CHAPTER 1:

What is battery management system?

A battery management system (BMS) is an electronic structure that controls the charging and discharging

of the battery, is responsible for the safety of its operation, monitors the state of the battery, and evaluates

secondary performance data The BMS provides individual control of the voltage and resistance of each

cell, determines the loss of capacity due to imbalance, and ensures safe connection/disconnection of the

load. The functionality of BMS improves the operating mode and service life of EV batteries. The BMS

monitors and regulates the safety circuitry of the electric vehicle. When problematic conditions such as

overvoltage or overheating are detected, the BMS alerts the user and initiates the predetermined corrective

procedure. In addition to these activities, the BMS monitors electric vehicle temperature to optimize energy

use and communicates with specific components and operators. Without a BMS, an electric vehicle's energy

management will be unpredictable, leaving it vulnerable to various safety hazards that could result in

catastrophic failures such as a short circuit or thermal meltdown of the battery. Therefore, the BMS is vital

for an electric vehicle's safety and efficient power management.

A Battery Management System (BMS) is an essential component in modern rechargeable battery-powered

applications such as electric vehicles (EVs), renewable energy systems, and portable electronics. Its primary

purpose is to monitor, manage, and safeguard battery performance, ensuring that the battery operates

efficiently and safely throughout its lifecycle.

It is a technology dedicated to the oversight of a battery pack, which is an assembly of battery cells,

electrically organized in a row x column matrix configuration to enable delivery of targeted range of voltage

and current for a duration of time against expected load scenarios.

The BMS performs various critical functions, including:

 • Monitoring: The BMS continuously tracks battery parameters such as voltage, current,

temperature, and state of charge (SOC).

• Protection: It prevents the battery from operating outside its safe limits, protecting against

overcharging, over-discharging, over-temperature, and short circuits.

• Balancing: In multi-cell batteries, BMS ensures that individual cells within the battery pack remain

balanced to prevent over-stressing any particular cell.

• State Estimation: The BMS estimates important metrics like the remaining capacity, state of health

(SOH), and state of energy (SOE) to give accurate readings on the battery's status.

How do battery management systems work?

Battery management systems do not have a fixed or unique set of criteria that must be adopted. The

technology design scope and implemented features generally correlate with:

• The costs, complexity, and size of the battery pack

• Application of the battery and any safety, lifespan, and warranty concerns

• Certification requirements from various government regulations where costs and penalties are

paramount if inadequate functional safety measures are in place

There are many BMS design features, with battery pack protection management and capacity management

being two essential features. We’ll discuss how these two features work here. Battery pack protection

management has two key arenas: electrical protection, which implies not allowing the battery to be damaged

via usage outside its SOA, and thermal protection, which involves passive and/or active temperature control

to maintain or bring the pack into its SOA.

Electrical Management Protection: Current

Monitoring battery pack current and cell or module voltages is the road to electrical protection. The

electrical SOA of any battery cell is bound by current and voltage. Lithium-ion cells have different current

limits for charging than for discharging, and both modes can handle higher peak currents, albeit for short

time periods. Battery cell manufacturers usually specify maximum continuous charging and discharging

current limits, along with peak charging and discharging current limits. A BMS providing current protection

will certainly apply a maximum continuous current. However, this may be preceded to account for a sudden

change of load conditions; for example, an electric vehicle’s abrupt acceleration. A BMS may incorporate

peak current monitoring by integrating the current and after delta time, deciding to either reduce the

available current or to interrupt the pack current altogether. This allows the BMS to possess nearly

instantaneous sensitivity to extreme current peaks, such as a short-circuit condition that has not caught the

attention of any resident fuses, but also be forgiving to high peak demands, as long as they are not excessive

for too long.

