POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: WESTERN AND EASTERN PERSPECTIVES

Introduction

Definition: Gable and Haidt (2005) define positive psychology as “the study of the conditions
and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups and
institutions”, echoing Seligman’s (2003) three pillars of positive psychology- (1) positive
subjective experiences (such as joy, happiness, contentment, optimism, and hope); (2) positive
individual characteristics (such as personal strengths and human virtues that promote mental
health); and (3) positive social institutions and communities that contribute to individual health
and happiness.

Overview of Western & Eastern perspectives: Positive psychology scholars aim to define
specific strengths and highlight paths that lead better lives, primarily drawing from Western
values and experiences (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). However, recognizing the historical and
cultural biases inherent in this focus, contemporary scholars increasingly consider broader
contexts, including Eastern traditions, to understand human strengths and their practices to
living well (Leong & Wong, 2003; Schimmel, 2000; Sue & Constantine, 2003).

The previously overlooked wisdom of Eastern cultures, exemplified by the Chinese proverb "A
good fortune may forebode a bad luck, which may in turn disguise a good fortune," which
means, just as surely as good times occur, so, too, will bad times visit us, bringing in a
perspective which is an expectation of and desire for balance. This view contrasts with the
linear problem-solving approach of the West. It emphasizes adaptation and mindfulness until
enlightenment is achieved. While Westerners seek rewards in the physical realm, Easterners
aspire to transcend the human plane and reach the spiritual realm, embodying different
pathways to optimal functioning.

Let’s understand the basic tenets of 4 influential Western traditions- Athenian, Judaism,
Christianity, Islam and 3 Eastern traditions - Buddhism, Jainism & Hinduism, along with their
conceptualisation of positive psychology.
 WESTERN PERSPECTIVES ON POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Athenian Perspective on ideals of positive psychology

Hope, optimism, and personal self-efficacy, integral to positive psychology, have deep roots in
Western history, notably in Athenian philosophy.

Introduction
1.1 Plato and Aristotle were prominent philosophers in Ancient Greece who extensively
discussed virtue and human strength (concepts which coexist within positive psychology).

Aristotle's Moral Virtues

2.2 Aristotle built upon Plato's ideas and detailed 11 moral virtues:
- Courage
- Moderation
- Generosity
- Munificence
- Magnificence
- Even temper
- Friendliness
- Truthfulness
- Wit
- Justice
- Friendship
2.3 He also described intellectual virtues (mainly regarding wisdom) which show the strength of
the character of a person and lead to enduring human excellence.

3. Influence of the Political Community

Both Plato and Aristotle emphasized the role of the political community, or polis, in virtue
development. Aristotle argued that the polis provides the necessary structure for individuals to
transcend above hedonistic desires and achieve true virtue i.e eudaimonic happiness.

4. Role of Virtuous Individuals in Society

Virtuous individuals within a community serve as models for others to develop similar
excellence.

5. Government's Responsibility in Virtue Development

The government should be responsible for fostering virtue through early education and training.
This highlights the importance of governmental involvement in virtue cultivation, particularly
in childhood.
 JUDAISM
Introduction and Demographics

Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson and Positivity Bias:

● Leadership in Lubavitch Hasidim sect.
● Developed "positivity bias" rooted in Jewish teachings: actively sought positive aspects,
deeply believed in God's goodness, lived with purpose and responsibility.

Introduction to Judaism:
● Historical roots dating back 4,000 years.
● Monotheistic belief in transcendent and immanent God.
● Revelation at Mount Sinai: reception of Torah.
● Jewish biblical canon: Pentateuch, Prophets, Hagiographa.
● Oral Law supplements written texts, compiled in Mishna and Talmud.
● Development of rabbinic works, including commentary, law, poetry, philosophy,
Kabbalah.
● Cultural traditions of Sephardim and Ashkenazim.
● Modern denominations: Orthodox, Conservative, Reform.

