EXERCISES # 1

HYDRAULIC PUMP

Questions, Concepts, and Definitions

1. What is pump cavitation, and what is its cause?

Pump cavitation occurs when vapor bubbles form in a liquid due to a drop in pressure below the
vapor pressure, and these bubbles collapse as they move to higher pressure areas within the pump,
causing damage and reducing efficiency. It is primarily caused by low inlet pressure or high suction lift,
high pump speed, increased fluid temperature, obstructions in the suction line, or poor pump design. To
prevent cavitation, it's important to maintain adequate inlet pressure, ensure proper pump selection,
and control factors like fluid temperature and flow rates.
2. How is pressure developed in a hydraulic system?

Pressure in a hydraulic system is developed by resistance to the flow of fluid, which is usually supplied
by a pump. The pump generates flow by moving hydraulic fluid through the system, but it is the
resistance created by the system's components, such as valves, cylinders, and actuators, that causes
pressure to build. As fluid encounters these restrictions or load, pressure increases according to Pascal's
Law, which states that pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions. Thus,
the system's design and the force required by the load determine how much pressure is developed.
3. Why should the suction head of a pump not exceed 5 psi?

The suction head of a pump should not exceed 5 psi to prevent cavitation and ensure efficient
operation. Excessive suction head (pressure on the suction side) can lead to a significant drop in pressure
at the pump inlet, which may cause the liquid to vaporize, forming vapor bubbles. These bubbles
collapse when they reach higher pressure areas in the pump, leading to cavitation, which can damage
pump components and reduce efficiency. By maintaining the suction head below 5 psi, the pressure
remains high enough to prevent vaporization and maintain smooth, uninterrupted fluid flow into the
pump.
4. Why must positive displacement pumps be protected by relief valves?

Positive displacement pumps must be protected by relief valves because they are designed to deliver
a fixed amount of fluid regardless of the pressure in the system. If there is any blockage or restriction
downstream, the pump will continue to build pressure, which can lead to dangerously high levels,
potentially causing damage to the pump, piping, and other components in the system. Relief valves
provide a safety mechanism by allowing excess fluid to bypass or recirculate when the pressure exceeds
a predetermined limit, thereby preventing overpressurization and avoiding system failure or equipment
damage.
5. Why are centrifugal pumps so little used in fluid power systems?

Centrifugal pumps are rarely used in fluid power systems because they are not ideal for generating
the high pressures typically required in these systems. Fluid power systems, such as hydraulics, rely on
the consistent, high-pressure output needed to drive actuators and perform heavy-duty tasks.
Centrifugal pumps are more suited for applications where large volumes of fluid at lower pressures are
needed, as their output pressure depends on flow rate and they cannot deliver constant pressure when
system resistance fluctuates. Positive displacement pumps, on the other hand, are more commonly used
in fluid power systems because they provide consistent flow and pressure, regardless of system
resistance or changes in load.
6. What is meant by a balanced-design hydraulic pump?

A balanced-design hydraulic pump refers to a pump that is engineered to minimize or eliminate radial
or axial loads on its rotating components, particularly the shaft. In a balanced design, the forces acting
on opposite sides of the pump's internal components, such as the gears, pistons, or vanes, are equal and
opposite, canceling each other out. This balance reduces wear and tear, extends the pump's lifespan,
and improves efficiency by reducing vibrations and minimizing stress on bearings and seals. Balanced
designs are commonly found in gear, vane, and piston pumps, where maintaining consistent
performance and longevity is crucial.
7. Name the two basic types of piston pumps.

The two basic types of piston pumps are axial piston pumps and radial piston pumps. Axial piston
pumps have pistons that move parallel to the drive shaft, making them suitable for high-pressure
applications due to their efficiency and capability to handle variable flow rates. In contrast, radial piston
pumps feature pistons arranged in a radial configuration around the drive shaft, providing a more
compact design and enabling them to deliver high pressure and consistent flow in various applications.
8. What is meant by the pressure rating of a positive displacement pump?

