Republic of the Philippines

DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY

Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Department of Civil Engineering

A. Course Code / Title : PTE 413 – Principles of Transportation Engineering

B. Module Number : Module 1 – Introduction to Transportation Planning & Engineering

C. Time Frame : Week 1-2

D. Description : This module describes the importance of Transportation

Engineering to the Civil Engineering profession

E. Objectives : At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:
1. Have an overview of the scope of Transportation Engineering
2. Understand and appreciate the importance and development
of Transportation.
3. Learn about the modes of transport and the factors affecting
its developments.

F. Contents:

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

What Is Transportation?
• Transportation is all about moving goods and people from one place to another. It is also Safe,
efficient, reliable, and sustainable movement of persons and goods over time and space

What Is Transportation Engineering?

• Transportation engineering is a type of civil engineering which focuses on the infrastructure of
transportation: all the elements which support the movement of goods and people. Transportation
engineers design runways, build bridges, layout roads and plan docking facilities. They look at
traffic patterns, determine when new transport facilities are needed and come up with better ways
to get from point A to point B. Also, Application of technology and scientific principles to the
planning, functional design, operation, and management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and
environmentally compatible movement of people and goods

1
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

The characteristics of transportation system that makes it diverse and complex are listed below:

1. Multi-modal: Covering all modes of transport; air, land, and sea for both passenger and freight.
2. Multi-sector: Encompassing the problems and viewpoints of government, private industry,
and public.
3. Multi-problem: Ranging across a spectrum of issues that includes national and international
policy, planning of regional system, the location and design of specific facilities, carrier
management issues, regulatory, institutional and financial policies
4. Multi-objective: Aiming at national and regional economic development, urban development,
environment quality, and social quality, as well as service to users and financial and
economic feasibility.
5. Multi-disciplinary: Drawing on the theories and methods of engineering, economics,
operations research, political science, psychology, other natural, and social sciences,
management and law.

The context in which transportation system is studied is also very diverse and are mentioned
below:
1. Planning range: Urban transportation planning, producing long range plans for 5-25 years for
multimodal transportation systems in urban areas as well as short range programs of action
for less than five years.
2. Passenger transport: Regional passenger transportation, dealing with inter-city passenger
transport by air, rail, and highway and possible with new modes.
3. Freight transport: Routing and management, choice of different modes of rail and truck.
4. International transport: Issues such as containerization, inter-modal co-ordination. Therefore,
as we understand from above Transportation engineering is a very diverse and multidisciplinary
field, which deals with the planning, design, operation, and maintenance of transportation
systems. Good transportation is that which provides safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible movement of both goods and people.
This profession carries a distinct societal responsibility. Transportation planners and engineers
recognize the fact that transportation systems constitute a potent force in shaping the course of
regional development. Planning and development of transportation facilities generally raises living
standards and enhances the aggregate of community values.

Generally, a transportation system has three elements this are:

• Infrastructure: which includes Road, canal, rail, air Transfer points Supporting elements
• (Signs, signals, safety)
• Vehicles: which includes Planes, trains, autos, buses, ships, trucks
• Operators/Content: which includes Drivers, pilots, freight, passengers

2
MAJOR DISCIPLINES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Transportation engineering can be broadly consisting of the four major parts:

1. Transportation Planning
2. Geometric Design
3. Pavement Design
4. Traffic Engineering

Transportation Planning
Transportation planning essentially involves the development of a transport model which will
accurately represent both the current as well as future transportation system.

Geometric Design
Geometric design deals with physical proportioning of other transportation facilities, in contrast
with the structural design of the facilities. The topics include the cross-sectional features,
horizontal alignment, vertical alignment and intersections. Although there are several modes of
travel like road, rail, air, etc. the underlying principles are common to a great extent. Therefore,
emphasis will be normally given for the geometric design of roads.

Pavement Analysis and Design

Pavement design deals with the structural design of roads, both (bituminous and concrete),
commonly known as (flexible pavements and rigid pavements) respectively. It deals with the
design of paving materials, determination of the layer thickness, and construction and
maintenance procedures. The design mainly covers structural aspects, functional aspects,
drainage. Structural design ensures the pavement has enough strength to withstand the impact
of loads, functional design emphasizes on the riding quality, and the drainage design protects the
pavement from damage due to water infiltration.

Traffic Engineering
Traffic engineering covers a broad range of engineering applications with a focus on the safety of
the public, the efficient use of transportation resources, and the mobility of people and goods.
Traffic engineering involves a variety of engineering and management skills, including design,
operation, and system optimization. In order to address the above requirement, the traffic
engineer must first understand the traffic flow behavior and characteristics by extensive collection
of traffic flow data and analysis. Based on this analysis, flow is controlled so that the transport
infrastructure is used optimally as well as with good service quality. In short, the role of traffic
engineer is to protect the environment while providing mobility, to preserve scarce resources while
assuring economic activity, and to assure safety and security to people and vehicles, through both
acceptable practices and high-tech communications.

3
FACTORS IN TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT

Transportation develops because of several and frequently overlapping factors. From the many,
the following are important:

Economic Factors
Almost all transport development is economic in origin. The chief preoccupation of the first
human was the procurement of food, shelter and sometimes clothing. As they become more
highly developed their needs increased, often beyond what their local economy could supply.
Means of transporting goods from distant places had to be devised, adding to the costs of the
goods thereby secured. The need for transporting individuals over wider areas also arose.
Increasing transportation productivity and lower unit costs have occurred over the years as the
system of transportation becomes more highly developed and complex.

Geographical Factor
Geography is closely related to economics. The geographical location of natural resources
determines the transport routes that gives access to those resources and create economic utility,
that is, time and place utility, by taking them from a location where they have little values to
processing and consuming areas where their values is vastly increased.

Political Polices
Political polices frequently play a deciding role in transport development. Basically, is in a way to
form integrated political system and control.

Military
The military might of a nation is primarily intended to support its political polices and to provide
for national defense. Consequently, often it has direct influence on transport development.

Technological Factor
Progress in direct and supporting technologies has played an obvious role in transportation, for
instance introduction of new economical transportation mode to the exist system calls for the
development of transportation

Competition
The competitive urges have given a powerful impetus to transport development. Railroads
compete with railroad also with trucks, barges, pipelines and airlines. Airlines have counted
heavily on speed but have also been forced to greater safety and dependability to meet ground
transport competition. No less real is the competition between products and industries tributary
to transport. Bituminous material competes with concrete as the road surface. Diesel won steam
but may face competition with electricity.

4
Urbanization
The rapid growth of urban areas by an even more rapidly expanding population is a phenomenon
that cannot be overlooked among transport development factors. Accessibility to land and the
intensity of land use is closely related to transport availability.

MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

Transport modes are the means by which people and freight achieve mobility. They fall into one
of three basic types, depending on over what surface they travel – land (road, rail and pipelines),
water (shipping), and air. Each mode is characterized by a set of technical, operational and
commercial characteristics.

Road transportation
Road infrastructures are large consumers of space with the lowest level of physical constraints
among transportation modes. However, physiographical constraints are significant in road
construction with substantial additional costs to overcome features such as rivers or rugged
terrain. Road transportation has an average operational flexibility as vehicles can serve several
purposes but are rarely able to move outside roads. Road transport systems have high
maintenance costs, both for the vehicles and infrastructures. They are mainly linked to light
industries where rapid movements of freight in small batches are the norm. Yet, with
containerization, road transportation has become a crucial link in freight distribution.

Rail transportation
Railways are composed of traced paths on which are bound vehicles. They have an average level
of physical constrains linked to the types of locomotives and a low gradient is required, particularly
for freight. Heavy industries are traditionally linked with rail transport systems, although
containerization has improved the flexibility of rail transportation by linking it with road and
maritime modes. Rail is by far the land transportation mode offering the highest capacity with a
23,000 tons fully loaded coal unit train being the heaviest load ever carried.

Pipelines
Pipeline routes are practically unlimited as they can be laid on land or under water. The longest
gas pipeline links Alberta to Sarnia (Canada), which is 2,911 km in length. The longest oil pipeline
is the Trans-Siberian, extending over 9,344 km from the Russian arctic oilfields in eastern Siberia
to Western Europe. Physical constraints are low and include the landscape and pergelic in arctic
or subarctic environments. Pipeline construction costs vary according to the diameter and
increase proportionally with the distance and with the viscosity of fluids (from gas, low viscosity,
to oil, high viscosity).

Maritime Transportation
Because of the physical properties of water conferring buoyancy and limited friction, maritime
transportation is the most effective mode to move large quantities of cargo over long distances.

5
Main maritime routes are composed of oceans, coasts, seas, lakes, rivers and channels.
However,
due to the location of economic activities maritime circulation takes place on specific parts of the
maritime space, particularly over the North Atlantic and the North Pacific. The construction of
channels, locks, and dredging are attempts to facilitate maritime circulation by reducing
discontinuity. Comprehensive inland waterway systems include Western Europe, the Volga /
Don system, St. Lawrence / Great Lakes system, the Mississippi and its tributaries, the Amazon,
the Panama / Paraguay and the interior of China. Maritime transportation has high terminal costs,
since port infrastructures are among the most expensive to build, maintain and improve. High
inventory costs also characterize maritime transportation. More than any other mode, maritime
transportation is linked to heavy industries, such as steel and petrochemical facilities adjacent to
port sites.

Air transportation
Air routes are practically unlimited, but they are denser over the North Atlantic, inside North
America and Europe and over the North Pacific. Air transport constraints are multidimensional
and include the site (a commercial plane needs about 3,300 meters of runway for landing and
take off), the climate, fog and aerial currents. Air activities are linked to the tertiary and
quaternary sectors, notably finance and tourism, which lean on the long-distance mobility of
people. More recently, air transportation has been accommodating growing quantities of high
value freight and is playing a growing role in global logistics.
Intermodal transportation
Concerns a variety of modes used in combination so that the respective advantages of each mode
are better exploited. Although intermodal transportation applies for passenger movements, such
as the usage of the different, but interconnected modes of a public transit system, it is over
freight transportation that the most significant impacts have been observed. Containerization has
been a powerful vector of intermodal integration, enabling maritime and land transportation
modes to interconnect more effectively.

Introduction to the Transport Planning Process

Transport planning has evolved over the last 40 years, but with no clear theoretical foundations. Everyone is
aware of the problems created by the increased demand for transport and most effort has been directed at finding
methods of analysis with a practical, usually quantitative, output. This has meant that analysis has been empirical and
positivist in its approach. Initial developments were concerned with aggregate analysis and the efficiency of overall
movement of people and goods. It was in the 1960s that the transport planning process evolved as a systematic method
for ‘solving’ the urban transport problem.

The classic deductive approach was adopted with the future state of the system being synthesized from a
series of laws, equations and models. The transport planning process was intended to be comprehensive with the
collection, analysis and interpretation of relevant data concerned with existing conditions and historical growth. The
aim was to establish goals and objectives, to synthesize the ‘current patterns of movement’ within the city, and to

6
forecast future demand patterns either with trend-based changes or with a range of investment options. These
alternative packages would be evaluated against the ‘do nothing’ situation and the goals and objectives set at the
beginning of the process.

The structure of the transport planning

process followed the systems approach to
analysis and marked the move towards an
analytical approach rather than decisions being
based on intuition and experience. The broad
structure of the approach followed that of the
Chicago Area Transportation Study (1960), one
of the first classic aggregate studies (Figure
2.1). This is the basic structure, which is still
used, albeit with many modifications. Expected
vehicle and passenger volumes in the main
travel corridors were estimated and increases
in road and public transport capacities were
proposed to accommodate those expected
increases over the following 20 years. As
itemized by Thomson (1974) the basic process
can be summarized in eight stages.

Problem Definition: what is the problem and what are the planning objectives?

Diagnosis: how did the problem originate with views from different perspectives (for example engineering and
economic)?

Projection: forecast of what is likely to happen in the future. This is often the most difficult stage.

Constraints: three main types of constraints limit the choice of alternatives (financial, political and environmental).

Options: what are the range of options which can be used to achieve the planning objectives stated in the first stage?

Formulation of Plans: a set of different packages covering road and public transport alternatives.

Testing of Alternatives: usually through a modelling process to see whether each alternative can achieve the stated
objectives and how each compare with other alternatives. Trip generation, trip distribution, modal split and traffic
assignment studies.

Evaluation: to assess the value for money usually through some form of cost benefit analysis or financial appraisal.

This structure took several years to evolve, but variations on the basic format have been applied to hundreds of
transport studies that have been carried out all over the world (Bruton, 1985; Hutchinson, 1974). The Transport

7
Planning Model (TPM) formed the central part of the transport planning process and was the testing of alternatives in
Thomson’s categorization. Conventionally the TPM is divided into four sequential, linked sub models:

• Trip generation is the number of trips associated with a zone or unit and consists of trips produced and trips
attracted to that zone.
• Trip distribution is the allocation of trips between each pair of zones in the study area.
• Modal split determines the number of trips by each mode of transport between each pair of zones.
• Trip assignment allocates all trips by origin and destination zone to the actual road network. Separate
allocations normally take place for each mode.

