NOTES ON

CENOZOIC MAGMATISM IN THE HORN OF

AFRICA

(Geol 502 –Geology and Geologic Resources of Ethiopia)

Gezahegn Yirgu

April 2013

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EAST AFRICAN MAGMATISM
Africa has a unique topographic character dominated by basins and plateaus, which in some cases, most
notably in East Africa, are associated with the development of rift basins. The topography is partly linked to
upwelling in the mantle beneath the lithosphere. Magmatic activity on the African continent was very limited
between 130 and 30 Ma. Cenozoic volcanism on the continent started to become significant in East Africa and
in limited areas in north-central Africa, related to small volumes, dominantly basaltic mostly on volcano-capped
swells (Fig 1A). No volcanism occurs on the cratons.

Figure1. A) Map showing African cratons and zones with presently active volcanism (B & C)
B) The East African Rift System

The East African Rift System (EARS) (Fig 1B) is a more than 3000 km long system of depressions flanked by
broad uplifted plateaus, the Ethiopian and Kenya domes, separated by the low-lying Turkana Depression in
northern Kenya.. A long record of volcanism in EARS provides invaluable constraints on past and present
processes, as well as the various depth levels of magma generation and storage. The magmatic evolution of the
EARS reveals consistent patterns in the distribution, volume, compositions and sources of volcanic products.
The principal rift sectors include the Ethiopian, Eastern and Western rift valleys. The Ethiopian and Kenyan
branches of the rift are the site of substantially greater volcanism than is observed at the Western rift.

Throughout Ethiopia, the Rift defines a single C zone of extension and volcanic activity termed the Main
Ethiopian Rift. South of Turkana, the Rift is manifest in two branches, the Western Rift and Kenya Rift. Here,
the presence of the old, cold and mechanically strong Tanzanian craton diverts rifting to the surrounding mobile
belts. By contrast, the lack of a cratonic core underlying the Ethiopian plateau allows extension to propagate in
a more uniform manner across the plateau. The Ethiopian and Kenya branches of the rift are the site of
substantially greater volcanism than is observed in the Western Rift. The eruptive style, chemistry and volume
of volcanic products exposed along the three rifts vary in an overall coherent fashion, allowing each rift to be
discussed as a tectono-magmatic entity.
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The East African Rift volcanics outcrop from the Afar depression to southern Tanzania, and span pre-rift, syn-
rift and post-rift periods. The earliest recorded volcanic activity in East Africa took place 40-45 Ma in the
southernmost Ethiopia (i.e. northern Turkana depression). The Turkana region has remained volcanically active
since that time. The onset of flood basalt activity in Ethiopia, Eritrea and Yemen occurred in the late Oligocene.
Most of the basalts and associated felsic rocks were emplaced over a period of ~1 million years at ~30 Ma. This
Oligocene flood basalt event is associated with the breakup of the Afro-Arabian shield, forming the Red Sea
~28 Ma.

The earliest extension documented in the East African Rift System occurred in the Turkana area ~25 Ma.
Volcanism and faulting propagated from this region to both the north and south, forming the familiar structures
of the modern rift branches. In southwestern Ethiopia a marked episode of volcanism and extension occurred
18-19 Ma, and reached the central and northern portions of the Main Ethiopian Rift as the Afar triple junction
developed ~11 Ma. At the same time, magmatism and faulting moved progressively southward in both the
Kenya and Western Rifts, reaching central Tanzania by roughly 1 Ma.

Figure 2A. Distribution of volcanism in the Western Rift:

1) Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic areas; 2) Major
faults; 3)
Figure 2 B. Distribution of volcaism in Eastern
Africa; Major faults and Tertiary and Quaternary
volcanic areas are indicated

Volcanism along the length of the Western rift (Fig 2A) is sporadic and limited in extent and volume and
appears to be associated with accommodation zones between adjacent rift basins. In this rift eruptive activity is
restricted to four spatially distinct provinces along the rift axis. From north to south these are: the Toro-Ankole
region in western Uganda, the Virunga and Kivu provinces along the border of the Democratic Republic of
Congo with Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi, and the Rungwe volcanic field in southwestern Tanzania. These
areas are characterized generally by silica-undersaturated mafic volcanism, the products of which include
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ultrapotassic, hypersodic and carbonatitic compositions. The magmatic provinces of the Western Rift are
confined to accommodation zones formed by major basin-bounding faults.

The Kenya rift (Figs. 2B, 3) is associated with large volumes (>10 5 km3) of basaltic magma and evolved
derivatives that have erupted throughout the Neogene. The northern Kenya Rift comprises the Turkana, Huri
Hills and Marsabit regions as well as the Quaternary central volcanic complexes of Emuruangogolak,
Namurunu, Silali, Paka and Korosi. Mafic lavas from these volcanoes are transitional-tholeiitic basalts; the
corresponding felsic lavas are dominantly trachytic in composition.