The pressure rating of a positive displacement pump refers to the maximum pressure that the pump
can safely handle during operation without risking damage or failure. It is a critical specification that
indicates the pump's ability to generate and sustain pressure in a hydraulic system. This rating is
determined by factors such as the materials used in the pump construction, design features, and testing
standards. Operating a positive displacement pump above its pressure rating can lead to catastrophic
failures, including pump damage, leaks, or system breakdowns, making it essential to select a pump with
an appropriate pressure rating for the specific application.
9. What are two ways of expressing pump size?

Two ways of expressing pump size are displacement and flow rate. Displacement refers to the volume
of fluid that the pump can move with each cycle or rotation, typically measured in cubic inches or liters
per revolution (in³/rev or L/rev), providing insight into the pump's capacity and efficiency. Flow rate
indicates the volume of fluid delivered by the pump over a specific time period, commonly expressed in
gallons per minute (GPM) or liters per minute (L/min), which is crucial for understanding how much fluid
the pump can supply to the system within a given timeframe. Together, these measurements help in
selecting the appropriate pump for a given application based on the required performance
characteristics.
10. What types of pumps are available in variable displacement designs?
 Variable displacement designs are available in several types of pumps, including axial piston pumps,
radial piston pumps, and vane pumps. Axial piston pumps feature pistons that move parallel to the drive
shaft, allowing for adjustable displacement by varying the angle of the swash plate or the position of the
pistons, making them suitable for high-pressure applications. Radial piston pumps have pistons arranged
radially around a central shaft, enabling similar variable displacement capabilities while maintaining
compactness and efficiency. Vane pumps, which use sliding vanes to create fluid displacement, can also
be designed for variable displacement by adjusting the position of the vanes, allowing for changes in
flow rate and pressure based on system requirements. These variable displacement designs enhance the
flexibility and efficiency of hydraulic systems by adapting to varying load conditions.
11. Explain the principle of a balanced vane design pump.

The principle of a balanced vane design pump revolves around minimizing axial and radial forces on
the pump components, particularly the rotor and vanes, to enhance efficiency and longevity. In a
balanced vane pump, the vanes are arranged in such a way that the forces acting on opposite sides of
the rotor are equal and opposite, effectively canceling each other out. This design reduces the wear on
the vanes and bearings, lowers the vibration levels, and enhances the overall stability of the pump
during operation. Additionally, the balanced design allows for smooth fluid flow and consistent pressure
output, making it particularly effective in hydraulic applications where precise control and reliability are
crucial. By maintaining balance within the pump, it can operate at higher efficiencies and with reduced
risk of mechanical failure.
12. How can displacement be varied in an axial piston pump?

Displacement in an axial piston pump can be varied primarily by adjusting the angle of the swash
plate or the position of the pistons relative to the drive shaft. In a variable displacement axial piston
pump, the swash plate is tilted at an angle, which influences the stroke length of the pistons as they
move in and out of their cylinders during rotation. By changing the angle of the swash plate, the effective
displacement per revolution can be increased or decreased, allowing for precise control over the flow
rate and pressure output of the pump. Additionally, some designs may incorporate adjustable piston
lengths or the ability to engage or disengage certain pistons, further enhancing the flexibility of
displacement variation to meet specific system demands. This capability allows axial piston pumps to
adapt to changing operational conditions while maintaining efficiency and performance.
13. Explain how the size of the pumping chamber of a variable displacement vane pump is changed.

In a variable displacement vane pump, the size of the pumping chamber is changed through the axial
movement of the rotor or the adjustable positioning of the vanes. The vanes, which slide in and out of
the rotor as it spins, are typically held against the pump casing by centrifugal force, creating a series of
variable-sized chambers for fluid displacement. By adjusting the position of the rotor or altering the
effective length of the vanes often via a mechanism that alters the rotor's axial position the volume of
these chambers can be increased or decreased. This adjustment allows the pump to vary its
displacement per revolution, enabling it to adapt to different flow rate requirements and pressure
conditions in the hydraulic system. Consequently, the design of a variable displacement vane pump
provides flexibility and efficiency by allowing for precise control over fluid delivery based on the specific
demands of the application.
14. How is the capability of a variable displacement pump affected by the addition of pressure
compensation?