Judaism & Positive Psychology aim to understand Jewish concepts of well-being and
spirituality. In contrast to the disease model which emphasizes pathology, positive
psychology focuses on human strengths, wellness, and fulfillment (Seligman et al., 2005).
Jewish thought and tradition are similarly replete with perspectives on psychological health
and well-being encouraging a spiritually integrated, strength-based, and PERMA model of
well-being.

1. Multiple Perspectives

• One of the biblical Hebrew words that is most closely associated with happiness is
ashrei translating into “happinesses” signifying that happiness is not
unidimensional (Jonathan Sacks, 2014).
• Pelcovitz and Pelcovitz (2014) highlight the diverse Judaic understandings of
happiness by pointing to several synonyms used for it in Jewish literature such as
simchah, sasson, gilah, rinah, ditzah, chedva.
 2. Blending of Pleasure and Meaning
• The diversity within the Jewish conceptualization of happiness incorporates that
happiness has both hedonic and eudemonic elements, emphasizing transcending
the self by helping others and by acknowledging the presence of God.

HAPPINESS AND FLOURISHING

1. Importance of action
1) Another important element of Judaic notion of happiness is the role of law and ritual
and its relationship to inner life.
2) Judaism emphasizes action in contrast to beliefs and cultivation of internal states.
3) This tradition suggests it is through COMMITTED ACTION that an inner state is
cultivated.
4) Jewish spiritual ethics (MUSSAR) emphasizes the importance of not being content
with mindless acts.

2. Happiness is not the goal

1) According to modern Jewish thinkers, happiness is important but not the central
value.
2) Although serving god should be done with joy, serving god through commandments
is the ultimate goal.

CHARACTER STRENGTHS

3. Commandment

1) Development of character strengths is essential in Judaic tradition.

2) One major difference between Aristotle framework and Judaic tradition- Aristotelian
framework says: happiness comes from arriving at a proper disposition by subordinating
passions to human reason.
3) Human reason plays an important role in character formation (Hebrew Bible and
Talmudic Sages).
4) It is important to develop personal discipline and ethical behavior. Character
development holds the utmost importance.
VIRTUES AND STRENGTHS

1) Six core virtues to be considered for a good character- Transcendence, Wisdom,

Courage, Humanity, Justice, Temperance.
2) There are 24-character strengths (processes/mechanisms that describe the virtues).
 3) In Torah literature (by Schnall and colleagues), character strengths which were surveyed
are- Hope, Humor, Gratitude, Spirituality and Appreciation of Beauty.

1) Wisdom in Judaism

• Torah learning is regarded as crucial for attaining wisdom, emphasizing

understanding and applying its teachings.
• Two prominent paradigms include the Rationalist perspective epitomized by
Maimonides, who believes wisdom is achieved through the knowledge of the
Torah, and the Kabbalistic tradition, which focuses on contemplation and direct
experience.

2) Courage in Judaism

• Courage, depicted in Jewish texts, often highlights acts of bravery, particularly in

battle scenes within the Hebrew Bible.
• Courage extends beyond physical bravery, embodying moral and psychological
strength. Traits of vitality and enthusiasm are encouraged.
3) Humanity in Judaism

• Judaism esteems humanity by emphasizing traits like love and kindness, reflecting
God's attributes. Gemilut chasadim (acts of kindness) is a concept emphasizing
compassionate deeds.
4) Justice in Judaism

• Justice occupies a central place in Jewish values, with the Hebrew Bible mandating a
fair judicial system.
• The Torah also encourages people to fight for what is right or just.
5) Temperance in Judaism

• Temperance in Judaism encompasses virtues like forgiveness, prudence, humility,

and self-control.
• Granting forgiveness is encouraged, and resistance to it is considered cruel.
• Humility is identified as the crown jewel of a trait encouraged in Judaism.
• Exercising self-control is encouraged when it comes to eating and sexual relations.
 CHRISTIANITY AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AS COMPLEMENTARY
PERSPECTIVES