Volcanic complexes in central and southern Kenya (Fig 3) include the within-rift centers Menengai, Eburru,
Naivasha, Longonot, Suswa and Lenderut as well as the off-rift volcanic field at Chyulu Hills. The rift axis
volcanoes are dominantly trachytic to pantelleritic with little to no exposure of associated basalts. Where
present, the basalts are dominantly transitional tholeiitic, although the Chyulu Hills lavas are markedly silica-
undersaturated and have high concentrations of P2O5. In addition to the differences in volumes of basaltic
volcanism in the two rifts, there are clear compositional differences between the volcanic products of the
Western and Kenya rifts.

Figure 3. The Pliocene-Quaternary volcanoes of the Kenya rift axis, and the Miocene alkaline centres of eastern Uganda.
Major boundary faults of the rift are also shown.

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THE ETHIOPIAN VOLCANIC PROVINCE

Ethiopia forms part of a high relief region of the Earth termed the Arabo-Ethiopian swell. The large-scale
physiography of Ethiopia may be classified into: the Northwestern Plateau, the Southeastern Plateau, the
Southwestern Plateau, the Ethiopian Rift Valley, the Afar Depression, the Somali (Ogaden) Lowlands and the
Western Lowlands. The average altitude of the plateaus on both sides of the rift is about 2500 m. Among the
lowland regions, the rift zone (Ethiopian Rift Valley and Afar Depression) constitutes the most important unit. The
Afar Depression opens in a funnel-like fashion as a northward continuation of the main Ethiopian rift valley.

In Ethiopia, Early Cenozoic volcanic rocks cover ~32% of the total surface area of the country while Late
Cenozoic volcanic rocks cover about ~12% (Figure 4). Cenozoic magmatism has built a thick succession of
volcanic rocks, typically 500-1500m thick over an area about 1,000 km wide presently comprising the
Northwestern, Southeastern and Southwestern uplifted plateaus and the Ethiopian and Afar rifts.

Figure 4. Distribution of Cenozoic volcanism the northern region of Ethiopia and Yemen

The Ethiopian Plateau flood volcanics (Traps)

Fissural basaltic lavas dominate the succession on the plateau areas but felsic volcanics are also present in
considerable amounts. Superimposed on the fissure-fed lavas locally thick sequences of basalt flows have been
outpoured, during mid-Miocene, from low-angled shield volcanoes that have built prominent land features such
as the Simien, Choke-Mengistu, Guguftu, and Meghezez massifs. Basalt eruptions of minor volume have also
occurred on the plateau areas during Quaternary time, best exemplified by the Lake Tana fissure basalt field.

Distribution and dimension

The traps in Ethiopia presently cover an area of about 600,000 km2 (Figs.4 and 5), forming the high plateaus and
resting either on flat-lying Mesozic sedimentary rocks or on Precambrian basement. The Traps in Yemen are
similar and synchronous with the Ethiopian Northern Traps. The Southern Ethiopian traps are older and
possibly not synchronous with the Northern Traps.

The northwestern Ethiopian traps (Fig. 5) consist of a series of Oligo-Miocene fissure-fed basalts and
subordinate felsic rocks (ash and coarse fragmental materials) that are capped by Miocene shield volcanoes. The
felsic rocks are interbedded with the flood basalts, particularly at upper stratigraphic levels, and consist of
sequences of rhyolitic and trachytic lavas and pyroclastic rocks. In southwestern Ethiopia extensive basaltic
extrusion occurred at the beginning of Tertiary. The basalt extrusions were interspersed with large accumulations of

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rhyolite and trachyte, breccias, ignimbrite and related shallow intrusions. In the central and southeastern plateau
margins these rocks are mainly basalt, trachyte, ignimbrite, rhyolite, ash and pyroclastic deposits.

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Figure5. Simplified geologic maps of the western and northwestern Ethiopian plateau (upper), the Wegel Tena and Lima
Limo sections and (middle) and southwestern Ethiopian plateau (Jima area) (lower). Inset map: Ethiopian igneous
province and Afar triple junction (dashed line-extent of Ethiopian dome).

The surface area prior to erosion for the combined Ethiopian and Yemen traps has been estimated as 800,000
km2 . Thickness of the traps is highly variable but most exposed sections are between 1 and 2 km thick. The total
volume has been estimated to be at least 1.2x106 km3. It is estimated that 1x 105 km3 of rocks were removed by
erosion from the northwestern part of the Ethiopian plateau.

