Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

Series 1
Lukas Michael Robin

1
Contents
1 Introduction 3
1.1 What is quantum mechanics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Laws of Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Quantum States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Half Spin Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Dirac Notation, Inner Products, and

Operators 6
2.1 Kronacker Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Dirac Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Example: Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Hermitian Adjoint of Matrix Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3 Commutators 17
3.1 Functions of Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Commutators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 The transformation from discrete states to a continuous function 21
3.4 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4 The Schrödinger equation 23

2
1 Introduction
1.1 What is quantum mechanics?
• Quantum mechanics is everywhere

• Quantum mechanics is quite funny in nature when compared to classical

mechanics

• Einstein, despite being a founder of quantum mechanics, grew to hate

quantum mechanics because it lacks determinism

• Quantum mechanics uses a distribution of probabilities associated to

events ocurring, in order to more accurately model the physical world

• With quantum mechanics it is significantly easier to develop probability

distributions than classical mechanics

• Because of the scale electrons operate on, they most nearly are always
intercating with a magentic or electric field

1.2 Laws of Probability

Independent Events:

P (A ∧ B) = P (A)P (B) (1.2.1)

Exclusive Events:

P (A ∨ B) = P (A) + P (B) (1.2.2)

Suppose x is a random event. ⟨x⟩ is the expectation value of x. We can say

that given a probability of an event happening, pi .
X
⟨x⟩ = p i xi (1.2.3)
i

Using laws of probability we can derive ⟨x + y⟩ = ⟨x⟩ + ⟨y⟩.

In quantum mechanics, probabilities are related to amplitudes. They are the
norm squared of the amplitude.

P = |A|2 , A ∈ C (1.2.4)

3
Suppose two events. Event S and event T. Events S and T are exclusive
events, and cannot occur at the same time. We will label the amplitude of
event S and T as A(S) and A(T ) respectively.

P (x) = |A(S) + A(T )|2 (1.2.5)

= |A(S)|2 +|A(T )|2 +A∗ (S)A(T ) + A(S)A∗ (T ) (1.2.6)
= P (S) + P (T ) + 2 Re(A(S)A(T )) (1.2.7)
A(S) = |AS |eiϕS , A(T ) = |AT |ei ϕT (1.2.8)

As |AS | approaches |AT |,

P (x) ≈ 2P (S) + 2|AS |2 Re(ei(ϕS −ϕT ) ) (1.2.9)

= 2P (S)(1 + cos(ϕS + ϕT )) (1.2.10)

We have discovered here a difference from what we would expect from clas-
sical mechanics. While 2P (S) is classically expected, 2P (S) cos(ϕS + ϕT ) is
not. This is called the quantum interference term. Calculating probabilities
in this manner is unique to physics, as no other discipline computes proba-
bilities with interference terms.

1.3 Quantum States

Quantum states are characterised by their observable characteristics, or ”ob-
servables.” Examples are position in the x, y, and z plane; momentum in the
x, y, and z directions; and their energy. We characterise the state by asso-
ciating a quantum amplitude to possible outcomes of measurements. These
outcomes form a spectrum of observables, which may be continuous of dis-
crete.

x, y, z ∈ (−∞, ∞) (1.3.1)
px,y,z ∈ (−∞, ∞) (1.3.2)
Jz ∈ {· · · , ℏ(k − 1), ℏk, ℏ(k + 1), · · · } (1.3.3)
E ∈ {E0 , E1 , E2 , . . . , En } (1.3.4)
a(E0 ) = a0 , a(E1 ) = a1 , a(En ) = an (1.3.5)

4
1.4 Half Spin Particles
Spin is an intrinsic property that particles have. Spin is not the physical
gyration of a particle on its axis, but a measure
q of its angular momentum.
All particles have a total spin such that |J|= 34 ℏ. Half of this is allocated
to spin in the positive z or negative z direction.

 
ℏ ℏ
Jz ∈ − , (1.4.1)
2 2

We therefore assign an amplitude for spin states up, 12 ; + 21 z and spin states
down, 21 ; − 12 z to be a+ and a− respectively1 . Since a+ and a− are the only
possible amplitudes of the states, the set containing the amplitudes is said
to be the complete set of amplitudes for spin in the z-axis. {a+ , a− } is the
complete set of amplitudes.