Other factors such as land-use and population changes are input exogenously to the TPM once it has been
calibrated for the existing situation. It is sequential in that the output from one sub model is the input to the next.
Information about transport networks, about the location of facilities and about the characteristics of households (for
example car ownership and income) are all introduced into the model sequences at the appropriate stages. The output
represents the transport system, and this is used as the basis against which to evaluate alternative plans. The implicit
conceptual foundations of the TPM are that the decisions made by each traveler follow this simple sequence – whether
to make a trip, where to go, what mode to use, and which route to take. The model does not conform exactly to this
decision process as the data are collected for zones and the TPM is carried out for the city as a whole. It is an aggregate
model.

8
 Republic of the Philippines
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Department of Civil Engineering

A. Course Code / Title : PTE 413 – Principles of Transportation Engineering

B. Module Number : Module 2 – Urban Transport Planning in the Philippines

C. Time Frame : Week 2-3

D. Description : This module provides a discussion of the development of

urban transport planning and challenges in the Philippines

E. Objectives : At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:
1. Define the challenges in Urban Transport Planning in the
Philippines
2. Introduce some ideas about transportation planning
3. Cite some studies conducted for transportation planning in
different urban cities in the Philippines

Contents:

OVERVIEW OF URBANIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

The rapid urbanization in the East Asia and Pacific region requires addressing urban transport challenges to
sustain economic and social advantage of the region's cities. Though current programs mainly address urban
challenges in the capital cities, there is a growing need to address these issues in other large as well as medium size
cities, especially, as most of these cities often do not have well-developed urban transport plans or transport services.
The study is part of an Urban Development Program of middle-income countries Indonesia, Philippines, and Thailand
that are all dealing with new urban transport challenges caused by rapid urbanization. The Philippines has one of the
highest urbanization rates in the region. Based on UN data, 63% of the country's total population lives in urban areas
in 2005. The rural population continues to decline as the current trend towards urbanization grows with nearly 70% of
the population expected to live in urban areas by 2015. There are presently 33 highly urbanized cities in the Philippines
and these cities are experiencing worsening urban transport problems.

1
 Transportation problems vary from country to country depending on their social, economic, and political
situation. The current and anticipated problems vary on the historical process of urbanization and its present stage of
socio-economic development, the extent of motorization, and the level of transport technology. There is no such theory
of transport planning that can be effectively applied to any transport problem, but there is an outline of comprehensive
urban transport planning based on state-of-the-art practices. Its relevance to the problem of urban transport in
developing countries should be studied based about a city in question.

Increasing transport demand in developing countries due to a drastic increase in the number of automobiles
(motorization) like motorcycles in some cases, rapid urbanization and economic development, and delayed investment
in transport facilities particularly for mass transport, are causing serious road congestion problems. Further, in many
cases mixed traffic of various means of transportation ranging from non-motorized transport or NMTs (e.g., carts,
walking, bicycles) to cars, inadequate traffic rules, and poor traffic management have made very inefficient use of the
limited road space, sharing the precious road space with non-transport urban activities.

URBAN TRANSPORT CHALLENGES IN THE PHILIPPINES

1) Rapid Urbanization

The Philippines is one of the most rapidly growing and urbanizing countries in Asia. The rapid increase in
population puts pressure on existing urban transport infrastructure and services especially in urban areas. In 1980, the
total population of the country was 48.098 million. Twenty years later, in 2000, the total population of the Philippines
became 7 6.504 million.

2
 Table 2.1: Population of the Philippines and Metro Manila

Table 2.1 presents the population growth rate of the Philippines and Metro Manila. Explosive population
growth rate occurred during the period from 1960 to 1970 with a rate of 3.08%. During the same period, Metro Manila
experienced unprecedented growth rate at 4.89%. Although the population growth rate of Metro Manila has been
decreasing, the national overall rate for the period of 2000 to 2007 is still very high at 2.04%.

In 2007, the country posted an even higher population growth rate than Indonesia and Thailand albeit at a
decreasing trend over the past decades. Table 2.2 presents the population growth rates of selected countries.

The Philippines has one of the highest urbanization rates in the Region. The urbanization rate of the
Philippines was around 60% in 2000. This is expected to reach around 77% in 2030 higher than that of Japan,
Indonesia, and Thailand. A rapid increase in the proportion of population living in urban areas will require high level of
investments in urban transport infrastructure and services. Such investments will also have to compete with demands
for other urban services such as housing, health, and education. If urban growth is not managed properly, the quantity
and quality of urban services will deteriorate and contribute to a decrease in the overall quality of life.

The Philippines currently has 33 highly urbanized cities with high population growth. The 16 cities in Metro
Manila are included while the remaining 17 cities are in other regions of the country. For the period of 2000 to 2007,
the average population growth rate in Metro Manila cities is 1.92%. Cities outside Metro Manila are growing more
rapidly with an average population growth rate of 2.55%.

3
2) Urban Density

An analysis on urban density of cities is very useful since it is considered an important factor in understanding
how cities function. Urban density is a term used in urban planning and urban design to refer to the number of people
inhabiting a given urbanized area. As such, it is to be distinguished from other measures of population density. Studies
like Newman and Kenworthy (1989) and Kenworthy and Laube (1999) has strongly influenced urban policy that
advocates reduction in automobile use by generating higher population density. The urban densities of highly urbanized
cities in the Philippines vary greatly in magnitude. Table 2.4 presents the urban density of cities in Metro Manila. The
basis for the calculation of the urban density values is the built-up area of cities as reported in their respective
Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP). For cities in Metro Manila, the highest urban density is in Manila City at 66,429
persons per square kilometer. The City of Muntinlupa has the lowest urban density at 11,380 persons per square
kilometer. The cities of Mandaluyong, Pasay, Navotas, Makati, and Malabon also exhibit compact configurations.

4
 Table 2.5 presents the urban density of cities outside of Metro Manila. General Santos City has the highest
urban density followed by Cebu City, both of which have densities over 13,000 persons per square kilometer. Baguio
City, notably, has a relatively high urban density along with Mandaue, Zamboanga, and Davao. Puerto Princesa City
has the lowest urban density at barely 300 persons per square kilometer. Urban density provides a general measure
of the overall demand for urban transport infrastructure and services. A city with a higher urban core density would
have greater urban transport development needs including pedestrian facilities and mass transport systems compared
to another city with lower urban density but keeping all other factors equal.