Electrical Management Protection: Voltage

Moreover, since any battery pack experiences a significant amount of current cycling, discharging due to

load demands and charging from a variety of energy sources, these SOA voltage limits are usually further

constrained to optimize battery lifespan. The BMS must know what these limits are and will command

decisions based upon the proximity to these thresholds. For example, when approaching the high voltage

limit, a BMS may request a gradual reduction of charging current, or may request the charging current be

terminated altogether if the limit is reached. However, this limit is usually accompanied by additional

intrinsic voltage hysteresis considerations to prevent control chatter about the shutdown threshold. On the

other hand, when approaching the low voltage limit, a BMS will request that key active offending loads

reduce their current demands. In the case of an electric vehicle, this may be carried out by reducing the
allowed torque available to the traction motor. Of course, the BMS must make safety considerations for the

driver the highest priority while protecting the battery pack to prevent permanent damage.

Thermal Management Protection: Temperature

At face value, it may appear that lithium-ion cells have a wide temperature operating range, but overall

battery capacity diminishes at low temperatures because chemical reaction rates slow down remarkably.

With respect to capability at low temperatures, they do perform much better than lead-acid or NiMh

batteries; however, temperature management is prudently essential since charging below 0 °C (32 °F) is

physically problematic. The phenomenon of plating of metallic lithium can occur on the anode during sub-

freezing charging. This is permanent damage and not only results in reduced capacity, but cells are more

vulnerable to failure if subjected to vibration or other stressful conditions. A BMS can control the

temperature of the battery pack through heating and cooling.

Capacity Management

Maximizing a battery pack capacity is arguably one of the most vital battery performance features that a

BMS provides. If this maintenance is not performed, a battery pack may eventually render itself useless.

The root of the issue is that a battery pack “stack” (series array of cells) is not perfectly equal and

intrinsically has slightly different leakage or self-discharge rates. Leakage is not a manufacturer defect but

a battery chemistry characteristic, though it may be statistically impacted from minute manufacturing

process variations. Initially a battery pack may have well-matched cells, but over time, the cell-to-cell

similarity further degrades, not just due to self-discharge, but also impacted from charge/discharge cycling,

elevated temperature, and general calendar aging. With that understood, recall earlier the discussion that

lithium-ion cells perform superbly, but can be rather unforgiving if operated outside a tight SOA. We learned

previously about required electrical protection because lithium-ion cells do not deal well with over-

charging. Once fully charged, they cannot accept any more current, and any additional energy pushed into

it gets transmuted in heat, with voltage potentially rising quickly, possibly to dangerous levels. It is not a

healthy situation for the cell and can cause permanent damage and unsafe operating conditions if it

continues.
The battery pack series cell array is what determines the overall pack voltage, and mismatch between

adjacent cells creates a dilemma when attempting to charge up any stack. Figure 3 shows why this is so. If

one has a perfectly balanced set of cells, all is fine as each will charge up in equal fashion, and the charging

current can be cut off when the upper 4.0 voltage cut-off threshold is reached. However, in the unbalanced

scenario, the top cell will reach its charge limit early, and the charging current needs to be terminated for

the leg before other underlying cells have been charged to full capacity.

The importance of battery management systems

Functional safety is of the highest importance in a BMS. It is critical during charging and discharging

operation, to prevent the voltage, current, and temperature of any cell or module under supervisory control

from exceeding defined SOA limits. If limits are exceeded for a length of time, not only is a potentially

expensive battery pack compromised, but dangerous thermal runaway conditions could ensue. Moreover,

lower voltage threshold limits are also rigorously monitored for the protection of the lithium-ion cells and

functional safety. If the Li-ion battery stays in this low-voltage state, copper dendrites could eventually
grow on the anode, which can result in elevated self-discharge rates and raise possible safety concerns. The

high energy density of lithium-ion powered systems comes at a price that leaves little room for battery

management error. Thanks to BMSs, and lithium-ion improvements, this is one of the most successful and

safe battery chemistries available today.