If the set of amplitudes are known to be complete, we can use the spec-
trum of amplitudes to calculate all the possible outcomes of an experiment.
More on this will comes later in reading.

1
There exists other representations of spin up and spin down, and you are not limited
to writing the ket, as it is quite time consuming.

5
2 Dirac Notation, Inner Products, and
Operators
2.1 Kronacker Delta
The Kronacker delta is a functional tensor that compares the values of its
indices. The tensor also defines an orthonormal basis. It is defined as follows:

(
1 if i = j
δij := (2.1.1)
0 if i ̸= j

Indices of the Kronacker delta are interchangable, such that δij = δji . In
addition, the Kronacker delta follows the Einstein summation convention.
This allows summation to be inferred by the indices of the contained ele-
ments.Take the following examples.
X
δji δjk = δ1i δ1k + δ2i δ2k + · · · (2.1.2)
j

X
ai b i = a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + · · · (2.1.3)
i

These sums can be written more compactly using the Einstein summation
convention, which is often times a more compact and elegant way to write
these sums. This also allows interchangability of indices and commutability.

X
δji δjk → δji δjk (2.1.4)
j
X
ai b i → ai b i (2.1.5)
i

6
Indices of the Kronacker delta also have contractability under multiplication.
This further extends to coefficients under certain conditions.

δij δjk = δik (2.1.6)

If ∀j ∈ Z+ ∃n ∈ Z+ : 1 ≤ j ≤ n,

then it is the case that

aj δji = ai (2.1.7)

2.2 Dirac Notation

Recall from classical mechanics position is written as a position vector,
⇀
r = ⟨x, y, z⟩. In quantum mechanics, states are vectors as well. However
a different notation is used to help us do physics more easily. The notation
used in quantum mechanics is called dirac notation or bra-ket notation. In
bra-ket notation there are bras, ⟨ψ|, and there are kets, |ψ⟩ . The bra is the
hermitian conjugate of its corresponding ket. Suppose the following.

|ψ⟩ = (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) (2.2.1)

|ψ⟩† = ⟨ψ| (2.2.2)

 
a∗1
 a∗ 
 2
=⇒ ⟨ψ| =  ..  (2.2.3)
.
a∗n

7
Because bras and kets are vectors, they can be linearily combined with other
bra or kets, and scaled. Suppose this leads to the following properties:

|ψ⟩ = (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) (2.2.4)

|ϕ⟩ = (b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ) (2.2.5)

|ψ + ϕ⟩ = |ψ⟩ + |ϕ⟩ = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , · · · , an + bn ) (2.2.6)

|ψ ′ ⟩ = α |ψ⟩ = (αa1 , αa2 , · · · , αan ) (2.2.7)

These kets therefore form a vector space, V. Kets are made of a linear com-
bination of basis kets, |i⟩.

X
|ψ⟩ = ai |i⟩ (2.2.8)
i

There also exists functions of kets. These are linear function, which may
be complex: f (|ψ⟩) ∈ C. This is more clearly defined: f (|ψ⟩) = ⟨f |ψ⟩. The
bra forms what is called the adjoint space, V ′ . Since the bra is also a vector,
we can describe it as the arbitrary linear combination of two other kets.

⟨h| = α ⟨f | + β ⟨g| (2.2.9)

=⇒ ⟨h|ψ⟩ = ⟨f | α |ψ⟩ + ⟨g| β |ψ⟩ (2.2.10)

8
Given that the basis ket upon which all kets are formed is |i⟩, the adjoint
basis will be called ⟨j|. Because ⟨j| is the hermitian conjugate of |i⟩, we
can say they are orthogonal when i ̸= j, ⟨j|i⟩ = δij . We can now write the
following:

X
|ψ⟩ = aj |j⟩ (2.2.11)
j

X
⟨ψ| = a∗i ⟨i| (2.2.12)
i

X X
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = a∗i ⟨i| aj |j⟩ (2.2.13)
i j

X
=⇒ ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = a∗i aj ⟨i|j⟩ (2.2.14)
ij

=⇒ ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = a∗i aj δij (2.2.15)

X X
=⇒ ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = |ai |2 = Pi = 1 (2.2.16)
i i

Under proper normalisation, the inner product of a ket with itself, ⟨ψ|ψ⟩,
should always be equal to 1.