MOTORIZATION

Vehicle registration statistics indicate a nationwide average vehicle registration growth rate of 7.5% annually
for the period 2000 to 2008. Vehicle registration in Metro Manila continues to grow at 3.86% annually. Cities like Makati,
Pasay, Caloocan, and Pasig have posted negative growth rates while cities that are located at the fringes of Metro
Manila have very high vehicle registration growth including Taguig, Valenzuela, and Paranaque. The annual vehicle
registration growth rates in cities outside of Metro Manila are higher. Cities like Iligan and General Santos have doubled
their number of registered vehicles in less than 10 years. Among the cities outside Metro Manila, only Cebu City has
experienced negative growth in annual private vehicle registration.

5
 The largest increase in private vehicle registration in the period 2000 to 2008 is attributed to the drastic rise
in the number of motorcycles. The number of motorcycle registration in Metro Manila increased at an alarming rate of
2 7 .6% annually while all other cities recorded an average of 13.8%. The overall growth rate in the number of
motorcycles nationwide is 20.3% annually.

6
PUBLIC TRANSPORT SUPPLY

The public transport system in Philippine cities is road-based except in Metro Manila where there is a network
of 3 light rail transit lines and intra-city public transport services are mainly provided by public utility jeepneys (PUJ)
and tricycles. Based on the LTFRB record of franchises in 2007, there are about 61,800 public utility vehicles operating
in Metro Manila. For buses, the average fleet size per operator is about 13.6 while majority of jeepney operators owned
only one unit. There are about 73 intra-city bus routes serving Metro Manila with 33 bus routes serving EDSA and the
rest on non-EDSA including 17 routes linking Metro Manila to Bulacan, Rizal, Cavite, and Laguna. There are more than
640 intra-city jeepney routes serving the metropolis and about 130 AUV routes serving mainly commercial districts and
intermodal transfer points within Metro Manila. Public transport supply data for cities outside of Metro Manila are not
readily available because the LTFRB regional offices do not regularly produce this. Local governments also do not
produce tricycle statistics. Existing statistics for for-hire vehicle registration, on the other hand, provide useful
information.

ROAD DEVELOPMENT

Almost all cities have road densities higher than the 1km per square kilometer threshold that corresponds to
sufficiency of roads. Cities in Metro Manila have generally higher road densities compared to other cities. This also
indicates that Metro Manila cities have a comprehensive road network system.

7
TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS

The Philippines lacks comprehensive accident studies, but it is generally known that cities in the country face
serious challenges in road safety. Metro Manila accounts for one-third of the country's recorded number of fatalities
from road accidents in 2002. Pedestrians, especially those below 15 years old, were found to be the most vulnerable
group. This is bound to worsen with the implementation of traffic management schemes that favor high speed and
weaving maneuvers and poor protection of pedestrians crossing the streets. The state of road safety of the cities can
be evaluated based on road traffic accidents. In Metro Manila, the Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA)
maintains the Metro Manila Accident Reporting and Analysis System (MMARAS). Paranaque and Quezon Cities has
the highest fatal accident rates per 100,000 people. The cities of Makati, San Juan, and Mandaluyong registered non-
fatal accident rates of over 1,000 occurrences per 100,000 people, the highest in Metro Manila.

AIR POLLUTION

The ambient air quality statistics from the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) shows a general
decrease in TSP concentration in Metro Manila from 1998 to 2006. However, the TSP readings in 2006 are still above
the guideline value of 90 ug/ Ncm for one-year average exposure. Historical ambient air quality data for cities outside
of Metro Manila generally point to decreasing trend in TSP concentration for selected cities. Several cities have TSP
readings above the guideline value; however, the cities of Mandaue, Iloilo, General Santos and Butuan already exhibit
TSP levels that are below the guideline value of 90 micrograms per normal cubic meter.

ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Increase in motorization as well as reliance on fossil fuels and inefficient vehicle technologies in the transport
sector has led to increased emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHG). The continuous
release of CO2 and other GHG to the environment beyond the Earth's natural absorptive capacity is accountable for
global warming. Global trends suggest that the transport sector is the significant contributor in the overall CO2 and
GHG load. There is a clear connection between energy use and carbon dioxide emissions. The latest GHG emission
inventory for the country points to a 22% share of the transport sector to the annual CO2 load and 30% share to the
total GHG emissions. Severe congestion levels coupled with low fuel efficiency of existing vehicle fleet pose serious
GHG emission situations. Recent studies in the country state that the average fuel efficiency is 4.0 km/liter for a PUJ
and 3.3 km/liter for a PUB compared with around 12 km/liter for a private car.

8
TRAFFIC CONGESTION

A study in 2000 states that time lost due to serious road traffic congestion in Metro Manila amounts to PHPl00
Billion each year. Traffic congestion is especially severe during peak periods where in-vehicle time is rather long. In
1996, the recorded average travel speeds were extremely low at 12 km/h for cars and 9 km/h for buses and jeepneys.
The average travel times of bus, jeepney and tricycle users are 79 minutes, 43 minutes, and 17 minutes, respectively.
To improve the meet the future travel demand at an improved level of traffic situation than the 1996 conditions, the
MMUTIS formulated a "Do-maximum network". The ideal network requires roughly PHP 1,200 billion or USO 30 billion,
out of which, PHP 800 billion or USO 20 billion are to be borne by the government. Although the entire
"Do_x0002_maximum" network cannot be realistically achieved, this provides national agencies and local government
units with a basis for transportation planning beyond 2015.

1) City Development Strategies

The City Development Strategy (CDS) is an action plan for equitable growth in cities, developed and sustained
through participation, to improve the quality of life for all citizens. The goals of CDS include a collective city vision and
action plan aimed at improving urban governance and management, increasing investment to expand employment and
services, and systematic and sustained reductions in urban poverty. It is not intended to substitute for integrated master
plans, general land use plans, or even investment plans. Rather, it forms the basis for planning of land use, transport,
and other sectoral needs and for setting policy, resource allocation, and investment priorities. In 1998, the World Bank
and several City Mayors from the Philippines launched the first phase of the CDS Program. After eight years, three
CDS phases have been implemented. In addition to the CDS programs, a project preparation grant from the Japanese
Government supported several cities in preparing city strategies and project feasibility studies. In all, more than 60
cities have participated in the CDS activities. Through the CDS process, the cities have generated more than 500
priority programs and projects; many of these were funded through the cities own funds, government financial
intermediaries, official development assistance, central government transfers, and the private sector.

2) National Land Transport Policy Framework

With the rising fuel and food prices and other critical issues confronting the land transport sub-sector in the
Philippines, Executive Order 712 was issued on 11 March 2008. This directed the DOTC to formulate the National
Land Transport Policy Framework (NLTPF). The significance of this undertaking is viewed from the recognition that
traditional transport system management concentrated on individual transport modes and physical infrastructure results
to disconnected efforts. There is the need to move the country to a more holistic, multi-modal approach to transport
policy, planning and investment assessment that compares all feasible solutions and takes full account of social,
economic, and environmental factors ('triple bottom line' perspective) as well as to support integrated land transport
sub-sector decision-making to stimulate economic activity and act as a driver to poverty alleviation.