The capability of a variable displacement pump is significantly enhanced by the addition of pressure
compensation, which allows the pump to automatically adjust its displacement based on the load
conditions and system pressure. With pressure compensation, the pump can maintain a consistent
pressure output even as demand fluctuates, preventing overload and potential damage to the hydraulic
system. This is achieved through a pressure sensing mechanism that monitors the system pressure and
adjusts the angle of the swash plate or the position of the vanes accordingly, thereby altering the
displacement to match the required flow rate without exceeding the set pressure limit. As a result,
pressure compensation improves the pump's responsiveness and efficiency, reduces energy
consumption, and prolongs the lifespan of both the pump and the connected components by ensuring
optimal performance under varying operational conditions.
Problems

1. A gear pump has a 82.6-mm outside diameter, a 57.2-mm inside diameter, and a 25.4-mm width.
If the actual pump flow rate at 1800 rpm and rated pressure is 0.00183 m3/s, what is the
volumetric efficiency?
2. Determine the overall efficiency of a pump driven by a 10-hp prime mover if the pump delivers
fluid at 40 Lpm at a pressure of 10 MPa
3. How much hydraulic power would a pump produce when operating at 140 bars and delivering
0.001 m3/s of oil? What power-rated electric motor would be selected to drive this pump if its
overall efficiency is 85%?
4. A pump has a displacement volume of 98.4 cm3. It delivers 0.0152 m3/s of oil at 1000 rpm and
70 bars. If the prime mover input torque is 124.3 N · m,
a. What is the overall efficiency of the pump?
b. What is the theoretical torque required to operate the pump?

Hydraulic cylinder

Questions, Concepts, and Definitions

1. Why does the rod of a double-acting cylinder retract at a greater velocity than it extends for the
same input flow rate?

The rod of a double-acting cylinder retracts at a greater velocity than it extends for the same input
flow rate due to the differences in effective working area between the rod side and the cap side of the
cylinder. When the cylinder extends, the input flow fills the cap side of the cylinder, which has a larger
surface area than the rod side, resulting in a slower extension velocity. Conversely, during retraction, the
input flow enters the rod side, which has a smaller surface area, leading to a quicker movement of the
rod since the same volume of fluid entering the smaller area generates higher pressure and,
consequently, a faster velocity. This difference in effective areas creates a condition where, for a given
flow rate, the retraction of the rod occurs at a higher speed compared to its extension, allowing for more
efficient operation in applications requiring rapid movement in one direction.
2. How are single-acting cylinders retracted?

Single-acting cylinders are retracted using various methods, primarily relying on either a spring
mechanism or external forces. In a spring-return single-acting cylinder, a spring is incorporated into the
design that automatically retracts the rod when the pressure is released, allowing the spring to push the
rod back to its original position after it has extended under hydraulic pressure. Alternatively, if the
application does not use a spring, external forces such as gravity, counterweights, or manual pulling can
be employed to retract the cylinder. In some systems, controlled airflow or hydraulic pressure can also be
utilized to assist in the retraction process. Regardless of the method, the retraction mechanism is
essential for returning the cylinder to its starting position, ensuring the efficient operation of machinery
and systems that utilize single-acting cylinders.
3. Differentiate between first-, second-, and third-class lever systems used with hydraulic cylinders
to drive loads.