Timing and stratigraphy

Earliest volcanic activity is represented by a sequence of basalts in southern Ethiopia that erupted during the
Eocene, between 35 and 45 ma ago. These were followed by the eruption of the Ethiopian-Yemeni flood
basalts, or traps, between 31 and 29 Ma ago that covered a large area of present day Ethiopia, Eritrea and the
southern Arabian peninsula with outliers occurring west and north into Sudan and east to the Somali border.
Timing of volcanism in northwestern Ethiopia and Yemen is now well established by combined geochronologic
(40Ar/39Ar) and magnetostratigraphic methods. These methods have given consistent ages that cluster around 30
Ma for the onset of voluminous volcanism. Eruptions occurred in two pulses, beginning shortly before 30 Ma in
reversed chron C11r and ending before 29 Ma in reversed chron C10r. The duration has also been measured to
be between 0.6 and 1 M yr.

Present day volumes exceed 250,000 km3 and estimates of the original volume are as high as 1x106 km3. The
volume of volcanics emplaced during the geologically short interval of time leads to an average magma
eruption rate of 1.6 km3 per year is obtained. This flux has the required order of magnitude for a major climatic
impact. Associated acidic products, which amount up to 20% of the total volume of trap volcanics, are efficient
means of greatly enhancing the climatic impact. In fact the emplacement of the Ethiopian traps (30 Ma)
coincides in time with a change to a colder and drier global climate, a major continental ice-sheet advance in
Antarctica, the largest Tertiary sea-level drop and significant extinctions.

Subdivisions of the volcanic pile

Plateau basaltic formation (Ashange and Aiba basalt formations)

In the northwestern Traps, the volcanic pile consists of a basaltic succession overlain by a major rhyolitic
formation. The basaltic pile is made up of a lower sequence (commonly known as Ashange basalts)
characterized by thin lava flows, (< 10 m) forming relatively smooth or less steep topography. An upper basaltic
sequence (commonly referred to as Aiba basalts) is composed of thicker flows (10-50 m) that characteristically
form steep cliffs. These are in turn overlain by the Alaji formation, which is a thick series of volcanics of acidic
composition. There is now convincing observational field evidence for minor folding and faulting within the
flood basaltic pile (the basalt pile beneath the Alaji in the Korem-Sekota-Lalibela region (north of the Woldia-
Woreta road) and east of upper Tekezze river suggesting that deformation of the flood basalts occurred during
their emplacement.

Plateau silicic formation (Alaji Rhyolite Formation)

Basalts and ignimbrites form typical plateau topography, which is often extensively eroded and dissected by
deep gorges. The minimum volume estimated for the silicic volcanics of the northwestern plateau is in the order
of 60,000 km3 (20% of the total flood volcanics). The thickness of the plateau ignimbrites is extremely variable,
ranging from 500 m in the north (Wegel Tena area), to ~700 m in the southwest (Jima area), and to as low as 30
m in the Debre Birhan area (central plateau), close to the rift margin. Individual flow units vary in thickness

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from ~3 m to 15 m. Several north-south trending microgranitic dykes crop out in the plateau, especially in the
Woldia area.

Three regionally distinct Oligocene rhyolite units are recognized: (1) the Lima Limo rhyolites in the northwest
plateau forming several beds capping low-Ti basalt floods, (2) the Wegel Tena rhyolites in the east
corresponding to very thick ignimbrites overlaying high-Ti flood basalts, and (3) the Jima rhyolites located in
the southwestern plateau overlaying high-Ti flood basalts. Miocene rhyolites are situated in the Molale-Debre
Birhan area close to the rift margin and overlay Miocene low-Ti flood basalts.

Shield Volcanics (Termaber Formation)

Shield volcanoes are a conspicuous feature of the Ethiopian plateau, and distinguish this plateau from other
well-known examples such as the Deccan and Karoo. The basal diameters of the shields range from 50 to 100
km and the highest point in Ethiopia, the 4533 m high peak of Ras Dashan, is the present summit of the eroded
Simien shield. This peak extends almost 2000m above the top of the flood basalts, which lies at about 2700m in
the northern part of the plateau. If an additional 500 m is added to allow for eroded material, a total height of
about 3 km is estimated for this volcano. Although smaller in diameter, the summits of many of the other shield
volcanoes also exceed 4000m. Mt Choke has a basal diameter of over 100 km and it rises to 4052 m, some 1200
m above the surrounding flood volcanics.

The flank of the Simien volcano has been reliably dated at 30.4 ± 0.3. Other shields, in contrast, are
significantly younger. Choke and Uorra shield volcanoes erupted around 22 Ma ago. Shield volcanoes farther to
the south have ages between 20 and 13 Ma. Lava flows of the shield volcanoes are thinner and less continuous
than the flood basalts. They also are more porphyritic, containing abundant and often large phenocrysts of
plagioclase and olivine. Like the flood volcanics, the shield volcanoes are bimodal and contain sequences of
alternating basalts, rhyolitic and trachytic lava flows, tuffs and ignimbrites, particularly near their summits. The
compositions of the mafic members of some of the younger volcanoes (e.g. Mt Guna) are more variable and
include nephelinites, phonolites and lavas with intermediate compositions.