Performance of the battery pack is the next highest important feature of a BMS, and this involves electrical

and thermal management. To electrically optimize the overall battery capacity, all the cells in the pack are

required to be balanced, which implies that the SOC of adjacent cells throughout the assembly are

approximately equivalent. This is exceptionally important because not only can optimal battery capacity be

realized, but it helps prevent general degradation and reduces potential hotspots from overcharging weak

cells. Lithium-ion batteries should avoid discharge below low voltage limits, as this can result in memory

effects and significant capacity loss. Electrochemical processes are highly susceptible to temperature, and

batteries are no exception. When environmental temperature drops, capacity and available battery energy

roll off significantly. Consequently, a BMS may engage an external in-line heater that resides on, say, the

liquid cooling system of an electric vehicle battery pack, or turn-on resident heater plates that are installed

underneath modules of a pack incorporated within a helicopter or other aircraft. Additionally, since charging

of frigid lithium-ion cells is detrimental to battery life performance, it is important to first elevate the battery

temperature sufficiently. Most lithium-ion cells cannot be fast-charged when they are less than 5°C and

should not be charged at all when they are below 0°C. For optimum performance during typical operational

usage, BMS thermal management often ensures that a battery operates within a narrow Goldilocks region

of operation (e.g. 30 – 35°C). This safeguards performance, promotes longer life, and fosters a healthy,

reliable battery pack.

The benefits of battery management systems

An entire battery energy storage system, often referred to as BESS, could be made up of tens, hundreds, or

even thousands of lithium-ion cells strategically packed together, depending on the application. These

systems may have a voltage rating of less than 100V, but could be as high as 800V, with pack supply currents
ranging as high as 300A or more. Any mismanagement of a high voltage pack could trigger a life-

threatening, catastrophic disaster. Consequently, therefore BMSs are absolutely critical to ensure safe

operation. The benefits of BMSs can be summarized as follows.

• Functional Safety. Hands down, for large format lithium-ion battery packs, this is particularly

prudent and essential. But even smaller formats used in, say, laptops, have been known to catch fire

and cause enormous damage. Personal safety of users of products that incorporate lithium-ion

powered systems leaves little room for battery management error.

• Life Span and Reliability. Battery pack protection management, electrical and thermal, ensures

that all the cells are all used within declared SOA requirements. This delicate oversight ensures the

cells are taken care of against aggressive usage and fast charging and discharging cycling, and

inevitably results in a stable system that will potentially provide many years of reliable service.

• Performance and Range. BMS battery pack capacity management, where cell-to-cell balancing

is employed to equalize the SOC of adjacent cells across the pack assembly, allows optimum battery

capacity to be realized. Without this BMS feature to account for variations in self-discharge,

charge/discharge cycling, temperature effects, and general aging, a battery pack could eventually

render itself useless.

• Diagnostics, Data Collection, and External Communication. Oversight tasks include

continuous monitoring of all battery cells, where data logging can be used by itself for diagnostics,

but is often purposed to the task for computation to estimate the SOC of all cells in the assembly.

This information is leveraged for balancing algorithms, but collectively can be relayed to external

devices and displays to indicate the resident energy available, estimate expected range or

range/lifetime based on current usage, and provide the state of health of the battery pack.

• Cost and Warranty Reduction. The introduction of a BMS into a BESS adds costs, and battery

packs are expensive and potentially hazardous. The more complicated the system, the higher the
 safety requirements, resulting in the need for more BMS oversight presence. But the protection and

preventive maintenance of a BMS regarding functional safety, lifespan and reliability, performance

and range, diagnostics, etc. guarantees that it will drive down overall costs, including those related

to the warranty.

• Optimized Charging: A BMS manages the charging process to prevent overcharging and

overheating. By regulating the charging current and voltage, the BMS ensures efficient charging

while minimizing stress on the battery cells. Some BMS systems also offer fast-charging

capabilities, further enhancing the usability of the battery system.

• Cell Balancing: In large battery packs, individual cells may exhibit slight variations in capacity

and voltage due to manufacturing tolerances or aging effects. The BMS performs cell balancing,

either through passive or active methods, to equalize the charge levels of each cell, ensuring that

no cell is overstressed during operation.

• Remote Monitoring and Control: With advances in Internet of Things (IoT) technology, some

BMS solutions now offer remote monitoring and control capabilities. This allows operators to

monitor the status of battery systems in real-time from remote locations, enhancing convenience

and enabling proactive maintenance.