First-, second-, and third-class lever systems used with hydraulic cylinders to drive loads differ
primarily in the arrangement of the load, effort, and fulcrum, which affects their mechanical advantage
and application. In a first-class lever, the fulcrum is positioned between the load and the effort, allowing
for a balanced force distribution; this system can amplify force effectively, making it suitable for
applications requiring significant lifting power. In a second-class lever, the load is located between the
fulcrum and the effort, which provides a greater mechanical advantage as the effort applied can move a
larger load with less force, commonly used in scenarios like lifting heavy objects. Conversely, a third-class
lever has the effort applied between the load and the fulcrum, which typically requires more force to
move a load, but allows for greater speed and range of motion, making it useful in applications where
precise control or rapid movement is needed, such as in robotic arms or certain hydraulic tools. Each
lever system has its advantages and is chosen based on the specific requirements of the task at hand.
4. Relative to mechanical lever systems, define the term moment.

In the context of mechanical lever systems, the term "moment" refers to the rotational effect
produced by a force acting at a distance from a pivot point or fulcrum, quantified as the product of the
force and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the fulcrum. Mathematically,
it is expressed as moment equal force multiply by distance. This concept is crucial in understanding how
levers operate, as it determines the torque or turning force available to lift or move a load. The greater
the moment, the more effective the lever is in overcoming resistance or performing work, which is why
leveraging the right distance and force application is essential for optimizing the performance of
mechanical systems. In practical applications, managing moments allows engineers and designers to
create efficient mechanisms that maximize output while minimizing effort.
5. Relative to mechanical lever systems, define the term moment arm.

In mechanical lever systems, the term "moment arm" refers to the perpendicular distance between
the line of action of a force and the pivot point or fulcrum about which the lever rotates. It is a critical
factor in calculating the moment (or torque) produced by a force applied to the lever, as a longer
moment arm increases the lever's effectiveness in lifting or moving a load. The moment arm determines
how much rotational force can be generated; thus, even a relatively small force can produce significant
torque if applied at a greater distance from the fulcrum. Understanding the concept of the moment arm
is essential for designing efficient mechanical systems, as it influences the balance and leverage needed
to optimize performance in applications ranging from simple hand tools to complex machinery.
6. When using lever systems with hydraulic cylinders, why must the cylinder be clevis-mounted?

When using lever systems with hydraulic cylinders, the cylinder must be clevis-mounted to provide
stable and flexible mounting that allows for the necessary movement and alignment during operation. A
clevis mount consists of a forked end that accommodates a pin or bolt, enabling the cylinder to pivot
around the pin as the lever system operates. This pivoting action is essential for allowing the hydraulic
cylinder to extend and retract without imposing undue stress on the cylinder or the connected
components. By facilitating this movement, clevis mounting helps to maintain proper alignment, reduce
wear on the hydraulic cylinder, and ensure smooth operation of the lever system. Moreover, clevis
mounting can absorb misalignment caused by load variations or structural shifts, enhancing the
durability and reliability of the hydraulic system in various applications.
7. What is the purpose of a hydraulic shock absorber? Name two applications

The purpose of a hydraulic shock absorber is to dampen and control the impact and vibrations
produced during movement or operation, thereby enhancing stability, comfort, and safety in mechanical
systems. By using hydraulic fluid to absorb kinetic energy, a shock absorber converts the energy of
motion into heat, which is then dissipated, preventing excessive bouncing or oscillation in vehicles,
machinery, or structures. Two common applications of hydraulic shock absorbers include automotive
suspension systems, where they improve ride comfort and handling by absorbing road shocks and
vibrations, and industrial machinery, where they minimize the effects of sudden loads or impacts during
operation, protecting sensitive components and maintaining operational efficiency.
Problems

1. A 6000-lb weight is being pushed up an inclined surface at constant speed by a cylinder, as

shown in figure 1. The coefficient of friction between the weight and inclined surface equals
0.15. For a pressure of 1000 psi, determine the required cylinder piston diameter.
Change the data metric units.
a. Solve for the cylinder force required to overcome the load force for the first-, second-,
and third-class lever systems.
b. Repeat part a with  = 10°.
c. Repeat part a with = 5° and 20°.
 Figure 1.