The mafic volcanism that led to the construction of the basaltic plateaux was characterized by a "gradational
mode of eruptive style from platform building fissure eruptions towards rare shield-building eruptions".
Associated with this change was a transition from a tholeiitic character in the flood basalts to moderately of
highly alkaline character in the shield volcanics.

Quaternary Plateau Basalts

This group of volcanics comprises all Quaternary alkaline basalts and trachytes emplaced on the northwestern
and southeastern plateaus. Although not dated, their relatively uneroded geomorphological features such as the
prominent cinder cones and small collapse craters indicate their recent age. Alkaline basalts and trachytic lavas
prevail in the region south of Lake Tana while young trachyte and basalt flows are present on the Batu and
Sanete mountains in Bale region. The other younger analogous unit is the relatively fresh Tepi Basalts,
produced by central type eruption in southwestern Ethiopia with a Holocene age. Field evidence suggests a
Pleistocene age to most of these rocks. The basalt flows are characteristically alkaline and represent the final
pulse of basaltic volcanism on the Ethiopian plateau.

Genesis and evolution

The southwest Ethiopian magmatic sub-province is characterized by episodic volcanism that becomes
increasingly silica-undersaturated through time, ranging from essentially tholeiitic compositions 40-35 Ma to

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nepheline-normative basalts since ~19 Ma. These features are similar to those displayed by contemporaneous
lavas from the Turkana region in northern Kenya, which is located immediately to the south.

Systematic study of the basaltic volcanic products in northwestern Ethiopia has revealed a remarkable
petrological homogeneity over wide areas and sections. The mineralogical and chemical compositions of the
plateau basalts are relatively uniform. The majority is aphyric to sparsely phyric, containing phenocrysts of
plagioclase and clinopyroxene with or without olivine. A lower sequence of basalts (Ashange) represents most
primary compositions (MgO 5-9%) while an upper sequence (Aiba) evidences a history of more differentiation
(MgO 2-6%). Most of the flood basalts are classed as tholeiitic to transitional.

The basaltic rocks of the northwestern plateau have been divided into several types on the basis of their major
and trace element and isotopic compositions. Two major types of magma characterized by Low and High
Titanium contents have been identified in these traps. The Low-Ti magma group (LT) is found in the north-
western half of the sub-province while the High-Ti magma group (HT) which includes picritic and ankaramitic
compositions, in addition to basalts, is restricted to the south-eastern half. However, the distribution of the low-
and high-Ti rocks is more complicated. The two major magma types have been related to spatial control of
mantle sources. Distinctive petrological features of the Ethiopian plateau are the transitional tholeiitic to
alkaline magmatic character of the mafic lavas, in contrast with the tholeiitic character of most continental flood
basalts, and the high proportion of felsic pyroclastic rocks.

The geochemical signatures of these basalts, as shown by trace elements and radiogenic isotopes (Sr, Nd and
Pb) (Fig. 6), indicate the involvement of deep mantle plume in their genesis. High-Ti (HT) basalts were derived
from a mantle component corresponding to the Afar mantle plume while the Low-Ti basalts (LT) resulted from
the melting of a more depleted mantle component. Multi-stage contamination processes (AFC) involving both
the lower and upper crust occurred during the differentiation of these lavas. Confirmation for lower mantle
origin of High-Ti (HT) basalts has been provided particularly by Helium isotopic data which is an excellent
tracer of plumes originating from the lower mantle: 3He/4He ratios up to 19.6 times atmospheric have been
obtained. This value (R/Ra~ 19.6) is considerably greater than the value of 8, which is typical of most MORB.
The high eruption and source temperatures and melting depths of the HT2 magmas suggest that these are the
earliest unambiguous manifestations of the Afar mantle plume. The large volumes associated with the Afar and
Ethiopian rift, further implies that mantle plumes have existed beneath this region for tens of millions of years.

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Figure 6. Sr versus Nd isotope compositions for Ethiopian volcanic rocks.

Regarding the genesis of the Alaji rhyolites, trace element and isotopic data (Figs. 7 &8) indicate that they are
genetically linked to the associated trap basalts through fractional crystallization processes combined with
small amounts of crustal contamination (AFC).

Figure 7. Chondrite-normalised REE patterns for Ethiopian plateau rhyolites. Ranges of REE patterns for the associated
basalts (grey field) are shown for comparison.

Figure 8. Trace element modeling comparing whole-rock data with Partial Melting (PM) and Fractional Crystallization
(FC) trends in a Rb-Sr plot. (solid lines fractional crystallization trends, dashed lines batch melting trends for two
assumed Sr bulk partition coefficients, numbered tickmarks residual (FC) or partial (PM) melt fraction). The starting melt
composition is high-Ti basalt.