Disadvantages of Battery Management Systems

• Increased Cost: Adding a BMS to a battery system increases its overall cost. This is particularly

evident in large-scale applications like EVs or renewable energy storage, where the BMS needs to

be highly sophisticated to manage hundreds or thousands of cells. For smaller applications, the cost

of the BMS can be a significant portion of the total system cost.

• Complexity: The design and implementation of a BMS are complex, requiring intricate hardware

and software. The system must be tailored to the specific battery chemistry, configuration, and
 application, which increases the design and development effort. Additionally, the more advanced

features, such as wireless monitoring or active balancing, further add to the system's complexity.

• Energy Consumption: The BMS itself consumes power, which can slightly reduce the overall

efficiency of the battery system. Although the power consumption of a BMS is relatively low, it

can still be a concern in applications where maximizing battery efficiency is critical, such as in

portable devices or electric vehicles.

• Maintenance and Calibration: While BMS systems are designed to be reliable, they still require

regular maintenance and calibration to ensure accurate measurements and proper functioning.

Calibration is especially important for systems that rely on precise SOC or SOH estimations. Over

time, sensor drift or software bugs can lead to inaccurate data, necessitating periodic recalibration.

• Failure Risks: Although BMSs are designed to improve safety and reliability, they are not immune

to failure. If the BMS malfunctions or provides incorrect data, it could lead to improper battery

management, potentially causing damage to the battery or posing safety risks. For example, if the

BMS fails to detect an overvoltage condition, the battery could overheat, resulting in a fire.

Existing Solutions for Battery Management Systems (BMS)

Battery Management Systems (BMS) come in various forms and configurations, depending on the

application and the complexity of the battery system they are managing. Below are the most

common existing solutions for BMS, each tailored to different requirements, scales, and levels of

sophistication:

1. Standalone Battery Management Systems

Overview: Standalone BMS units are designed for small-scale applications such as consumer

electronics, portable power tools, and other low-power devices. These systems are typically pre-

configured and self-contained, providing basic battery protection and monitoring functions.

Key Features:
• Basic protection against overcharging, over-discharging, and short circuits.

• Simple monitoring of voltage and current, with SOC and SOH estimation.

• Often integrated with the battery pack and not designed for extensive external control or

monitoring.

Applications:

• Smartphones

• Laptops

• Power tools

• Consumer electronics

Advantages:

• Low cost and easy integration into small devices.

• Compact design, optimized for space and weight efficiency.

Disadvantages:

• Limited functionality, particularly in terms of cell balancing and scalability.

• Inadequate for larger systems with multiple cells or higher power requirements.

2. Modular Battery Management Systems

Overview: Modular BMS solutions are designed for medium- to large-scale applications, such as

electric vehicles (EVs) and large energy storage systems. They are composed of individual modules,

each with its own BMS, which communicate with a central controller. These modular systems allow

for scalability and redundancy, making them well-suited for applications that require higher capacity

and safety.

Key Features:

• Multiple modules, each with its own monitoring and control capabilities.

• Centralized communication and control, often using a master-slave architecture.

• Modular design allows for easy expansion to accommodate more cells.

 Applications:

• Electric vehicles (EVs)

• Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)

• Renewable energy storage systems (e.g., solar or wind farms)

• Industrial battery applications

Advantages:

• Scalable to accommodate large battery packs with hundreds or thousands of cells.

• Redundancy enhances system reliability; individual module failures don't necessarily lead to total

system failure.

• Supports advanced features like cell balancing, temperature monitoring, and fault detection.

Disadvantages:

• More complex and expensive than standalone systems.

• Requires coordination between modules and a central controller, which can add design challenges.

3. Distributed Battery Management Systems

Overview: Distributed BMS solutions are an advanced type of system, particularly suited for high-

performance or high-reliability applications. Instead of having a centralized controller, each battery

cell (or group of cells) has its own individual BMS, which communicates with other cells to manage

the overall battery pack. This decentralized approach allows for extremely precise control over

individual cells and offers superior fault tolerance.

Key Features:

• Each cell or small group of cells has its own dedicated BMS.

• Communication between BMS units allows for system-wide coordination.

• Highly redundant and fault-tolerant design.