9
2.3 Example: Energy
For a 1 dimensional particle in a potential well, {ai } forms a complete set,
where |ai |2 = P (E0 ). Suppose the following:

X
|ψ⟩ = ai |i⟩ (2.3.1)
i

E = E3 (2.3.2)

(
1 if i = 3
ai = (2.3.3)
0 otherwise

|ψ⟩ = |E3 ⟩ (2.3.4)

We can
P more clearly write this using Dirac notation by defining the ket
|ψ⟩ = i ai |Ei ⟩,

X
⟨Ej |ψ⟩ = ⟨Ej | ai |Ei ⟩ (2.3.5)
ij

=⇒ ⟨Ej |ψ⟩ = ai δij = aj (2.3.6)

10
2.4 Measurement
P
Given |ψ⟩ = i ai |i⟩, where ai are the amplitudes at which Ei may be mea-
sured, then when |ψ⟩ is measured to be in state |Ei ⟩, ai = 1 and all other
indices, aj , are equal to 0.
P
Suppose initially |ψ⟩ = i ai |Ei ⟩, for a large amount of non-zero ampli-
tudes of the state with well defined energy. At some point we measure E to
be Ek . This means that |ψ⟩ = |Ek ⟩. We therefore say that the wavefunction
has collapsed, and now ak = 1. This tells us that measuring the value of the
eigenstate of a particular observable will have no uncertainty in the value of
that observable. Kets can easily be mapped to bras. Therefore it is the case
that when the bra is not the hermitian conjugate of the ket, that the bra is
orthogonal to the ket.

⟨j|i⟩ = δij (2.4.1)

P
P us further illustrate this, let us suppose states |ψ⟩ =
To help i ai |i⟩ and
|ϕ⟩ = j bj |j⟩.
X
=⇒ ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ = ⟨j| b∗j ai |i⟩ (2.4.2)
ij

= b∗j ai δij (2.4.3)

= b∗j aj (2.4.4)

∗
Conversely, ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = a∗i bj δij = a∗j bj = b∗j aj .

=⇒ ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ = ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩∗ (2.4.5)

11
2.5 Operators
Operators are mathematical objects that act on bras and kets. Operators act
linearliy on bras and kets; they therefore map kets to a new ket. Operators
are often denoted with the symbol for the observable they are associated
with, adjoined with a hat over the symbol.

 |ψ⟩ = |ψ ′ ⟩ (2.5.1)

   
 (α |ψ⟩ + β |ϕ⟩) = α  |ψ⟩ + β  |ϕ⟩ (2.5.2)

One of the most important operators is the identity operator. It acts the
same way as the the identity matrix in that it maps a ket onto itself, it forms
a linear basis, and it is the basis upon which all other operators are founded.

X
Iˆ = |i⟩ ⟨i| (2.5.3)
i

X
Iˆ |ψ⟩ = |i⟩ ⟨i|ψ⟩ = |ϕ⟩ (2.5.4)
i

!
X X
= |i⟩ ⟨i| aj |j⟩ (2.5.5)
i j

= aj |i⟩ δij (2.5.6)

X
= ai |i⟩ = |ψ⟩ (2.5.7)
i

12
Let us now look a the most important operator in quantum mechanics: the
Hamiltonian operator, or the energy operator, Ĥ.

X
Ĥ = Ei |Ei ⟩ ⟨Ei | (2.5.8)
i

!
X X
⟨ψ| Ĥ |ψ⟩ = a∗j ⟨Ej | Ĥ ai |Ei ⟩ (2.5.9)
j i

X X
=⇒ ⟨ψ| Ĥ |ψ⟩ = |ai |2 Ek = Pk Ek = ⟨E⟩ (2.5.10)
i

Notice that the inner product of the wavefunction with the Hamiltonian
operator on the wavefunction gives us the expectation value for the Hamil-
tonian of the system. This is the case for all observables. We can write this
in a more general manner.

Suppose any observable Q, with spectrum {qi }, and states |qi ⟩, where ob-
serving Q of state |qi ⟩ will yield a value in the spectrum {qi }.

Q̂ |qi ⟩ ∈ {qi } (2.5.11)

We will utilise this to write the general form of the expectation value of
operator Q̂ and an observable Q.