Christianity is a monotheistic religion centred on the life, teachings, death, and

resurrection of Jesus Christ. Christianity and positive psychology can intersect in various ways,
offering complementary perspectives on human well-being and flourishing. Positive psychology
(PP), as a field, focuses on understanding and promoting factors that contribute to a fulfilling
and meaningful life, such as happiness, resilience, optimism, and purpose. Christianity, on the
other hand, provides a rich spiritual and moral framework that addresses similar themes but
from a religious perspective.
● Reasons why PP and Christianity could work together:
1. Both are concerned with helping people find purpose and lead meaningful lives.
2. Both share overlapping subject matter (e.g., virtue development, compassion for all
humankind).
3. Both agree that there are ideals for how a person might live their best life, many of
which involve a strong component of caring well for other people (e.g., compassion, love,
forgiveness).
● Reasons why PP and Christianity should work together:
1. PP might gain a greater audience by connecting PP research and practice to Christian
living. Some Christians might be skeptical of PP interventions if they feel like their worldview
is not validated.
2. A value-less PP may not sufficiently motivate people to pursue well-being, health, and
virtues. If the field of PP becomes more open to Christian tradition, values, and doctrine, more
people might be motivated to engage with PP.
3. PP could benefit from Christianity by using Christian tradition to build theoretical
models for why people might engage with PP research and practice.
4. A collaborative relationship between PP and Christianity could help approximately
1/3 of the world’s population gain practical strategies to pursue virtue development that is in
line with their worldview and sensitive to their specific religious beliefs.
 Christian Understanding of Well-Being, Health, and Virtue

1. Virtue Origin and Practice:

- PP sees virtue as innate, cultivated through practices like gratitude, while Christianity
roots virtue in divine grace and religious teachings (Peterson & Seligman, 2004).

2. Contemporary PP Focus:
- PP emphasizes fostering positive aspects of human nature for moral action, as seen in
interventions promoting resilience and compassion (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005).

3. Christian Multidimensional Approach:

- Influenced by Aquinas, Christianity considers disposition, behavior, and reasoning in
virtues like humility and forgiveness, linking them to psychological well-being (Schnitker &
Emmons, 2007).

4. Common Goal of Virtuous Living:

- Both PP and Christianity aim to promote virtuous living, though with different
philosophical foundations, focusing on character strengths and moral conduct respectively.

5. Christian Emphasis on Caring:

- Christianity emphasizes caring for oneself, others, and God, with studies showing
links between Christian virtues like compassion and enhanced well-being (Johnson et al., 2012).

6. PP's Focus on Flourishing:

- PP promotes flourishing through practices like gratitude journaling, aligning with its
emphasis on virtuous behavior and well-being (Emmons & McCullough, 2003).

7. Christian Motivation Enhancement:

- Christianity offers additional motivation for virtuous behavior, emphasizing divine
grace and spiritual rewards (Park & Peterson, 2006).
 8. Influence of Religion/Spirituality:
- Research shows a positive relationship between religion/spirituality and virtues,
informing PP practices and interventions (Krause, 2006).

9. Christian Influence in PP Research:

- Many leading PP researchers identify as Christian, suggesting potential collaboration
between the two fields (Haidt & Graham, 2007).

10. Strengthening Understanding of Grace:

- Recent research deepens psychology's understanding of grace's role in promoting
virtues like humility and forgiveness (Schnitker & Emmons, 2013).

An example of fruitful collaboration

Confluence of positive psychology and Christianity can be explained via ‘forgiveness’.
Positive psychology models with empirical models can help one to navigate through the
conflicts between decisional forgiveness and emotional forgiveness.
Christianity helps us understand why we are motivated to pursue some virtues and
positive psychology can help us in how to develop those virtues.

Conclusion - Like any other religion, Christianity and positive psychology also have overlap in
their goals. With enhanced communication between the two fields, better services can be
offered to people.
 ISLAM AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

The world’s Muslim population is large and growing fast. Muslims compose about 1.8
billion of the world’s current population. There are two major sets in Islam: About 85% of
Muslims identify as Sunni Muslims, whereas 15% identify as Shi’a Muslims.

Historically, the division between Sunni (meaning “people of tradition”) and Shi’a
(meaning “followers of Ali”) Muslims stems from the disagreement regarding the successor of
Prophet Muhammad. Key Islamic beliefs and practices are derived from two primary sources:
the Qur’an and the hadith. Muslims believe the Qur’an is the direct Word of God. Hadith are the
sayings and actions of Prophet Muhammad.