RIFT VOLCANICS (Afar and Ethiopian Rifts)

The Ethiopian Rift system is divided into three parts: the Afar Depression, the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER) and
Southern Ethiopia Rift. The Afar and the Ethiopian rifts have been the site of volcanism since early Miocene
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with fissural and central style of eruptions. The dominant part of the rift volcanics is Plio-Quaternary in age,
older volcanics only limited to the rift margins. In Afar, basaltic lavas predominate over intermediate and acid
products, while a number of intrusive granites have also been emplaced during the early evolution of the rift. In
the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER), basic products are subordinate to evolved lavas and pyroclastics, which are
dominated by massive eruptions of silicic ignimbrites from caldera volcanoes.

Afar rift volcanism

Distribution, stratigraphy and timing

Afar rift is nearly entirely constructed from volcanic rocks, principally basaltic but with important quantities of
acid and intermediate rocks (Fig. 9). More recent volcanic products have covered the older phases of magmatic
activity, which could only be deduced from exposures of the rift escarpment. The stratigraphy and age of these
sequences vary from one sector to another. Different researchers in different areas have used different
formational names. It is not, therefore simple to adopt and use a unique stratigraphic scheme.

Available information shows that volcanic activity in the region has been continuous from Early Oligocene to
present time. The initiation of rift volcanism in Afar is attributed to Lower Miocene and is marked by
emplacement of transitional basalts and peralkaline granites and rhyolites. Starting from about 15-14 Ma,
volcanism was progressively confined to the rift zone, which comprises the marginal areas where the oldest rift-
related products are found. Rhyolites associated with minor quantities of basalt (14-10 Ma) are exposed along
the margins of Afar and the northern Main Ethiopian rift (MER). These rhyolites are more commonly referred
to as Mabla Rhyolites. Equivalent names include Arba Guracha Rhyolites, Fursa Rhyolites and the Main Silicic
Formation. These rhyolites unconformably cover the Trap Series volcanics.

Figure 9 Simplified geological map of the Afar rift showing the various volcanic formations and distribution of
Quaternary magmatic segments. EA = Erta’Ale, TA = Tat’Ale, AL = Alayta, MH = Manda-Hararo. DMS = the Dabbahu
Magmatic Segment; TGD = Tendaho Gobaad Discontinuity (thick dashed line) and MER = Main Ethiopian Rift.

Starting from about 10 Ma, an important volcanic episode gave rise to different products in Afar and in the
Ethiopian rift. In Afar basalts (with minor quantities of rhyolites) were emplaced over a large area presently
exposed on the rift floor adjacent to the margins. These basalts are known as Dalha Series. In the MER, on the

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other hand, a thick sequence of felsic volcanics termed Nazret Group or Balchi Rhyolites were emitted. These
volcanics are not well developed north of the Afdem-Meteka line. This line may be considered as the structural
separation between the rift segments of Afar and MER. In Afar, north of this line, basaltic volcanism was
intense in the interval between 8 and 6 Ma, while in the MER, felsic volcanism continued until about 4 Ma.
During the interval between 6.5 and 4.5 Ma, huge central and felsic volcanoes developed at the margin of the
southeastern plateau. These volcanoes include Afdem, Assebot, Mieso, Woldoy and Barat.

Volcanic formations, which actually constitute a greater part of the Afar rift floor and northern MER started to
form about 5-4 Ma. In Afar, a thick sequence of Pliocene basaltic volcanism associated with minor amounts of
felsic products is referred to as the Afar Stratoid Series (ASS), while in the MER felsic volcanism prevails
together with minor extrusions of basaltic lava (Figure 9).

During Pleistocene and Holocene, a unique geological structure developed in Afar and MER. Volcanic activity
started to concentrate in a narrow axial belt, which extends from central Afar through southern Afar to the MER
Since about 1Ma, volcanism in Afar has focused into discrete magmatic segments known as axial and
transversal volcanic ranges (interpreted as proto-oceanic plate boundaries) In northern and central Afar,
dominantly fissural basaltic volcanism, formed the Erta Ale and Tat Ali (which occupy the floor of the Afar
depression) Manda Hararo, Manda Inakir and Asal (in Djibouti) axial ranges. In southern Afar activity started
with fissural basaltic volcanism and evolved to form the central volcanoes of Dama’Ale, Gabilema, Yangudi,
Abida (Amoissa) and Ayelu.

Documented historical eruptions in Afar include: Dubbi volcano, May 1861, Erta Ale lava lake overspill, 1968-
1974 and Ardoukoba fissure eruption, November 1978. In September 2005 a seismotectonic event started on the
Dabbahu-Manda Hararo (DMH) rift zone in west-central Afar partly manifested by volcanic eruptions. Between
2005 and 2010, six eruptions occurred in different locations: a small rhyolitic eruption (2005) at Da’Ure locality
and three dyke-fed basaltic fissure eruptions (2007, 2009 and 2010) have occurred at Karbahi locality on the
DMH magmatic rift segment. Further eruptions took place in 2008 at Alu-Dallafila, part of the Erta Ale
volcanic range in northern Afar, and also in 2011 at Nabro volcano in the Nabro Volcanic Range in eastern
Afar. With the exception of the Nabro, all the eruptions occurred along the on-land extension of the Red Sea rift
system, which marks the axis of extension between Africa and Arabia.