X
Q̂ = qi |qi ⟩ ⟨qi | (2.5.12)
i

X
|ψ⟩ = ai |qi ⟩ (2.5.13)
i

! !
X X
⟨ψ| Q̂ |ψ⟩ = a∗j ⟨qj | Q̂ ai |qi ⟩ (2.5.14)
j i

13
 !
X  X
=⇒ ⟨ψ| Q̂ |ψ⟩ = a∗j ⟨qi | qk |qk ⟩ ⟨qk | ai |qi ⟩ (2.5.15)
i

= a∗j ai qk δij (2.5.16)

X X
=⇒ ⟨ψ| Q̂ |ψ⟩ = |ai |2 qi = Pi qi = ⟨Q⟩ (2.5.17)
i i

We can also write an expression for operator Q̂ in terms of its eigenstates.

X
Q̂ = qi |qi ⟩ ⟨qi | (2.5.18)
i

!
X X
Q̂ |ψ⟩ = qi |qi ⟩ ⟨qi | aj |qj ⟩ (2.5.19)
i j

X
= qi |qi ⟩ ⟨qi | aj |qj ⟩ (2.5.20)
i

X
= qi aj |qi ⟩ δij (2.5.21)
i

X
= qi ai |qi ⟩ (2.5.22)
i

X
=⇒ Q̂ |ψ⟩ = qi ai |qi ⟩ (2.5.23)
i

=⇒ Q̂ |ψ⟩ = Q |ψ⟩ (2.5.24)

14
We can therefore say that the eigenstates of an operator are the basis upon
which the operator is founded. We can also say that the eigenstates of an
operator are the states that are not affected by the operator. This is because
the eigenstates of an operator are the states that are mapped to themselves
by the operator. This is the case for all operators.

Suppose {|i⟩} forms a basis. We can then prove that any operator can be
written in matrix form.

X
|ψ⟩ = aj |j⟩ (2.5.25)
i

|ϕ⟩ = Q̂ |ψ⟩ (2.5.26)

X X
=⇒ bi |i⟩ = Q̂ aj |j⟩ (2.5.27)
i j

X
=⇒ bi = aj ⟨i| Q̂ |j⟩ (2.5.28)
j

Because of the Kronacker delta, ⟨i| Q̂ |j⟩ condenses to: Qij (2.5.29)

X
=⇒ bi = aj Qij (2.5.30)
j

=⇒ ⟨i| Q̂ |j⟩ = Qij (2.5.31)

15
If |i⟩ = |q⟩i , then we can use the definition of an operator under the identity
element to write the following:

Qij = ⟨qi | Q̂ |qj ⟩ (2.5.32)

= qj ⟨qi |qj ⟩ (2.5.33)

= qj δij (2.5.34)

Therefore, the matrix representation of an operator is the regular diagonal

matrix of the eigenvalues of the operator. This is the case for all operators.

 
q1 0 · · · 0
 0 q2 · · · 0 
Qij =  .. .. . . (2.5.35)
 
.. 
. . . .
0 0 · · · qn

2.6 Hermitian Adjoint of Matrix Q

Using the same matrix Q from the previous section, we can write the hermi-
tian adjoint of Q as follows:

Q†ij = Q∗ji (2.6.1)

∗
= QT (2.6.2)

In basis {|qi ⟩}, we can write the following:

Q† = (qi δji )∗


ij
(2.6.3)

16
 If qi is real, then Q†


ij
= qi δji = Qij .

More generally, if the eigenvalues of an operator are real, then the opera-
tor is hermitian. This is the case for all operators.

3 Commutators
3.1 Functions of Operators
Given some arbitrary function, f (x) that can be Taylor expanded, we can
write the following:

∞
X f (n) (0)
f (x) = xn (3.1.1)
n=0
n!

1 1
= f0 + f1 x + f 2 x 2 + f 3 x3 + · · · (3.1.2)
2! 3!

Now we ask what the function composed of operator, Q̂, is. We can write
the following:

X
f (Q̂) = f (qi ) |qi ⟩ ⟨qi | (3.1.3)
i

∞
X f (n) (0)
f (Q̂) = Q̂n (3.1.4)
n=0
n!

1 1
= f0 Iˆ + f1 Q̂ + f2 Q̂2 + f3 Q̂3 + · · · (3.1.5)
2! 3!