3) National Transport Policy and Planning

National Transport Policy and Planning (NTPP) is an AusAID-funded initiative under the Philippines-Australia
Partnership for Economic Governance Reforms (PEGR). NTPP is a five-year program aimed at supporting the
Philippine Government in the formulation and implementation of reforms in various areas of economic governance
including reforms in the transport sector. It is expected to provide the foundation and framework for a National Transport
Plan and a Medium-Term Public Investment Plan (MTPIP).

9
Metro Manila Transportation Integration Study

The Metro Manila Transportation Integration Study (MMUTIS) followed the conventional transport planning
process, but also incorporated participatory planning through its planning workshops and consultative activities.
MMUTIS formulated and evaluated four scenarios on future urban development patterns. They were in the range from
continuation of current trends to strong interventions to decentralize and force growth at the regional level. The study
selected Scenario I II that assumed that a transport network would be developed more strategically to encourage the
current land use trend to continue, but with more effective land use control and growth management of the urban areas.
A transport master plan was developed by MMUTIS based on the chosen scenario. The plan was a product of two
rounds of plan testing and evaluation. The first round of network development produced a network that would entail an
investment of USD30 billion. Unfortunately, the investment requirement would be as much as twice the possible fund
for transport infrastructure estimated even under the high growth scenario.

Metro Cebu Land Use and Transport Study

The Metro Cebu Land Use and Transport Study (MCLUTS) prepared a structure plan to guide the
development of Metro Cebu from 1981 to 2000. A phased program of transportation infrastructure investments had
been prepared in the context of the Structure Plan. Included in the short-term plan were transportation system
management measures. The strategic planning component of the MCLUTS formulated, tested, and evaluated four
basic urban forms, namely: 1) Concentrated without mainland reclamation; 2) Concentrated with mainland reclamation;
3) Linear-dispersed; and 4) Mactan Island expansion. The study has recommended the creation of a development
authority, although this has not yet been implemented. However, a project office, the Metro Cebu Development Project,
has been established to manage the implementation of the MCLUTS recommendations. Prior to its creation, the Metro
Cebu Transportation and Traffic Engineering Office was setup to develop the medium to long-term transport proposals
of MCLUTS and implement its short-term recommendations.

Transportation and Traffic Management Plan for Davao City

The study was primarily undertaken to come up with a transportation and traffic management plan that would
meet the travel needs of the rapid urban expansion of the city of Davao. In particular, the study intended to: 1) assess
the existing traffic condition in Davao City through compilation of primary and secondary data; 2) design an efficient
traffic circulation plan to ensure smooth vehicular and pedestrian flow; 3) identify traffic management measures and
alternatives appropriate for the city to alleviate congestion; 4) develop a framework plan for long-term period; and, 5)
recommend policy directions to sustain programs for short, medium, and long-term plans. The Davao City
Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP) and the Davao Integrated Development Program (DIOP) 22 have provided
the medium-term and long-term plans towards the realization of the city's development vision. The DIOP has looked
at the metropolitanization of Davao City and its impacts on the Davao Gulf area. On the other hand, the CDP has
focused on the city's urbanization and economic growth.

Road Network Improvement of Regional Growth Centers

The study on Road Network Improvement for Development of Regional Growth Centers was undertaken in
2004 covering Metro Iloilo, Metro Bacolod, and Metro Cagayan de Oro. The objectives of the study were: 1) formulate

10
a Master Plan for the Urban Road Network Development including short-, medium- and long-term implementation
programs; 2) carry out a feasibility study for high priority road projects; and 3) enhance the capability of the National
Government as well as the Local Government Units for urban road network planning and feasibility study. The study
entailed the conduct of the following activities:

1) Socio-economic profiling of the metropolitan areas.

2) Review of transport and traffic conditions.

3) Urban transport and land use modeling.

4) Development of urban road master plans.

5) Feasibility studies on priority road projects.

An urban road master plan has been formulated for each study area. No policy issues have been addressed.
It is not clear, however, if the master plan that was developed for each of the study area was adopted by the concerned
Local Government Unit.

LAND USE AND TRANSPORT PLANNING

There is a growing need to address urban transport issues in several other large and medium size cities,
especially since most of these cities often do not have well-developed urban transport plans or transport services.
Except for Metro Manila, Metro Cebu, and Davao City, very few comprehensive urban transport studies have been
undertaken for cities, if at all. In terms of local development planning, the Local Government Code of 1991 clearly
defines urban planning and management and as a primary responsibility of the local government unit. More specifically,
this responsibility includes land use planning and the application of appropriate local development controls that should
be consistent with national and provincial plans and policies. The common experience however has been uncontrolled
urban development in cities that have resulted to ribbon-type commercial development along major roads, uncontrolled
squatting in the coastal areas, and the deterioration of the central business district. High intensity land uses tend to
gravitate along national roads and cities oftentimes have failed to be developed appropriate development controls in
these areas. As such, these corridors become congested thereby necessitating the construction of bypass roads.

FUNDING FOR URBAN TRANSPORT

1) Motor Vehicle User's Charge

Republic Act No. 8794 entitled, "An Act Imposing a Motor Vehicle User's Charge (MVUC) on Owners of all types of
Motor Vehicles and for other Purposes", otherwise known as the MVUC Law which was ratified in June 2000 stipulates
that all monies collected under his law shall be earmarked and used exclusively for road maintenance and
improvements of road drainage, installation of adequate and efficient traffic lights and road safety devices, and air
pollution control, which shall be deposited to the National Treasury in the following ( 4) Special Trust Accounts, wherein
a Road Board was created to manage the said funds in a prudent and efficient manner:

11
(i) Special Road Support Fund.

(ii) Special Local Road Fund.

(iii) Special Road Safety Fund; and

(iv) Special Vehicle Pollution Control Fund

2) Local Funds

One of the major reasons why urban transport-related projects do not figure dominantly in the CDP is the
absence of transport data on the local level. Because of poor transport sector data, sectoral analysis is difficult and
necessary transport projects cannot be identified. On the other hand, there is a need to work closely with LGUs in
terms of distilling workable approaches in funding local transport projects. With decentralization, LGUs are envisioned
to play a major role in altering the relative attractiveness of urban centers to firms and skilled labor by offering different
bundles of local services (most especially infrastructure) vis-a-vis varying levels of local taxes and user charges3 More
specifically, LGUs can help affect the cost of doing business through their expenditure as well as regulatory policies
and thus, make their jurisdictions more competitive to new investments relative to other locations.