Islam emphasizes both faith and practice. - six articles of faith establish the main
doctrines of Islam:-

1. Faith emphasizes belief in the existence and oneness of

2. God believes in angels
3. believing in the holy scriptures of God
4. belief in the prophets and messengers of God
5. Day of Judgment.
6. believing in divine decree
 Five pillars of Islam were formulated as the fundamentals of worship and the primary
obligations of a practicing Muslim:-

1. shahadah, which is the verbal profession of faith

2. salah, which refers to the daily obligatory prayers
3. zakat, which is the obligatory act of almsgiving
4. syiam, is fasting during the month of Ramadan
5. hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca

1. Trust in God

Tawakkul (reliance on or putting trust in God) is a construct of high spiritual virtue among
Muslims. God is viewed as particularly central in the face of distressing life events, and it is the
ultimate framework for receiving blessings in worldly life and eternal life. For example,
qualitative data from Palestinian Muslim women diagnosed with breast cancer revealed that
tawakkul played an important role in their positive coping and coming to terms with their
illness.

2. Worship

Worship can foster both a sense of connectedness with God and a sense of transcendence. A
harmonious psychological state is viewed as achievable through connecting meaningfully with
God. A qualitative study of Jordanian Muslims with heart disease found that participants viewed
worshiping God as central to their lives, and their faith in God and engagement in prayer
fostered a sense of hope, inner strength, meaning and purpose in life, and acceptance of self-
responsibility.

3. Gratitude

Throughout the Qur’an and hadith, practicing the virtue of gratitude is encouraged. Practicing
gratitude is thought to lead to increased favor and blessings. A study of Muslim university
students in Pakistan found that gratitude predicted higher life satisfaction (Perveen & Yasin,
2017).

4. Patience
 Patience (sabr) is prescribed throughout the Qur’an and hadith, and as such, it is a core
Patience is seen as both the ability to restrain oneself from what is discouraged (or prohibited)
and as an essential ingredient for pursuing goals of Islamic virtue. The Qur’an indicates that
believers who practice patience will be “attainers of success”. A qualitative study of Pakistani
Muslims with chronic illness found that patience helped alleviate participants’ anger and
supported their meaning-making coping with their illness (Mir & Sheikh, 2010).

5. Forgiveness

Concepts of forgiveness such as afw (pardon), safh (overlooking a wrong), and ghafr
(erasing sin) are collectively mentioned in the Qur’an. As humans are inevitably prone to
making mistakes, hurting each other, and engaging in transgressions, forgiveness is an essential
virtue within Islam. The Qur’an suggests divine forgiveness can be fostered through forgiving
other humans. A quantitative study of Turkish Muslim university students' forgiveness
predicted both higher life satisfaction and lower generalized anxiety (Ayten & Karagoz, 2021)

6. Awareness of an Afterlife

Beliefs in the afterlife are the fundamental component of the Islamic faith, the worldly
life is viewed as a temporary place of residence before entering eternal life, it's understood as a
place of trials and tests. The Qur'an promises “a great reward” for Muslims who are actually by
Islamic teachings in the face of such trials, promising that “the hereafter is better than the
first(life)”. In a quantitative study with an elderly Pakistani Muslim sample, having positive
afterlife beliefs was associated with higher religiousness and lower depression symptoms
(Ghayas et al. 2021).
 EASTERN PERSPECTIVES ON POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

BUDDHISM

“Buddhism” refers to a broad range of traditions, beliefs, and practices that originated
approximately 2,500 years ago in the teachings of Gautama Buddha. Buddhism developed on
the Indian subcontinent between 400 and 100 BCE. Altho Buddhist beliefs and practices
continue to develop over subsequent millennia, all classical schools of Buddhism agree on the
core doctrines of the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Noble Path.