17
3.2 Commutators
Suppose we have two operators, Q̂ and R̂ acting on ket |ψ⟩. We can write
the following if Q̂ and R̂ commute:

Q̂R̂ |ψ⟩ = R̂Q̂ |ψ⟩ (3.2.1)

We will later use this to define the commutator operator, so keep this in
mind. We can also write the following using the matrix definition of an op-
erator:

(QR)ij = ⟨i| Q̂R̂ |j⟩ (3.2.2)

If we insert the identity operator, Iˆ = |m⟩ ⟨m| between Q̂ and R̂, we can
P
write the following:

⟨i| Q̂R̂ |j⟩ = ⟨i| Q̂IˆR̂ |j⟩ (3.2.3)

X
= ⟨i| Q̂ |m⟩ ⟨m| R̂ |j⟩ (3.2.4)
m

X
= Qim Rmj (3.2.5)
m

This allows us to define the adjunct space of Q̂ on R̂ to be:

 †
Q̂R̂ = R̂† Q̂† (3.2.6)

18
Using the definition of commutability from equation 3.2.1, we can write the
following to test if two operators commute:

Q̂R̂ |ψ⟩ = R̂Q̂ |ψ⟩ (3.2.7)

 
=⇒ Q̂R̂ − R̂Q̂ |ψ⟩ = 0 (3.2.8)
 
Therefore, if Q̂ and R̂ commute, then Q̂R̂ − R̂Q̂ |ψ⟩ = 0. This is the case
for all operators that commute. We can write that the commutator operator,
or the commutator of Q̂ and R̂, is:

h i
Q̂, R̂ = Q̂R̂ − R̂Q̂ (3.2.9)

Since not all operators commute, we can use this to test whether or not
2 or more operators commute. Let us review some properties of the commu-
tator operator.

h i h i
Q̂, R̂ = − R̂, Q̂ (3.2.10)

h i
Q̂, Q̂ = 0 (3.2.11)

h i h i h i
Q̂, R̂ + Ŝ = Q̂, R̂ + Q̂, Ŝ (3.2.12)

h i h i h i
Q̂R̂, Ŝ = Q̂ R̂, Ŝ + Q̂, Ŝ R̂ (3.2.13)

19
Relation 3.2.13 is similar to a Lie derivative. Lie derivatives are invariant
under multiplication, unlike the commutator, which may be variant under
multiplication. An example of a Lie derivative is the following:

∂ ∂a ∂b
(ab) = b+a (3.2.14)
∂c ∂c ∂c

Another example of Lie derivatives is the Poisson bracket in classical mechan-

ics. The poisson bracket the classical formulation of the commutator relation
in Hamiltonian mechanics in canonical coordinates. The Poisson bracket is
defined as follows:

X  ∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g

{f, g} = − (3.2.15)
i
∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi

When using the commutator operator, it is not necessary to write out the
commutator operator in full. It is similar to how we need not write the limit
definition of a derivative whenever we take the derivative of a function or
relation. The symbol stands for the underlying operation. An example of
why we do not write out the commutator is in the case of a commutator of
a function of an operator and an operator. Suppose the following:

h i h i
f (B̂), Â = f (B̂), Â (3.2.16)

h i f h i f h i
2 3
= f1 B̂, Â + B̂ 2 , Â + B̂ 3 , Â + · · · (3.2.17)
2! 3!

h i f h i h i
2
= f1 B̂, Â + B̂, Â B̂ + B̂ B̂, Â + · · · (3.2.18)
2!

h i f2 f3 2

= B̂, Â f1 + B̂ + B̂ + · · · (3.2.19)
2! 3!

∂f h i
= B̂, Â (3.2.20)
∂ B̂
20
 h i
If B̂, Â = 0, then there is a complete set of mutual eigenkets, |i⟩. That is
to say for every  |i⟩ = ai |i⟩, there exists a B̂ |i⟩ = bi |i⟩. This is the case for
all operators that commute. Further, to say that a ket has completeness, we
attribute it with being able to be written as the infinite sum of other bases.
In other words, all wavefunctions can be written as the Fourier transform of
another wavefunction, or written as a Fourier series.

It is also important to note that commutability does not imply certainty

in measurement or that there exists a complete
h set
i of states with certain
values for both A and B. That is to say, if Â, B̂ = 0, then measuring Â
and B̂ will not yield a certain value. Ithonly imeans that at least one ket, |ψ⟩,
exists such that ÂB̂ |ψ⟩ = B̂ Â |ψ⟩. If Â, B̂ ̸= 0, then there exists at least
one ket such that the commutator of  and B̂ acting on ket |ψ⟩ is nonzero.
In this case, there is no complete set if states with certain values of both A
and B.

