ASSIGNMENT 1 SOLUTION

Q1. Define Computer Networks

Ans- A computer network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing devices that
exchange data and resources with each other. A network connection between these devices
can be established using cable or wireless media.
Q.2 What are the various applications and goal of computer network ?
Ans- Goals of Computer Networks: The following are some important goals of computer
networks:

1. Resource Sharing – Many organization has a substantial number of computers

in operations, which are located apart. Ex. A group of office workers can share a
common printer, fax, modem, scanner, etc.

2. High Reliability – If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be
replicated on two or more machines. If one of them is not available, due to
hardware failure, the other copies could be used.

3. Inter-process Communication – Network users, located geographically apart,

may converse in an interactive session through the network. In order to permit
this, the network must provide almost error-free communications.

4. Flexible access – Files can be accessed from any computer in the network. The
project can be begun on one computer and finished on another.

5. Security– Computer networks must be secure to protect against unauthorized

access, data breaches, and other security threats. This includes implementing
measures such as firewalls, antivirus software, and encryption to ensure the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.

6. Performance– Computer networks must provide high performance and low

latency to ensure that applications and services are responsive and available
when needed. This requires optimizing network infrastructure, bandwidth
utilization, and traffic management.

7. Scalability- Computer networks must be designed to scale up or down as needed

to accommodate changes in the number of users, devices, and data traffic. This
requires careful planning and management to ensure the network can meet
current and future needs.
Other goals include Distribution of processing functions, Centralized
management, and allocation of network resources, Compatibility of dissimilar
equipment and software, Good network performance, Scalability, Saving money,
Access to remote information, Person to person communication, etc.
Q.3 Differentiate between OSI and TCP/IP model
Ans
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for Transmission

OSI stands for Open Systems
Full Form Control Protocol/Internet
Interconnection.
Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Approach It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.

Delivery of the package is Delivery of the package is not

Delivery
guaranteed in OSI Model. guaranteed in TCP/IP Model.

Replacement of tools and changes Replacing the tools is not easy as

Replacement
can easily be done in this model. it is in OSI Model.

It is less reliable than TCP/IP It is more reliable than OSI

Reliability
Model. Model.

Q.4 Explain various types of network topology in detail.

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected
to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six
types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star
Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
• Point to Point Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Star Topology
• Bus Topology
• Ring Topology
 • Tree Topology
• Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender
and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender
and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.
In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology

Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as
links.
• Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there
are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by
each device is 4. The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-
 1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number
of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Mesh Topology is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the
devices through dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number
of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in
military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.
.

Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-
45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN
protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e.
hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 • Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number
of ports required is N.
• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where
all devices are connected to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media
Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha,
CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology

with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support
up to 10 Mbps.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.
• Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques
are well known.
• CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 • A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
• Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to
a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television
networks..

Ring Topology

In this topology , it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the
data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring
Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one
node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for
performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done,
the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the
token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token
after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
• The data transmission is high-speed.
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
• It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
• The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
• Less secure.
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

Tree Topology

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains
the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and
then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the
central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone
fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the
distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
• We can add new devices to the existing network.
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of the cabling.
Hybrid Topology
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means
these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types
of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed
earlier.

Hybrid Topology

The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a combination
of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• This topology is very flexible.
• The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
• It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
• Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
• The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling
and network devices.

Q.5 What are the various data transmission modes?

Ans Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur
between individual devices that are interconnected.
There are three types of transmission mode:-

These are explained as following below.

1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can
use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the
monitor can only give the output.

Advantages:
• Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.
• It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication
channel.
• There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving
devices, which simplifies the communication process.
• Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response is
not required, such as broadcasting or surveillance.
Disadvantages:
• Only one-way communication is possible.
• There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly.
• Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional
communication.