The Four Noble Truths

1. Suffering (dukkha) is an inextricable part of life.
2. The cause of most suffering is our craving for pleasant sensations and our aversion to
unpleasant sensations.
3. It is possible to eliminate craving and aversion by learning to observe them rather than
react to them.
4. Identifies the Eightfold Noble Path as the path leading to the elimination of craving and
aversion and, thereby, to the cessation of suffering.

Eightfold Noble Path

The Eightfold Noble Path is the path to nibbana (nirvana in Sanskrit), an enlightened state in
which craving, aversion, ignorance, and the cycle of rebirth are ended.
1. Right view is understanding the laws of karma—that our thoughts and actions have
consequences for our well-being, both in this lifetime and future lifetimes.
2. Right intention refers to intentions of nongreed, non hatred, and non harming.
3. Right speech means desisting from lying, gossiping, and causing discord.
4. Right conduct means avoiding killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct, and
intoxication.
5. Right livelihood means not engaging in harmful occupations.
6. Right effort means initiating and maintaining wholesome mental states and preventing
and stopping unwholesome ones.
 7. Right mindfulness means maintaining present-moment awareness of wholesome and
unwholesome mental factors and their consequences.
8. Right concentration refers to maintaining one-pointed concentration in meditation
practice

Positive Psychology and Buddhism

Enlightenment and Human Flourishing

Although Buddhism and PP both aim at human flourishing, they have somewhat different
conceptions of what flourishing entails. PP has drawn on a conception of human flourishing that
includes elements of subjective well-being, virtue, and meaning. Seligman’s (2011) later
PERMA model proposed a list of factors purported to be the core constituent elements of
human flourishing: Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Accomplishments.
The Buddhist ideal of enlightenment—a state of subjective well-being marked by inner peace,
non-hatred, non-greed, and the virtues of generosity, equanimity, and compassion—has
elements in common with PP’s conception of flourishing.

Buddhist Influences on Positive Psychology

1. Mindfulness: Jon Kabat-Zinn defines mindfulness as “paying attention in a particular
way: on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally”, a definition that
combines metacognitive awareness with an attitude of nonjudgmental acceptance.
2. Self-Compassion: Kristin Neff (2003) introduced self-compassion to mainstream
psychology and PP. Self-compassion has three facets: self-kindness, common humanity,
and mindfulness. Self-kindness is the capacity to look at one’s failings and suffering
with compassion and understanding. Common humanity is the recognition that one’s
failings and sufferings are common to all humankind. Mindfulness is the ability to
observe one’s failings and sufferings intimately without suppression, minimization, or
exaggeration.
3. Loving-kindness: The Theravada practice of loving-kindness (metta) meditation,
focuses on opening the heart to love and caring for others. It heightens the ability to
 experience empathy, benevolence, and compassion toward oneself and others. The
practice of loving-kindness meditation involves the silent self-recitation of the wish that
sentient beings be happy, healthy, safe, and well. Loving-kindness meditations are often
incorporated into mindfulness-based interventions of various kinds, including MBSR,
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy, and the Mindful Self-Compassion Program.
4. Self and self-transcendence: Many humanistic and psychodynamic approaches to
meditation entail a shift in self-experiencing that reveals a more porous, ephemeral, and
relational self that is in line with the Buddhist idea of nonself. This changed self-
experiencing typically emerges with meditative practice over time. This perspective runs
counter to Western beliefs in an unchanging “true self.” Letting go of rigid, essentialist
notions of a “true self” can free one from limiting self-narratives, opening one up to
deepening connections with others and with nature.

JAINISM AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Founded: 500 BC
Founder: Vardhamana Mahavira

Jainism is one of the religions whose origin can be traced back to the twenty four teachers
(tirthankaras - ones who establishes a path or ford), through whom their faith is believed to have
been handed down. The term ‘jaina’ is derived from the term ‘jina’,and the term ‘jina’ is the
common name for the supreme souls who are totally free from all feelings of attachment,
aversion, etc. The devotees of jina are called ‘jaina’, and the religion propounded by jina is
called the ‘Jaina Religion.’The first of these teachers was Rsabhadeva and the last was
Vardhamana, also known as Mahavira (the Great Hero). He is said to have lived in the sixth
century B.C. as a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Mahavira is the successor of Parvanatha,
who lived in the ninth century B.C.
 Four cardinal principles of 4.Syadavada
1. Ahimsa or non jain way of life or conditional
violence in conduct dialectic in
speech