Erta Ale ("smoking mountain" in the local Afar language) is one of the few volcanoes on the world that has an
almost persistent lava lake. It is an isolated basaltic shield volcano, 50 km wide, rising more than 600 m from
below sea level in the barren Danakil depression. The volcano contains an elliptical summit crater measuring
0.7 x 1.6 km with several steep-sided pit craters, one of them containing a lava lake. Another larger 1.8 x 3.1
km wide depression (caldera), elongated parallel to the trend of the Erta Ale range is located to the SE of the
summit and is bounded by curvilinear fault scarps on the SE side. Fresh-looking basaltic lava flows from these
fissures have poured into the caldera and locally overflowed its rim. The summit caldera is renowned for one, or
sometimes two long-term lava lakes that have been active since the early years of the twentieth century, making
it the oldest lava lake on the planet. Recent fissure eruptions have occurred on the northern flank of Erta Ale.

Erta Ale's last major eruption was in November 2008. During the nights of the 21st-22nd, and during the day of
22nd November, scientists observed overspill flows roughly every two hours. By Feb 2010 the level of the lava
lake in the southern pit had risen, filled and begun to overspill. By Nov 2010, the southern sink had filled to the
level of the western rim and begun to overspill into the main crater, suggesting that the activity has been
ongoing since Feb 2010.

Genesis and evolution

A large number of available major, trace element and radiogenic isotope data from Afar (Figs. 10, 11 & 12)
show that basalts comprising the thick pile of the Afar Stratoid Series are transitional to tholeiitic while Axial
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range volcanics are essentially transitional basalts, with the occurrence of low-K varieties approaching Mid-
Ocean Ridge Basalts (MORB) composition in few cases. In most of the volcanic units fractionation occurred
towards Fe-Ti rich intermediate rocks and more rarely to rhyolitic final products. Basalts from the Axial ranges
exhibit trace element characteristics comparable to depleted MORB. The most recent Afar lavas are
characterised by 3He/4He ratios up to 17 times atmospheric (R/Ra 17), and in that respect have much in common
with plume-related OIB.

Figure 10. Total-Alkali vs. Silica (TAS) plot for lavas erupted across Afar. In general there is a strong bimodal basalt-
rhyolite character to lava compositions; however lava with intermediate compositions are found at several volcanoes
located along both axial rift zones (i.e. Dabbahu) and at transverse zones (i.e. Assab).

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Figure 11. Selected major element versus SiO 2 Harker diagrams for Afar volcanic (Dabbahu, Manda Hararo and other
axial rift basalts.

Various models of mantle evolution have been proposed to account for the available isotopic data of volcanic
rocks and spinel lherzolite nodules from the Afar area. The results suggest that melting of a heterogeneous
mantle was involved during the rifting process, with sub-continental mantle lithosphere sources tapped before,
and depleted asthenospheric sources after the formation of the Afar rift. Afar magmas thus resulted from mixing
between three mantle reservoirs: an isotopically distinct Afar plume component, the lithospheric and
asthenospheric mantles. Isotopic data show the absence of signature from continental crust material.

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Figure 12. Sr---Nd isotope variations in the Afar and surrounding region indicating the possible temporal evolution of the
Afar plume. Dotted arrow shows the changing plume composition from the Oligocene (OHT) to the present (Djibouti and
Erta Ale). Stars labeled 1 and 2 indicate plume compositions: plume 1 corresponds to the modern Afar plume and plume 2
the Kenya plume that produced the southern Ethiopian and Turkana basalts.

With time, the influence of the lithosphere diminished as it was thinned consequent to continental break-up as
Arabia drifted slowly away from Africa, and the influence of the underlying Afar mantle plume increased. The
genesis of silicic and intermediate volcanic rocks found in Afar is best explained in terms of fractional
crystallization of associated basaltic magmas at variable crustal depths (Fig. 13).

Figure 13. Schematic presentation of the magma plumbing system beneath Dabbahu silicic volcano. Not to scale.
The Main Ethiopian Rift (MER)

The Ethiopian rift is the northern segment of the East African Rift system separating the South-eastern and Western
Ethiopian plateaus . It extends from Lake Abbe triple junction in the Afar, south-southwest to the Lake Turkana
region. It is a large graben, about 800 km long and up to 60-80 km wide, having a mean elevation of about 1600 m.

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The borders of the rift form flat shoulders about 2200 m high, on which volcanic centres such as Chike, Chilalo and
Kaka (which attain altitudes up to 4200 m) have been built.