2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex
mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in
both directions.
Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Advantages:
• Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in
situations where devices need to send and receive data.
• It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the channel
can be used for both transmission and reception.
• Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only requires
one communication channel.
Disadvantages:
• Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices cannot
transmit at the same time.
• There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause problems
in some applications.
• There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices,
which can complicate the communication process.
3. Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
• Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for
sending and the other for receiving.
• Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay
Advantages:
• Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication, which
is ideal for real-time applications such as video conferencing or online gaming.
• It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit and
receive data simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is no
need for error correction mechanisms.
Disadvantages:
• Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two communication
channels.
• It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two
physically separate transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.
• Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a high
level of bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of communication.

Q.6 Explain data communication in brief

Ans- Communication is defined as a process in which more than one computer transfers
information, instructions to each other and for sharing resources. Or in other words,
communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data. A network of
computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. Autonomous
means no computer can start, stop or control another computer.
Components of Data Communication
A communication system is made up of the following components:
1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one
person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer,
mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone
mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels
are the medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be
connected by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example,
Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot
understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.
Q7 What are the various responsibilities of physical layer?
Ans Functions Performed by Physical Layer
The following are some important and basic functions that are performed by the Physical
Layer of the OSI Model –
1. The physical layer maintains the data rate (how many bits a sender can send per
second).
2. It performs the Synchronization of bits.
3. It helps in Transmission Medium decisions (direction of data transfer).
4. It helps in Physical Topology (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring) decisions (Topology
through which we can connect the devices with each other).
5. It helps in providing Physical Medium and Interface decisions.
6. It provides two types of configuration Point Point configuration and Multi-Point
configuration.
7. It provides an interface between devices (like PCs or computers) and transmission
medium.
8. It has a protocol data unit in bits.
9. Hubs, Ethernet, etc. device is used in this layer.
10. This layer comes under the category of Hardware Layers (since the hardware layer
is responsible for all the physical connection establishment and processing too).
11. It provides an important aspect called Modulation, which is the process of
converting the data into radio waves by adding the information to an electrical or
optical nerve signal.
12. It also provides a Switching mechanism wherein data packets can be forwarded
from one port (sender port) to the leading destination port.

Q8. The bandwidth of a channel is 2MHz and its signal to noise ratio is 63. Calculate the
appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Q.9 What are the number of cable links required for n devices connected in mesh, ring,
bus and star topology?
Ans- n(n-1)/2 cable link are required for mesh, n for ring , n-1 cable link for bus and n cable
link for star topology

Q.10 What are the various components of data communication?

Ans-Components of Data Communication
A communication system is made up of the following components:
1)Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to
another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2) Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile,
telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3) Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile,
workstation, etc.
4) Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the
medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired
media or wireless media.
5)Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a
message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a
meaningless conversation.

Q11. The ABC Corporation has a fully connected mesh network consists of eight
devices Calculate the total number of cable links needed and number of ports for each
device.
Ans- The number of links for a fully connected mesh is n ( n - 1 ) / 2, where n is the number
of devices . Number of links = n ( n - 1 ) / 2 = 8 * ( 8-1 ) / 2 = 28. Number of ports per device
= n - 1 = 8-1 = 7.

Q12 Differentiate between message switching and circuit switching?

Ans

S.NO Circuit Switching Message Switching

In message Switching, data is first stored

Circuit Switching is done by setting by one node then forward to another
1.
a physical path between two systems. node to transfer the data to another
system.

In circuit switching, data is not In message Switching, data is first

2.
stored. stored, then forwarded to the next node.

Message switching does not need a

Circuit Switching needs a dedicated
dedicated physical path and on Message
3. physical path that’s why the
switching, The messages are addressed
messages need not be addressed.
independently.

Circuit Switching is Geographical Message Switching is Hierarchical

4.
addressing. addressing.

Circuit Switching is costlier than The cost of message switching is less

5.
message Switching. than circuit switching.

Message Switching routing is not

Circuit switching routing is manual
6. manual type routing, here route is
type routing.
selected during call setup.