2.Aparigraha 3.Anekanta or
or Non multiplicity of
possession in view points in
life and thoughts
society

Pancha Vrathas (the five great vows)

Jaina writers are not unanimous about the necessity of all the above steps. Some of them
select the first five, namely, the five great vows (Pancha Vrathas) as sufficient for the perfection
of conduct.
1. Ahimsa: Non-violence: Among the five, ahimsa is the most important vow. It is really a
positive virtue based upon universal love and mercy towards all beings. Ahimsa is
abstinence from all injury to life, life that exists not simply in the moving beings (trasa),
but also in some non- moving ones (sthavara), such as plants and beings inhabiting the
bodies of the earth. Hence the principle of Ahimsa – nonviolence, naturally implies purity
of thought, word, and deed.
2. Satya or Truth: This vow is abstinence from falsehood. The vow of satya or truthfulness
consists in speaking what is true, as well as what is pleasant and good. Truthfulness is not
only speaking what is true, but speaking what is true as well as good and pleasant.
 3. Astheya or ‘Non-stealing’: This vow consists in not taking what is not given. This vow
also includes abstinence from evil practices. The vow of asteya or ‘non-stealing’ is based
on the idea of the sanctity of property.
4. Brahmacharaya: The vow of brahmacharaya consists in abstaining from all forms of self-
indulgence. This refers to purity of personal conduct in the matter of sex. This vow when
applied to the ascetic implies absolute celibacy, since a saint who has renounced all
possible connections with the outside world is expected to practise strict celibacy.
5. Aparigraha or Abstinence from all attachment: The vow of aparigraha consists in
abstaining from all attachment to the senses – pleasant sound, touch, colour, taste, and
smell. Attachment to the world’s objects means bondage to the world, and the force of this
causes rebirth. Liberation is impossible without the withdrawal of attachment.
Liberation (moksha)

If the bondage of the soul is its association with matter, liberation must mean the
complete dissociation of the soul from matter. Liberation is the expulsion of matter from
the soul.
Jainism and positive psychology
Jainism and positive psychology share some common principles, particularly regarding the
cultivation of inner peace, mindfulness, and ethical living. Jainism emphasizes non-violence
(ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-possessiveness (aparigraha), and compassion, which align
with many concepts in positive psychology, such as gratitude, resilience, and kindness. Both
Jainism and positive psychology emphasize the importance of self-awareness, self-discipline,
and the pursuit of inner well-being for leading a fulfilling life.
 HINDUISM AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Hindus represent 15% of the global population. 99% of Hindus are concentrated in the Asia
Pacific region especially in India, Nepal and Mauritius. Indian Psychology is derived mainly
from classical Hindu thoughts and practices and emphasizes on human functioning,suffering
,health and wellbeing. Rao and Paranje (2016) noted two significant criticisms in Indian
Psychology: Larger emphasis on theory and concepts, lacking research backing. Though a shift
is observed in recent decades where Indian Psychologists/researchers are trying to integrate
Hindu traditions and practices with the discipline known as the Indian Psychology Movement.
Under this movement, researchers have attempted a unification of Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism traditions binding them in a way that gives Indian Psychology a dynamic identity.
Positive psychology helped broaden the definition of human well-being beyond absence of illness
to physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual well-being. Several models of well-being have been
proposed like psychological, social and the PERMA model of well-being, which reflects an
amalgamation of positive emotion, engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and
accomplishment (Seligman,2011).