2. For the crane system of Figure 2, determine the hydraulic cylinder force required to lift the 2000-
lb load. Change the data to metric units and solve the problem.

Figure 2

3. For the toggle mechanism of Figure 3, determine the output load force for a hydraulic cylinder
force of 1000 lb. Change the data to metric units and solve the problem.
 Figure 3
HYDRAULIC MOTOR
Question
1. Explain why, theoretically, the torque output from a fixed displacement hydraulic motor
operating at constant pressure is the same regardless of changes in speed.

Theoretically, the torque output from a fixed displacement hydraulic motor operating at constant
pressure remains the same regardless of changes in speed because the torque generated is directly
proportional to the pressure applied and the displacement of the motor, rather than the rotational
speed. Since the motor has a fixed displacement, it moves a constant volume of hydraulic fluid with each
rotation, and the torque can be calculated using the formula Torque = Pressure times Displacement.
Therefore, as long as the pressure remains constant, the torque output will not vary with changes in
speed; instead, any increase in speed will result in a corresponding decrease in the motor’s ability to
produce flow, while maintaining the same torque level. This relationship illustrates the fundamental
principle of fixed displacement hydraulic motors, where torque is independent of speed as long as the
system pressure is stable.
2. The torque output from a fixed displacement hydraulic motor operating at constant pressure
is the same regardless of changes in speed. True or false? Explain your answer.

False. While it may seem that the torque output from a fixed displacement hydraulic motor operating
at constant pressure would remain the same regardless of changes in speed, in practice, the torque
output does vary with speed due to the relationship between torque, pressure, and rotational speed.
The torque generated by a hydraulic motor is calculated using the formula Torque = Pressure times
Displacement, indicating that at constant pressure, the torque remains constant for a fixed displacement.
However, as speed increases, the motor must produce more flow, which may lead to a decrease in
system pressure if the system cannot accommodate the flow rate, ultimately affecting the torque output.
Additionally, hydraulic losses and inefficiencies in the system become more pronounced at higher
speeds, which can also contribute to a reduction in effective torque. Therefore, while theoretically the
torque could remain constant, practical limitations in the hydraulic system can result in variations in
torque output with changes in speed.
3. What determines the speed of a hydraulic motor?

The speed of a hydraulic motor is primarily determined by the flow rate of the hydraulic fluid supplied
to it and the motor's displacement. The flow rate, measured in volume per unit time (such as gallons per
minute or liters per minute), dictates how much hydraulic fluid is entering the motor, which directly
influences how fast the motor can rotate. The displacement of the hydraulic motor, which refers to the
volume of fluid that the motor moves with each complete rotation, plays a crucial role as well; a motor
with a larger displacement will rotate more slowly than one with a smaller displacement at the same
flow rate. Therefore, the relationship between flow rate and displacement, governed by the formula
Speed = Flow Rate divided by Displacement, establishes the operational speed of the hydraulic motor.
Additionally, system pressure and any resistance encountered during operation can also impact the
effective speed, but the primary determining factors remain flow rate and displacement.
4. Define the displacement and torque ratings of a hydraulic motor.

The displacement rating of a hydraulic motor refers to the volume of hydraulic fluid that the motor
can displace with each complete rotation, typically measured in cubic inches per revolution (in³/rev) or
liters per revolution (L/rev). This rating is critical because it determines the amount of fluid that the
motor uses to generate torque and is directly related to the motor's speed and efficiency. The torque
rating, on the other hand, indicates the maximum torque that the motor can produce at a given
pressure. This rating is essential for understanding the motor's capability to perform work against a load,
as torque output is influenced by both the motor's displacement and the hydraulic pressure supplied to
it. Together, the displacement and torque ratings provide vital specifications for selecting the appropriate
hydraulic motor for a specific application, ensuring that it can deliver the required performance under
varying operational conditions.
5. Explain how the vanes are held in contact with the cam ring in high-performance vane
motors.