3) Performance-Based Grants

The experience of DILG in managing the SLRF is notable as it demonstrates the catalytic impacts of fund
allocations that can be channeled to LGUs. Fund allocations can be subject to appropriate levels of monitoring and
evaluation with a mix of capacity-building strategies. In the case of SLRF, DILG conducts field visits and dialogues with
concerned LGUs. The DILG have also collected useful statistics relating to the urban transport system of LGUs. For
example, the SLRF office now maintains an inventory of existing city and provincial roads. These strategies can be
supportive in the administration of performance-based grants for urban transport. A closer institutional cooperation
setup between the DOTC and DILG will also need to be established. While DOTC is the main policy and planning
agency in relation to transport development, the DILG works closely with city governments. While DILG does not have
the financial resources to support the urban transport development needs of LGUs, DOTC may be able to provide seed
funds to assist LGUs.

ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

The Philippines is committed to identify, promote, and undertake Environmentally Sustainable Transport
(EST) strategies and initiatives, in support of national progress and development. In fact, the country is a signatory to
various conventions and declarations. The Philippines has undertaken various programs and activities towards
achieving sustainable development and addressing climate change since its signing to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Agreement in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. These activities eventually led to the
formulation, legislation, and implementation of Republic Act No. 8749 or the "Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999," which

12
provides for environmentally sustainable transport through harmonization of national emission standards with the
international standards.

The Philippines is also a signatory to the Aichi Statement of 2005 that recognizes, among others, the need
for both national and local level governments to develop and adopt integrated policies, strategies, and programs
incorporating key elements of environmentally sustainable transport. The Aichi Statement defines these key elements
of EST into twelve (12) thematic areas importance):

(i) Public health.

(ii) Strengthening roadside air quality monitoring and management.

(iii) Traffic noise management.

(iv) Vehicle emission control, standards, and inspection and maintenance.

(v) Cleaner fuels.

(vi) Public transport planning and travel demand management.

(vii) Non-motorized transport.

(viii) Environment and people friendly infrastructure development.

(ix) Social equity and gender perspectives.

(x) Road safety and maintenance.

(xi) Knowledge base, awareness, and public participation.

(xii) Land use planning.

SIMPLIFIED URBAN TRANSPORT ANALYSIS

1) Road Network Data

Road network data, which include information on surface type and surface conditions, are available in different
offices in charge of road administration. The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) maintains a regular
inventory of national roads, while the DILG, in the office of Special Local Road Fund, keeps an updated inventory of
provincial and city roads. There is no central repository of barangay road data as these are usually kept at local planning
or engineering offices, or the district engineering offices of the DPWH.

2) Traffic Count Data

13
 Traffic counts data are available for some national road’s sections at the DPWH Planning Service Division.
Traffic counts for city roads, are commonly not performed except for cities that have prepared local transport plans and
have conducted local traffic counts.

3) Motor Vehicle Registration Data

Motor vehicle registration data are available at the Management and Information Division of LTO. Data are
commonly aggregated according to district offices of LTO and, as such, only give broad indications of the vehicle
registration characteristics of cities. Motor vehicle registrations are classified according to vehicle type, ownership type,
engine type, and age among others. Electronic data on district office level statistics are however not available for older
years. Since paper-based district level data at Management Information Department (MID) are commonly lent out to
researchers coming to LTO, pages are sometimes mixed up or have missing sections. These contribute to the gradual
demise of the quality of older statistics, and inconsistencies with quality with more recent data. Some motor vehicle
registration data are kept and recorded in socioeconomic profile or sectoral profile available at the city planning and
development office.

4) Public Transport Data

Public transport supply and operations data are critical to the planning of public transport system. Deregulated
public transport in the country has contributed to the absence of centralized data collection system for public transport
system particularly on the level of passenger ridership. The number of passenger utility vehicle units and buses that
are for hire is available from LTO and gives an indication of the supply, while operational data like routes, fare, and
operating units are available from LTFRB. Franchising for other public transport modes like tricycles and pedicabs are
performed by the LGUs.

5) Traffic Accident Data

Data on road accidents are important for road safety planning. Two of the main sources of traffic accident
data in the country are the Traffic Accident Reporting and Analysis System (TARAS) and Metropolitan Manila Accident
Reporting and Analysis System (MMARAS). TARAS started in 2004 and is integrated by DPWH. MMARAS started in
2002 and is maintained by MMDA. Both systems make use of a computer software and recording procedure of traffic
accidents involving local traffic enforcement units. Details on traffic accidents are recorded in TARAS forms, processed
into the database, and are submitted to the DPWH district offices. MMARAS, on the other hand, is operated under the
Metropolitan Road Safety Unit (MRSU) of the MMDA Traffic Operation Center (TOC) with the cooperation of the Traffic
Enforcement Group of the NCR Police office of the PNP.

6) Transport Funding

The level of investment and the source of financing urban transport investment are necessary in determining
the capacity and efficiency of LGUs for financing urban transport programs and projects. Majority of city transport
investment data are only available at the local budget or treasury office. These data can be expected from detailed
Statement of Income and Expenditure accounts that often come in raw form. Data integration is often done according
to the minimum requirements and standard format of the Bureau of Local Government Finance (BLGF). The data
format is commonly in aggregated form and do not specifically identify, for instance, details of economic services
expenditure which may partially cover transport investments. Some data on road maintenance expenditure are,
however, available at the central office level.

14
 Republic of the Philippines
DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY
Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Department of Civil Engineering

A. Course Code / Title : PTE 413 – Principles of Transportation Engineering

B. Module Number : Module 3 – Mobility Management

C. Time Frame : Week 3-4

D. Description : This module provides a discussion of different mobilization

techniques to minimize or ease traffic.

E. Objectives : At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:
1. Appreciated the importance of mobility management strategies
in transport planning.
2. Considered the applicability of mobility management measures
in addressing urban transport and traffic problems.

Contents:

URBAN TRANSPORT PROBLEMS

Urban areas are now home to 50 per cent of the world’s population but they account for 60-80 per cent of
energy consumption and 75 per cent of carbon emissions. Rapid urbanization is exerting pressure on fresh water
supplies, sewage, the living environment, and public health, which affect the urban poor most. In many cases,
urbanization is characterized by urban sprawl and peripheralization – which is not only socially divisive but increases
energy demand, carbon emissions and puts pressure on ecosystems. Over 50% of the world’s population lives in cities
today and more than 80% is expected by 2050 (UNEP, 2012)

Due to the rapid urbanization and lack of consideration of land use and transport interaction in the
development, there’s a need for mobilization. The term “mobilization” is a military term that describes rallying and
preparing troops for war (Merriam-Webster 2017). To guarantee compliance with the order to mobilize, an element of
violent coercion and punishment is supplemented by payment, as well as a common sense of duty, of revenge, of
obligation, or of national pride.