Volcanic Stratigraphy and timing

In the Ethiopian rift, volcanic rocks cover a large area and have considerable thicknesses (Figs. 14 and 15). The
volcanics consist essentially of rhyolitic and trachytic ignimbrites and pumice and ash deposits with minor lava
flows. These are associated with volumetrically subordinate basaltic flows and recent scoria and cinder cones.
Rocks of intermediate composition are rare, giving the rift magmatism a bimodal character. The youngest acidic
products appear to be associated with large central volcanoes having large summit calderas, such as Fantale,
Kone, Gedemsa, Shalla, Corbetti and Bede Gebabe while recent basalts are erupted from within-rift fissures
adjacent to and distal from these central volcanoes.

Early phases of volcanic and tectonic activity in the Ethiopian Rift are not well known, all evidence being covered
underneath Pliocene-Quaternary volcanic and sedimentary products. From studies on volcanic rocks at the rift
margins, presumably related to the initiation of the rift, it has been proposed that rifting started 14-13 Ma in the
central sector and 11 Ma in the northern part. Other investigators have put forward evidence that initiation of rifting
probably dates back to early Miocene (~25 m.y.), contemporaneous with initiation of rifting in northern Afar.

Figure 14 A&B. Distribution of Pliocene-Pleistocene felsic centers in the central and northern MER and southern Afar.

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Figure 14C. Simplified geology of the broadly rifted zone of southwestern Ethiopia.

Figure 15 . Geological cross-sections across the different segments of the MER.

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In the Main Ethiopian Rift there are evidences of historical fissural and central volcanic activity. The most recent
instance of fissural activity dates from the early 1900’s in the area. The lava flows of the southwestern flanks of
Fantale volcano are thought to be about 150 years old. Scoriaceous basalt flows emitted from these fissures reached
the shore of lake Beseka.

The stratigraphy and age of the rift volcanic sequences vary from one sector to another. Different researchers in
different areas have used different formational names. It is not, therefore simple to adopt and use a unique
stratigraphic scheme. Here is presented a commonly-used informal subdivision on the basis of stratigraphic
relationships and radiometric ages.

1.Nazret Series

The name Nazret Series was given to a thick succession of welded ignimbrites with, pumice, ash and rhyolite
flows and domes with rare intercalations of basalts flows which occur in the MER, rift margins and adjacent
plateaus. In the rift proper the Nazret series attains a thickness of up to 200 to 250m and tends to thin out on the
escarpments. Ignimbrites of the Nazret Series are considered to be products of eruptions mainly from marginal
centers in the rift. In composition the ignibrites are sub- alkaline rhyolites and trachytes with rare peralkaline
varieties. An age rang of 9 to 3 Ma has been given to the Nazret Series.

2. Chilalo Formation

A group of Early Pliocene complex felsic volcanoes, which developed on both sides of the rift shoulders and
margins of MER, were named as the Chilalo Formation. This formation is dominated by trachytic central
volcano complexes and comprises Chilalo, Badda, Kaka,Enqoulo on the eastern margin of MER, and Gara
Gumbi, Asebot, Afdem, Borate, Gara Adi and other smaller centers along the eastern rift margin of MER and
southern margins of the Afar rift. Along the western rift margin the central volcanoes Wechecha, Yerer, Furi,
Gash Megel and their satellites centers represent the latest pulse of such volcanism and are sometimes referred
as Wachacha Formation. Lava flows of these central volcanoes interfinger with the upper part of the Nazret
Series. K/Ar ages on most of these volcanoes range from 8 to 4 Ma.

3. Bofa Basalts

Late Pliocene (4 to 1.6 Ma) flood basalt volcanism is widespread in the MER. The name Bofa Basalts was
coined to all Pliocene rift floor Basalts. The Bofa Basalts are well developed in the northern and centeral part of
the MER forming a wedge between the Nazret Series and Dino Formation and a lower age limit of 3.5Ma has
been reported. The Bofa Basalt are flood basalts mostly aphyric, locally vesicular and fresh with several flows
separated by scoracious horizons. In most outcrops the Bofa Basalts have a thickness of about 80m, however,
deep drilling for geothermal steam at the Aluto-Langeno Geothermal prospect has shown that the Bofa Basalts
or a contemporaneous basaltic unit attains a thickness in excess of 500m in many of the wells. This attests for
the presence of an important Pliocene flood basalt volcanism in the MER, which is concealed by the Quaternary
pyroclastic volcanic products and rift sediments.

Pliocene basalts in the Turkana Rift are named as the Mursi Basalts and have a K/Ar age of 4.2 Ma. The Mursi
Basalts consist of a relatively few, thin, columnar flows of basalt and in most sections have a total thickness of
less than 100m.