Different Philosophers had different concepts. Western notions included (a) an emphasis on the
biopsychosocial perspective of well-being. and (b) a focus on external circumstances of well-
being, such as interpersonal connections, social involvement, etc. On the other hand, the Hindu
idea of well-being stresses the role of consciousness, considered as transcendental in nature and
often called sat-chit-ananda.
Mainstream psychology emphasis on identifying contingent well-being determinants like
relationships, traditional Hindu thinking asserts well-being is independent of any objective,
tangible factors.
Hindu Models of Wellbeing

1. Anāsakti: The root of developing the virtue of temperance

The Bhagavad Gita written approximately around 2nd century BCE, stresses on the
attainment of sthitaprajna referring to a state of wise and even temperament. It is attained
when thoughts, feelings and emotions are controlled through dispassionate actions or
niṣkāma Karma (Singh & Raina, 2015). Emotions can be negative or positive depending
on the situation. For eg: Success leading to joy and failure leading to sadness or anger.
Desires overpower an individual’s intellect and mind, and the fulfillment of one desire
leads to the birth of another desire (fire that is never satiated). To attain happiness one
must practice non-attachment (anāsakti) through meditation and contemplation that help
an individual to conquer the vices of human nature such as anger, greed, lust etc.
Attachment to Goal ➡Desire to Achieve➡Perform Actions➡Emotions act as
reinforcers
In positive psychology non-attachment is compared to Peterson & Seligman (2004),
Model of character strengths and virtues which includes humility, forgiveness, self-
regulation and virtues of temperance.

2. Yoga
Yoga: Beyond physical postures, it's a path to inner balance and union through various
methods, emphasizing mental focus and liberation from instabilities of mind. Because of
human socialization, conditioned responses lead to a fluctuating mindset, hindering the
journey towards inner peace. Eight-limbed yoga: According to Patañjali Yogasūtras, it
emphasizes mental focus through concentrative meditation, offering liberation from
common manifestations of mental instability.

3. Self-observation/introspection
 Mainstream psychology: Primarily focuses on external behavior, with minimal attention
to internal experiences. However, Hinduism focuses on first-person approaches crucial
for human flourishing, focusing on internal observations of the mind and consciousness.
Hinduism based concepts enrich psychological understanding and practices, contributing
to human flourishing and wellbeing by giving focus to stability and peace of internal
consciousness. Psychologists have also started considering cultural nuances in
understanding human functioning.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EASTERN & WESTERN PERSPECTIVE

While Western cultures emphasize optimal functioning as it occurs intrapsychically, Eastern

cultures hold that an optimal life experience is a spiritual journey involving others and resulting
in transcendence and enlightenment. The Eastern search for spiritual transcendence parallels the
Westerner’s hopeful pursuits for a better life on Earth.

Contrast between Western and Eastern perspective

 Basis West East

Orientation to Time Greater focus on and respect

Some of the strengths that are for the past; value the
valued most (e.g., hope, strength of “looking
optimism, self-efficacy) backward”.
reflect future-oriented
thinking.

Value systems Individualism - personal

freedom and autonomy, Collectivism - cooperation,
achievement, competition, sharing and duty towards
personal gain group, going with the flow
and avoiding conflict, gain of
community

Thought Processes Priority is given to the right to

life, liberty and the pursuit of Circular thinking style
happiness. depicted by the Taoist figure
of the yin and the yang
symbol.

Views on goals draw a straight line to the

goal, look carefully for
obstacles and find possible Follows the yin and the yang.
ways around them. Goal is to The goal is balance (using the
achieve eternal happiness and strength of endurance).
the strength of hope is used to Believing that, although great
achieve this. unhappiness or suffering may
occur in one’s life, it would
be equally balanced by great
happiness.
 Different Ways to attain Group goals are important.
Positive Outcomes focuses on the individual’s
goal. Constructs of compassion and
The construct of hope is a key harmony are valued.
component: Belief in a
positive future is reflected in
everyday ideas.

Conclusion
Each of the philosophies discussed here incorporates ideas about the importance of virtue, along
with human strengths, as people move toward the good life. Similarities also can be drawn
among the different ideologies, especially in the types of human qualities and experiences that
are valued, though there are also differences in terms of which traits are particularly valued.
These cultural differences influence the way in which concepts of positive psychology are seen.
Neither is “better” than the other (West or East). We must use culture as a lens for evaluating
whether a particular characteristic might be considered a strength or a weakness within a
particular group.