3.3 The transformation from discrete states to a con-

tinuous function
Up to this point, expectation values and inner products of operators and
kets have been written as sums. In reality, wave functions are a continuous.
By using a set of wavefunctions, we can perform operations more easily and
transform between position-momentum space and time-energy space. The
table below will show the symmetries between the summation notation of
operations and their integral forms.

R∞
|ψ⟩ = ⟨a1 , a2 , · · · , an ⟩ |ψ⟩ = −∞
da ψ(a)

R∞
dx ψ ∗ ψ = δij
P
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = i,j |j⟩ ⟨i| = δij ⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = −∞

R∞
dq ψ ∗ ψ
P
⟨ψ| Q̂ |ψ⟩ = ij ⟨i| Q̂ |ψ⟩ ⟨ψ| Q̂ |ψ⟩ = −∞

21
3.4 Fourier Transform
With the property of continuity, we can also use transformations to move
wavefunctions between position-momentum space and time-energy space.
This is possible because of the superposition principle, which defines any
quantum state to be the sum of all its eigen states.

Z ∞
1
ϕ(k) = √ dx ψe−ikx (3.3.1)
2π −∞

√ Z ∞
ψ(x) = 2π dk ϕeikx (3.3.2)
−∞

Z ∞
1
ψ̃(ω) = √ dt ψeiωt (3.3.3)
2π −∞

√ Z ∞
ψ(t) = 2π dω ψ̃e−iωt (3.3.4)
−∞
It is important to note that wavefunctions must be normalisable functions.
This means that the integral of the wavefunction must be finite. This is the
case for all wavefunctions. For some wavefunctions, which may not seem
normalisable, we constrain the space in which the wavefunction exists. For
example, the wavefunction of a particle in a box is not normalisable, but we
constrain the space in which the wavefunction exists to be the box. This
makes the wavefunction normalisable. To find the normalising factor, N of
a wavefunction, we must integrate the wavefunction over the space in which
it exists:

Z ∞
dx N ∗ ψ ∗ N ψ = 1 (3.3.5)
−∞

Z ∞
=⇒ N 2
dx ψ ∗ ψ = 1 (3.3.6)
−∞

or
ψ
ψ′ = (3.3.7)
⟨ψ|ψ⟩

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4 The Schrödinger equation
The schrödinger equation is the fundamental equation of quantum mechan-
ics. It is a differential equation that describes how a quantum state changes
with respect to time. It is defined as follows:

ℏ2 2
∇ ψ + V ψ = iℏ∂t ψ (4.1.1)
2m

We are able to derive this equation from the Hamiltonian operator. Sup-
pose the following:

p̂2
Ĥ = + V (x̂) (4.1.2)
2m

Ĥ |ψ⟩ = E |ψ⟩ (4.1.3)

⟨x| Ĥ |ψ⟩ = E ⟨x|ψ⟩ (4.1.4)

p̂2
⟨x| Ĥ |ψ⟩ = ⟨x| |ψ⟩ + ⟨x| V (x̂) |ψ⟩ (4.1.5)
2m

1
⟨x| Ĥ |ψ⟩ = ⟨x| p̂p̂ |ψ⟩ + ⟨x| V (x̂) |ψ⟩ (4.1.7)
2m

1
⟨x| Ĥ |ψ⟩ = ⟨x| p̂p̂ |ψ⟩ + V (x)ψ (4.1.8)
2m

1
⟨x| Ĥ |ψ⟩ = p̂(−iℏ∇) |ψ⟩ + V (x)ψ (4.1.9)
2m

1 2 2
⟨x| Ĥ |ψ⟩ = (ℏ ∇ )ψ + V (x)ψ (4.1.10)
2m
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Let’s look at an example. Suppose we have a system, |ψ⟩, with a well defined
energy, E0 . We can then define the following:

|ψ⟩ = |E⟩ Ĥ |E⟩ = E0 |E⟩ (4.1.11)

iℏ∂t |E⟩ = Ĥ |E⟩ = E0 |E⟩ (4.1.12)

=⇒ iℏ∂t |E⟩ = E0 |E⟩ (4.1.13)

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