In high-performance vane motors, the vanes are held in contact with the cam ring through a
combination of centrifugal force and hydraulic pressure. As the rotor spins, centrifugal force pushes the
vanes outward into the cam ring, ensuring a tight seal that allows for efficient fluid displacement and
optimal performance. Additionally, hydraulic pressure from the fluid being pumped helps to maintain
this contact, providing further support to keep the vanes firmly pressed against the cam ring throughout
the motor's operation. This dual mechanism not only enhances the efficiency of the motor by reducing
leakage but also allows for smooth operation under varying loads and speeds. The design of high-
performance vane motors ensures that the vanes can adapt to changes in pressure and flow, maintaining
consistent contact with the cam ring for reliable performance and longevity.
6. How is torque developed in an in-line-type piston motor?
 Torque in an in-line-type piston motor is developed through the sequential firing of its pistons, which
converts hydraulic pressure into mechanical energy. As hydraulic fluid enters the motor, it acts on the
pistons, causing them to extend and retract in a linear motion. Each piston is connected to a common
drive shaft, and as hydraulic pressure pushes the pistons in sequence, they exert force on the shaft,
generating torque. The torque output is proportional to the pressure of the hydraulic fluid and the area
of the pistons, following the principle that torque is the product of force and the distance from the pivot
point (in this case, the center of the drive shaft). The in-line configuration allows for continuous torque
generation as long as hydraulic fluid is supplied, making it efficient for applications requiring steady and
high levels of torque. This design also ensures smooth operation and high torque-to-weight ratios,
making in-line piston motors suitable for a variety of industrial and mobile applications.
7. If a hydraulic motor is pressure compensated, what is the effect of an increase in the working
load?

If a hydraulic motor is pressure compensated, an increase in the working load leads to a

corresponding adjustment in the motor's displacement to maintain consistent performance and prevent
stall conditions. As the load increases, the hydraulic system senses the rise in pressure and, through the
pressure compensation mechanism, adjusts the motor’s displacement often by tilting the swash plate or
altering the position of the vanes to increase the flow rate and deliver the necessary torque to handle
the heavier load. This automatic response ensures that the motor continues to operate efficiently
without exceeding the system’s pressure limits, allowing it to adapt to varying load conditions while
maintaining optimal performance. Consequently, the hydraulic system can deliver the required power
without risking damage to the motor or other components, enhancing reliability and extending the
lifespan of the equipment.
8. What type of hydraulic motor is generally most efficient?

The most efficient type of hydraulic motor is typically the gear motor, particularly the external gear
motor, due to its simple design and high volumetric efficiency. Gear motors operate by meshing two
gears that create a displacement chamber, effectively transferring hydraulic fluid while minimizing
leakage. Their design allows for a direct conversion of hydraulic energy into mechanical motion with
relatively low losses, making them suitable for applications requiring consistent and reliable
performance. Other types, such as vane motors and piston motors, can also be efficient, but they tend to
have higher friction losses and more complex designs, which can reduce overall efficiency. In high-
pressure applications, gear motors excel by maintaining performance while delivering significant torque,
thus solidifying their reputation as one of the most efficient options in hydraulic systems.
Problems

1. A hydraulic motor has a displacement of 130 cm3 and operates with a pressure of 105 bars and a
speed of 2000 rpm. If the actual flow rate consumed by the motor is 0.005 m3/s and the actual
torque delivered by the motor is 200 N · m, find
a. Volumetric efficiency
b. Mechanical efficiency
c. Overall efficiency
 d. (kW) power delivered by the motor
2. A hydrostatic transmission operating at 105-bars pressure has the following characteristics

a. Displacement of the motor

b. Motor output torque
4. The system of Figure 5 has a hydraulic cylinder with a suspended load W. The cylinder piston and
rod diameters are 2 in and 1 in respectively. The pressure relief valve setting is 750 psi.
Determine pressure p2 for a constant cylinder speed if
a. W = 2000 lb
b. W = 0 (load is removed).

Change the data to metric units and solve the problem.

Figure. 5