MOTORIZATION

Motorization is the process of adopting and using motor vehicles as a core part of economic and daily life – is
closely linked with other dimensions of development such as urbanization and industrialization. Motorization, however,
is a double-edged sword. For many households, being able to afford their own vehicle is often perceived as the key to
accessing more jobs, more services, more opportunities—not to mention a status symbol. But motorization also comes
with a serious downside, in terms of challenges that many governments have difficulty managing. Motor vehicles can

1
undermine the livability of cities by cluttering up roads and open spaces—the scene of chaos and gridlock in the picture
below, from Accra, is a telling example. In addition, vehicles create significant safety hazards for occupants and
bystanders alike… in many developing countries, road deaths have effectively reached epidemic proportions. From an
environmental standpoint, motorized transport is, of course, a major contributor to urban air pollution and greenhouse
gas emissions. Lastly, motorization contributes to countries' hard currency challenges by exacerbating their long-term
demand for petroleum products.

Source: Africa: Sustainable mobility in urban areas | AGCS (allianz.com)

IMPACTS OF MOTORIZATION

2
Figure 1 Shows the GHG Emissions of the Philippines by sector as well as the transport sector GHG emissions based on 2016
study

BLACK HOLE THEORY OF ROAD INVESTMENT

The Black hole theory of road investment, also known as Braess’s paradox states that “For each point of a road network,
let there be given the number of cars starting from it, and the destination of the cars. Under these conditions one wishes
to estimate the distribution of traffic flow. Whether one street is preferable to another depends not only on the quality
of the road, but also on the density of the flow. If every driver takes the path that looks most favorable to him, the
resultant running times need not be minimal. Furthermore, it is indicated by an example that an extension of the road
network may cause a redistribution of the traffic that results in longer individual running times”

According to Plane (1995), Initial investments in improved highway facilities result in greater ease of travel and hence
altered travel patterns, including an increase in average trip length and in the number of trips being made. Over time,
as shown in Figure 2, this increased demand stimulated by the initial investment in increased transport supply fuels
the need for even more facilities, and the feedback process repeat itself. This familiar phenomenon has been called
the black-hole theory because some people claim that investing in highways is like throwing money into a black hole.

3
 Figure 2 – The black hole of road investment

MOBILITY MANAGEMENT

Transportation Demand Management or TDM (also called Mobility Management) refers to various strategies
that change travel behavior (how, when and where people travel) to increase transport system efficiency and achieve
specific planning objectives. It emphasizes the movement of people and goods, not just motor vehicles.

A typical person makes more than a dozen trips away from home each week – to work, shopping, errands,
social and recreation activities. Many of these trips are flexible in terms of their timing, mode, and destination. For
example, many commuters can vary when and how they travel to work or school, at least some days. Similarly, errands
can be organized in various ways, such as walking or bicycling to neighborhood shops, driving to a downtown or mall,
or making several automobile trips to various destinations dispersed along major highways. Recreational activities can
also have various travel options, ranging from a neighborhood stroll, driving across town to exercise at a gym, or cycling
for errands and commuting. Many factors affect people’s transport decisions including the relative convenience and
safety of travel modes (such as whether streets have sidewalks and bike paths, and the quality of transit services
available), prices (transit fares and the price of parking at destinations); and land use factors (such as whether schools,
parks and shops are located close to residential neighborhoods). Even freight transport often has flexibility in how
goods are shipped, and deliveries organized.

Congestion Alleviation through Mobility Management

Road congestion can be reduced if enough people can be persuaded to travel with/by:

• Same trip, different time

• Same trip, different route

4
 • Car/vehicle sharing
• Same trip, different mode

Figure 3 demonstrates the road occupancy of different mode of transport

Differences Between Mobility Management Strategies and Long-Range Planning

5
CATEGORIES OF MOBILITY MANGEMENT STRATEGIES

A. Improve Transport Options

1. Alternative Work Schedules

a. Flextime. This means that employees are allowed some flexibility in their daily work schedules. For
example, rather than all employees working 8:00 to 4:30, some might work 7:30 to 4:00, and others
9:00 to 5:30.
b. Compressed Workweek (CWW). This means that employees work fewer but longer days, such as
four 10-hour days each week (4/40), or 9-hour days with one day off every two weeks (9/80).
c. Staggered Shifts. This means that shifts are staggered to reduce the number of employees arriving
and leaving a worksite at one time. For example, some shifts may be 8:00 to 4:30, others 8:30 to
5:00, and others 9:00 to 5:30. This has a similar effect on traffic as flextime but does not give
individual employees as much control over their schedules.

Flextime and CWW are usually implemented as an employee and manager option (both employees and
their managers must agree). They may vary from day-to-day or week-to-week, depending on circumstances. Of
course, not all jobs are suitable for alternative schedules. Positions that require employees to provide service at
a particular time and place demand a rigid schedule. Not all workers want to use flextime due to personal
preference or the need to match schedules with other family members. In one case study, two-thirds of employees
surveyed are allowed to have flexible work schedules, yet less than twenty percent of them shift their commute
times to avoid congestion (Picado, 2000).

How is it Implemented?

Alternative Work Schedule is typically implemented as part of a Commute Trip Reduction program.
Employers work with managers, employees and labor organizations to develop suitable policies and practices.
Informal Alternative Work Scheduling is common at many worksites, so an official policy may simply formalize
and support existing practices. The policy should specify:

• Which job categories are suitable.

• What is required of employees to qualify.
• What criteria are to be used to evaluate the performance of employees on alternative schedules.
• How employees’ schedules are determined and what is required to change schedules.
• Periodic review of the arrangement.
• Model contracts and forms for establishing and tracking Alternative Work Schedules.

Alternative Work Schedule may require changes in management practices that reduce the need to have
employees physically together at one time, including more outcome-oriented management practices (evaluating
employees based on their performance rather than simply the amount of time they spend at their desk), and
increased use of electronic communication to compensate for reduced face-to-face interaction. An organization
may start with an Alternative Work Schedule pilot project before expanding to all employees.

6
 2. Non-motorized Transportation

Non-motorized Transportation (also known as Active Transportation and Human Powered

Transportation) includes Walking and Bicycling, and variants such as Small-Wheeled Transport (skates,
skateboards, push scooters and hand carts) and Wheelchair travel. These modes provide both recreation (they
are an end in themselves) and transportation (they provide access to goods and activities), although users may
consider a particular trip to serve both objectives. For example, some people will choose to walk or bicycle rather
than drive because they enjoy the activity, although it takes longer.

