses general ethical princes in an attempt to resolve specific moral problems.
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is the theory of beauty. It studies about the particular value of our artistic and aesthetic
experiences. It deals with beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory/emotional values, perception, and matters of
taste and sentiment.
The following are typical Aesthetic questions:

 What is art?
 What is beauty?
 What is the relation between art and beauty?
 What is the connection between art, beauty, and truth?
 What is artistic creativity and how does it differ from scientific creativity?
 Why works of art are valuable?
 Can artistic works communicate? If so, what do they communicate?
 Does art have any moral value, and obligations or constraints?
 Are there standards of quality in Art?
Social/Political Philosophy
Social/Political Philosophy studies about of the value judgments operating in a civil society are it social
or political.
The following questions are some of the major Social/Political Philosophy primarily deal with:
 What form of government is best?
 What economic system is best?
 What is justice/injustice?
 What makes an action/judgment just/unjust?
 What is society?
 Does society exist? If it does, how does it come to existence?
 How are civil society and government come to exist?
 Are we obligated to obey all laws of the State?
What is the purpose of government?
Logic
Logic is the study or theory of principles of right reasoning. It deals with formulating the right
principles of reasoning; and developing scientific methods of evaluating the validity and soundness of
arguments.

The following are among the various questions raised by Logic:

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  What is an argument;
 What does it mean to argue?
 What makes an argument valid or invalid
 What is a sound argument?
 What relation do premise and conclusion have in argument?
 How can we formulate and evaluate an argument?
 What is a fallacy?;
 What makes an argument fallacious?

1. 5: Importance of Learning Philosophy

Thus, among the various benefits of learning philosophy is that philosophy provides students with the
tools they need to critically examine their own lives as well as the world in which they live. Let us
clarify it more.
Some modern psychologists point out that human beings have both maintenance and actualizing needs.
The former refer to the physical and psychological needs that we must satisfy in order to maintain
ourselves as human beings: food, shelter, security, social interaction, and the like. The later appear to be
associated with self-fulfillment, creativity, self-expression, realization of one‘s potential, and being
everything one can be.
Although philosophy may not necessarily lead to this sort of self-actualization, it can assist us to
actualize ourselves by promoting the ideal of self- actualization. There are many characteristics of self-
actualization to whose achievement studying philosophy has a primordial contribution. Here below are
some of them.
Intellectual and Behavioral Independence:-
This is the ability to develop one‘s own opinion and beliefs. Among the primary goals of philosophy,
one is the integration of experiences into a unified, coherent, and systematic world views. Studying
philosophy helps us not only to know the alternative world views but also to know how philosophers
have ordered the universe for themselves. As a result, we can learn how to develop and integrate our
experiences, thoughts, feelings, and actions for ourselves, and thus how to be intellectually and
behaviorally independent.
Reflective Self-Awareness:-
Self-actualization cannot be realized without a clear knowledge of oneself and the world in which one
lives. Philosophy helps us to intensify our self- awareness by inviting us to critically examine the
essential intellectual grounds of our lives.
Flexibility, Tolerance, and Open-Mindedness:-
By studying different philosophical perspectives we can understand the evolutionary nature of
intellectual achievement and the ongoing development of human thought. As we confront with the
thoughts of various philosophers we can easily realize that no viewpoint is necessarily true or false- that
the value of any attitude is contextual. Finally, we become more tolerant, open-minded, more receptive,
and more sympathetic to views that contend or clash with ours.
Creative and Critical Thinking: -
this is the ability to develop original philosophical perspective on issues, problems, and events; and to
engage them on a deeper level. From the study of philosophy, we can learn how to refine our powers of
analysis, our abilities to think critically, to reason, to evaluate, to theorize, and to justify.
Conceptualized and well-thought-out value systems in morality, art, politics, and the like: -
Since philosophy directly deals with morality, art, politics, and other related value theories, studying
philosophy provides us with an opportunity to formulate feasible evaluations of value; and thereby to
find meaning in our lives.

EDITED BY: - ZERIHUN.D(2016EC)

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