Circuit switching reserves the full Message Switching does not reserve the
bandwidth in advance. because of entire bandwidth in advance. and that’s
7.
that, there is a lot of wastage of why bandwidth is used to its maximum
bandwidth extent.

In message switching, the charge is

In-circuit switching, the charge
8. based on the number of bytes and
depends on time and distance.
distance.
S.NO Circuit Switching Message Switching

Congestion occurs per minute in In message switching, no congestion or

9.
circuit switching. very little congestion occurs.

Circuit switching uses Analog and

Whereas Message switching uses digital
10. digital media on a variety of
media on a variety of platforms.
platforms.

In-circuit switching there is no While In Message switching there is

11.
propagation delay. propagation delay.

The transmission capacity of circuit while the transmission capacity of

12.
switching is very low. message switching is high.

In a circuit switching, Messages need In message switching, Messages are

13. not be addressed as there is one addressed as independent routes are
dedicated path. established.

Ex. Real time transfer of voice

14. Ex. Transmission of telegram.
signals.

Q13 Define protocol and its various key elements in brief.

Answer- Key Elements of protocols

The key elements of the protocol determine what to be communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated.

There are mainly three key elements of a protocol, they are as follows:

1. Syntax
2. Semantics
3. Timing
Syntax
Syntax refers to the structure or format of data and signal levels. It indicates how to read
the data in the form of bits or fields. It also decides the order in which the data is presented
to the receiver.
Example: A protocol might expect that the size of a data packet will be 16 bits. In which,
the first 4 bits are the sender’s address, the next 4 bits are the receiver’s address, the next 4
bits are the check-sum bits, and the last 4 bits will contain the message. So, every
communication that is following that protocol should send 16-bit data.

Semantics
Semantics refers to the interpretation or meaning of each section of bits or fields. It
specifies which field defines what action. It defines how a particular section of bits or
pattern can be interpreted, and what action needs to be taken. It includes control
information for coordination and error handling.

Example: It interprets whether the bits of address identify the route to be taken or the final
destination of the message or something else.

Timing
Timing refers to two characteristics:

1. when the data should be sent?

2. what will be the speed of sending and receiving the data?
It performs speed matching, sequencing and flow control of the data items.

Example: A sender can send the data at a speed of 100 Mbps, but the receiver can consume
it only at a speed of 20 Mbps, then there may be data losses or the packets might get
dropped. So, proper synchronization must be there between a sender and a receiver.

Q.14 Explain various standards, standard organizations in computer networks?

Ans- Standard Organizations for Data Communication :

1)International Standard Organization (ISO) –

ISO is the International Organization for Standardization. It creates set of rules and standards
for graphics , document exchange , data communication etc.

2) Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT) –

CCITT is now standard organization for the United States. CCITT developer’s recommended
set of rules and standards for telephone and telegraph communication.
3) American National Standard Institute (ANSI) –
ANSI is primary organization for fostering the development of technology standards in the
United States and providing various set of rules and standard for Data Communication.
4) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (IEEE) –
It is US based professional organization of electronic , computer and communication
engineering. It provides various set of rules and standard in communication and networking
field.

5) Electronic Industries Association(EIA) –

This organization establish and recommends industrial standards. EIA has developed the
RS(Recommended Standards) series of Standards for data and telecommunication.

6) Standard Council of Canada (SCC) –

It is an official Standard Agency for Canada . It has Similar responsibilities as ANSI has.

Q.15 Write a short note on transmission media

Ans- In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path

between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent
from one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following
types:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals

being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely
used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This
type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil
shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in
voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold climates,
where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for withstanding such
temperatures or for shielding the interior components.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2
parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable
transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and
Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog
television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
 • High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable television signal
distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network connections (like Ethernet), and
feedlines that connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas.
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core
is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for the
transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
Applications:
• Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
• Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
• For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
• Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing
the interior and exterior of automobiles.
(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by
Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the
earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-
frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched
between two layers of the ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI
immunity.
(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of dielectric.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for
mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Microwave Transmission

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz
– 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.