Applications:

• High-performance electric vehicles (e.g., race cars, aircraft)

• Aerospace applications

• Industrial-grade energy storage

• Critical infrastructure power systems

Advantages:

• Superior control over individual cells, leading to higher reliability and efficiency.

• Faults in one cell or unit are isolated, preventing them from affecting the entire system.

• Flexibility in managing large and complex battery arrays.

Disadvantages:

• High complexity and cost, both in terms of hardware and software.

• Requires sophisticated communication protocols to coordinate the distributed systems.

4. Integrated Battery Management Systems

Overview: Integrated BMS solutions combine the BMS functionality with other electronic systems,

such as motor controllers, DC-DC converters, or power management systems. This integrated

approach reduces the overall system complexity and weight, making it ideal for applications where

space is limited or where higher levels of efficiency are required.

Key Features:

• Combines BMS with other power electronics in a single unit.

• Optimized for space and weight, often used in compact applications.

• Typically offers high efficiency due to reduced energy losses between components.

Applications:

• Electric scooters, bicycles, and small EVs

• Drones and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)

• Portable power stations

Advantages:

• Reduces overall system complexity and component count, saving space and weight.
• Improved system efficiency due to integrated power management.

• Easier to implement in compact or mobile systems.

Disadvantages:

• Limited scalability and customization compared to modular or distributed systems.

• If the integrated unit fails, multiple systems (BMS, motor controller, etc.) could be affected.

5. Cloud-Connected Battery Management Systems (IoT-Enabled)

Overview: With the advancement of IoT technology, some BMS solutions are now cloud-

connected, allowing remote monitoring, control, and data analysis. Cloud-connected BMS solutions

provide real-time data on battery performance and health, enabling predictive maintenance, system

optimization, and more efficient fleet or infrastructure management.

Key Features:

• Real-time data monitoring and logging through cloud platforms.

• Remote control and diagnostics of battery systems.

• Predictive maintenance and fleet management capabilities.

Applications:

• Electric vehicle fleets (EVs, buses, delivery trucks)

• Grid-scale energy storage systems

• Renewable energy systems (solar, wind)

• Smart homes and smart grids

Advantages:

• Remote monitoring and control, reducing the need for on-site maintenance.

• Predictive analytics to prevent failures and extend battery life.

• Data-driven optimization of battery usage and charging.

Disadvantages:

• High implementation costs, including infrastructure for cloud connectivity.

• Potential cybersecurity risks related to data transmission and remote control.

• Requires reliable internet access for continuous monitoring.

6. Active and Passive Cell Balancing Battery Management Systems

Overview: Cell balancing is an essential feature in multi-cell battery packs to ensure that each cell

operates within optimal voltage limits. BMS solutions can employ either passive or active balancing

techniques. Passive balancing dissipates excess energy from high-voltage cells as heat, while active

balancing redistributes energy between cells more efficiently.

Key Features:

• Passive Balancing: Dissipates excess energy as heat; simpler and less expensive.

• Active Balancing: Transfers energy between cells; more complex but reduces energy loss.

Applications:

• Electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)

• Large-scale energy storage systems

• Industrial battery packs

Advantages:

• Passive Balancing: Simple, low-cost, effective for basic balancing needs.

• Active Balancing: Reduces energy loss, improves efficiency, and prolongs battery life.

Disadvantages:

• Passive Balancing: Energy wasted as heat; less efficient.

• Active Balancing: More complex and expensive; requires additional electronics and control

systems.
 Chapter 3:

Battery Management System (BMS) Hardware Requirements

The design and implementation of a Battery Management System (BMS) require various hardware

components to ensure proper functionality. The hardware plays a crucial role in monitoring,

controlling, and protecting the battery pack, making sure it operates safely and efficiently. Below is

a list of the hardware components typically used in a BMS, along with their descriptions and

functionalities.

1. Battery Cells

• Description: The battery cells are the fundamental energy storage units. For this example, assume

the use of Li-ion cells, which are widely used in electric vehicles, portable electronics, and energy

storage systems.