4. Bishoftu Basalts

Pliocene-Pleistocene basalt flows associated with numerous well-preserved scoria cones found on the western
margin of MER in the Bishoftu (Debre Zeit) area, southeast of Addis Ababa are given the name Bishoftu
Basalts. They have a lower age limit of 2 to 2.8 Ma.
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5. Dino Formation

The Dino formation consists of green to gray ignimbrites and associated unwelded pyroclastic deposits with
occasional intercalated lacustrine beds and aphyric basalts. These volcanic units in most places overlie the Bofa
Basalts and the Nazret Series iginimbrites and attain an overall maximum thickness of 50m. At the Awash River
gorge (within the National Park) the ignimbrites of the Dino Formation were dated to be 1.5 Ma old. It has been
suggested that the pyroclastics of the formation have sources from partly eroded volcanoes found within the rift
floor, such as the Tinish Fantale. Some of these silicic centers were active since 1.6 Ma. It is also probable that
part of the ignimbrites of the Dino Formation were erupted from the earlier activities of the axial silicic centers
of the Wonji Fault Belt.

6. Wonji Group Silicics

The Quaternary central volcanic complexes, which are situated along the axial zones of the MER (Wonji Fault
Belt) and in southern Afar, have produced peralkaline lavas and pyroclastics. On most of these volcanoes,
recent activity is marked by obsidian flows, pumice deposits, ignimbrite, tuff and ash deposits. Associated with
these are scoriaceous basalt eruptions emanated from fractures and faults, which frequently cut across the
volcanoes themselves. The products of the volcanoes range from trachytes to peralkaline rhyolites (pantellerites
and commendites). A K/Ar age of 1.6 Ma has been obtained from Boset volcano.

7. Wonji Group Basalts

This unit includes all Pleistocene to Holocene fissural basalt volcanism in the MER, mainly concentrated along
the Wonji Fault Belt. The basalts generally display fresh flow morphologies and include lava flows, scoria
cones and basaltic hyaloclastites. The eruptions are clearly controlled by extensional tectonic features as
manifested by chains of scoria cones aligned along fractures. Hyaloclastites, phreatic and phreatomagmatic
explosion craters are common in many of these areas. Most of the basalts of this unit are transitional-tholeiitic
in nature. Other basalt flows show moderately alkaline tendencies and in some localities contain ultramafic
xenoliths.

Genesis and evolution

The volcanism directly connected with the main phases of rift opening in he MER is represented by a bimodal
distribution of large amounts of peralkaline rhyolites (which make up >75% of the eruptives) and minor basaltic
products with transitional petrochemical affinity. Volcanic products of Intermediate composition are very
limited. Some Plio-Quaternary trachytic and phonolitic volcanoes (Yerer, Ziquala, Chilalo) occur along the
borders of the rift. The TAS diagram in Figure 16 illustrates the dominance of basaltic rocks and felsic products
in the rift.

Investigations of the mantle source regions by combined trace element and isotopic data (Figs.17, 18, 19) for
rift floor basalts have documented the involvement of at least three components: depleted mantle ( MORB),
lithospheric mantle, and a deep mantle plume. With the progression of rifting with time, depleted asthenospheric
mantle became an important component, initially as an end member in mantle mixing, and eventually as the
dominant mantle reservoir in more attenuated areas and led to a more tholeiitic transitional basalt. The opening
of the Ethiopian rift is related to the uprise of the Kenya and Afar plumes that respectively generated the
magmatism at different times in the southern Ethiopian rift and in the MER-Afar area.

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Figure 16. Alkali versus. Silica classification diagram for volcanic rocks from the northern sector of the main Ethiopian
rift. The dashed line is the divide between the subalkaline and the alkaline field

Huge volumes of silicic extrusive rocks (usually ignimbrites) are prominent in the Ethiopian rift. The origin of
silicic rocks in the Ethiopian rift is attributed to fractional crystallization of basaltic magmas within shallow
crustal reservoirs and with limited crustal contamination (Figs. 18, 19, 20). Recently, a two stage model
involving small degrees of partial melting of a basaltic lower crust (underplated basalts) to produce the least
differentiated silicic magmas which in turn undergo moderate degrees of fractional crystallization to generate
the most evolved silicic rocks has been proposed for the genesis of the Asela-Ziway pantellerites in the MER
but has subsequently been criticized.

Figure 17. Inter-element variation diagrams for volcanic rocks from the northern sector of the main Ethiopian rift.

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Figure 18. Zr vs. V variation diagram for volcanic rocks from the northern sector of the main Ethiopian rift. Batch
melting and fractional crystallization models starting from different parental compositions are shown. Note that
fractional crystallization, and not batch melting, of mafic rocks is capable to produce magmas with strong depletion in
compatible elements (V, Ni, Cr, Sr, etc.).

Figure 19. Ba/Rb vs. Rb/Nb diagram for the basaltic rocks (MgO > 5 wt%) from the main Ethiopian rift. The thick line is
a bulk assimilation trend of average Precambrian basement by basaltic magma.

Figure 20. Schematic cross-section showing a possible model for the distribution of magma chambers along the northern
sector of the main Ethiopian rift; schematic representation of the magmatic plumbing system beneath the Wonji Fault Belt
and Debre Zeyt–Butajira volcanic chains.

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