• Specifications:

o Nominal Voltage (Li-ion): 3.7V per cell

o Capacity: Varies depending on the cell, usually 2000mAh to 3500mAh for consumer-

grade cells.

o Chemistries: Li-ion, NiMH, LiFePO4 (Lithium Iron Phosphate)

2. Battery Management System (BMS Board)

• Description: The BMS board is the central component that monitors the battery cells’ voltage,

current, and temperature. It protects the battery from overcharging, over-discharging, overcurrent,

and short circuits, and performs cell balancing.

• Functions:

o Voltage, current, and temperature sensing.

o Overvoltage, undervoltage, and overcurrent protection.

o Cell balancing (passive or active).

o Communication interface (I2C, CAN, etc.).

• Example Modules: 2S, 3S, 4S BMS boards for Li-ion or LiFePO4 cells.

3. Microcontroller (e.g., Arduino Uno)

• Description: The microcontroller interfaces with the BMS to gather data such as cell voltages,

current, temperature, and SOC. It processes this data and communicates with external devices like

a smartphone via Bluetooth.

• Specifications:

o 5V operating voltage.
 o 16MHz clock speed.

o Multiple GPIO pins for interfacing with sensors and Bluetooth modules.

• Functions: Data processing, analog-to-digital conversion (ADC), Bluetooth communication.

4. Bluetooth Module (e.g., HC-05 or HC-06)

• Description: The Bluetooth module allows wireless communication between the BMS and a

smartphone or other external devices, enabling real-time monitoring of battery parameters like

voltage, current, and SOC.

• Specifications:

o 3.3V to 5V operating voltage.

o Range of up to 10 meters.

• Functions: Wireless communication via serial protocol (UART).

5. Voltage Sensors (Voltage Divider Circuits)

• Description: Voltage sensors are used to measure the voltage of individual cells and the entire

battery pack. A simple voltage divider circuit can scale down higher voltages to a level readable by

the microcontroller’s ADC pins.

• Components:

o Resistors (typically in the kΩ range) for voltage division.

• Functions: Scaling high voltage (up to 30V) to the 0-5V range for measurement by the

microcontroller.
6. Current Sensors (e.g., ACS712)

• Description: The current sensor measures the charging and discharging current of the battery pack.

The ACS712 is a Hall-effect-based sensor that provides analog output proportional to the current

flowing through it.

• Specifications:

o Different variants for measuring 5A, 20A, or 30A.

o Provides analog output in the range of 0-5V.

• Functions: Measuring real-time current in the battery circuit.

7. Display (Optional, e.g., OLED or LCD)

• Description: A display unit (such as an OLED or LCD screen) can be added to the system to

provide real-time visualization of battery parameters such as voltage, current, SOC, and

temperature.

• Functions: Local display of important battery statistics, enhancing user interface.

 8. Breadboard and Wires

• Description: Breadboards and jumper wires are used for prototyping the circuit. They allow for

easy assembly and testing of connections without soldering.

• Functions: Temporary circuit connections for testing and prototyping.

9. Power Supply/Charger

• Description: An appropriate charger or power supply is needed to recharge the battery pack. This

charger needs to be compatible with the battery chemistry and the number of cells in the series.

• Functions: Safe and efficient charging of the battery pack.

Circuit Diagram Overview

1. Battery Pack:

o Configuration: 2S2P (Two cells in series, two parallel strings of series cells).

o Connected to the BMS board.

2. BMS Board:

o Monitors each cell voltage.

o Provides protection and balancing.

o Connects to microcontroller for data transmission.

3. Microcontroller (Arduino Uno):

o Reads voltage and current data from sensors.

 o Processes data and sends it to the Bluetooth module.

o Interfaces with voltage sensors using ADC pins.

4. Voltage Divider Circuits:

o Connected between battery terminals and microcontroller ADC pins.

o Resistors scale down battery voltage for safe microcontroller measurement.

5. Current Sensor (ACS712):

o Connected between the battery and load (or charger).

o Analog output connected to microcontroller for current measurement.

6. Bluetooth Module:

o Communicates with microcontroller via serial protocol (TX/RX pins).

o Sends battery data wirelessly to a smartphone app.