Source: https://covid-tracker.mckinsey.digital/safe-transportation?cid=other-eml-alt-mip-
mck&hdpid=6578a1ae-1ee1-4915-96e7-
0357b8ac1d94&hctky=2507980&hlkid=89e5a8daf68f430487a93d061fba8e08

a. Pedestrian Facilities

Pedestrian oriented development (POD) is a pedestrian friendly policy providing clear, comfortable
pedestrian access to commercial and residential areas and transit stops. POD is employed through a
combination of land design practices including compact development, mixed-use, traffic calming,
pedestrian – and public transit-orientation, and a mix of housing types. While POD works well in
community centers and downtowns, it also can be applied successfully in rural and suburban areas.

7
 Figure 4 shows the ideal pedestrian facility

How is it Implemented?

Pedestrian and cycling improvements are usually implemented by local governments, sometimes with
funding and technical support of regional or state/provincial transportation agencies. It usually begins with a
pedestrian and bicycle plan to identify problems and prioritize projects (NYBC 2002; ABW 2010). A variety of
roadway planning and design practices can increase walking and cycling safety (Sandt, et al. 2015).
Implementation may require special funds, either shifting funds within existing transportation, a new budget
allocation, or grants. It is useful to develop Multi-Modal Level-of-Service rating systems which indicate the
convenience and comfort of walking and cycling conditions.

Complete Streets means that roadways are designed to accommodate all modes, including walking and
cycling. It involves Streetscaping and Road Space Reallocation in appropriate roadway projects. It can also involve
planning and field surveys to identify where barriers exist to non-motorized travel and funding to correct these
problems. It often requires new relationships between different levels of government, such as match funding and
maintenance agreements between state/provincial transportation agencies and local governments.

Hindrances To Active Transport

Reasons for high dependence on motor vehicles in Asian cities:

• Traffic signals are designed to make motor vehicle travel faster, to the detriment of cyclists and
pedestrians
• Pedestrian barricades and one-way streets used to facilitate motor vehicle travel impose huge detours
for cyclists and pedestrians
• Lack of safe infrastructure.

8
 B. INCENTIVES TO REDUCE DRIVING

1. Commuter Financial Incentives

a. Employee Parking Pricing – means that companies charge for parking at their parking lots or
eliminate existing subsidies for off-site employee parking.
b. Parking Cash Out means that commuters who are offered subsidized parking are also offered the
cash equivalent if they use alternative travel modes.
c. Travel allowances are a financial payment provided to employees instead of parking subsidies.
Commuters can use this money to pay for parking or for another travel mode.
d. Transit and rideshare benefits are free or discounted transit fares provided to employees (Commuter
Check).

Commuter financial incentives can be prorated according to how much employees use alternative modes. For
example, employees who drive twice a week would receive 60% of the full Parking Cash Out allowance.

How Is It Implemented?

This strategy is usually part of a Commute Trip Reduction program. Employers establish rules that employees
must observe to quality for financial benefits and may require participating employees to sign an agreement that
specifies their responsibilities, such as the number of days per month that they may drive to work and still qualify for
a Parking Cash Out bonus.

Appropriate Parking Management strategies can facilitate implementation of this strategy. Minimum parking
requirements can be reduced for businesses with Commute Financial Incentives. Transportation Management
Associations can serve as brokers for any extra parking capacity.

2. Road Pricing

Road Pricing means that motorists pay directly for driving on a particular roadway or in a particular area. Value
Pricing is a marketing term which emphasizes that road pricing can directly benefit motorists through reduced
congestion or improved roadways. Managed Lanes is a general term for various roadway management strategies,
including HOV, HOT, and congestion priced lanes.

Economists have long advocated Road Pricing as an efficient and equitable way to Finance Roads other
Transportation Programs and encourage more efficient transportation. Road Pricing has two general objectives:
revenue generation and congestion management. They differ in several ways, as compared in the table below.

9
There are different types of road pricing as described below,

a. Road Tolls

Tolls are a common way to fund highway and bridge improvements. Such tolls are a fee-for-service, with
revenues dedicated to roadway project costs. This is considered more equitable and economically efficient than
other roadway improvement funding options which cause non-users to help pay for improvements (Metschies
2001). Tolling is often proposed in conjunction with road privatization (i.e., highways built by private companies
and funded by tolls). Tolls are often structured to maximize revenues and success is measured in terms of project
cost recovery. Tolling authorities may discourage development of alternative routes or modes.

b. Congestion Pricing

Congestion Pricing (also called Value Pricing) refers to variable road tolls (higher prices under congested
conditions and lower prices at less congested times and locations) intended to reduce peak-period traffic volumes
to optimal levels. Tolls can vary based on a fixed schedule, or they can be dynamic, meaning that rates change
depending on the level of congestion that exists at a particular time. It can be implemented when road tolls are
implemented to raise revenue, or on existing roadways as a demand management strategy to avoid the need to
add capacity. Some highways have a combination of unpriced lanes and Value Priced lanes, allowing motorists to
choose between driving in congestion and paying a toll for an uncongested trip.

c. High Occupancy Toll Lanes

High Occupancy Toll (HOT) lanes are High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes that also allow use by a limited
number of low occupancy vehicles if they pay a toll. It is a type of Managed Lane (Goodin 2005). This allows more
vehicles to use HOV lanes while maintaining an incentive for mode shifting and raises revenue. HOT lanes are
often proposed as a compromise between HOV lanes and Road Pricing.

d. Cordon (Area) Tolls

Cordon tolls are fees paid by motorists to drive in a particular area, usually a city center. Some cordon tolls
only apply during peak periods, such as weekdays. This can be done by simply requiring vehicles driven within
the area to display a pass, or by tolling at each entrance to the area.

How is it Implemented?

Road Pricing is usually implemented by public or private highway agencies or local authorities as part of
transportation project funding packages, for transportation demand management, or through privatization of
highway construction and operations. Implementation may require approval of other levels of government.

Road Pricing can be implemented at various scales:

Point: Pricing a particular point in the road network, such as a bridge or a tunnel.
Facility: Pricing a roadway section.
Corridor: Pricing all roadways in a corridor.
Cordon: Pricing all roads in an area, such as a central business district.

10
Regional: Pricing roadways at regional centers or throughout a region.

C. SMART GROWTH

Smart growth (also called New Urbanism and Location Efficient Development) is a general term for policies
that integrate transportation and land use decisions, for example by encouraging more Compact, mixed-use
development within existing urban areas, and discouraging dispersed, automobile dependent development at the urban
fringe. Smart Growth can help create more Accessible land use patterns, improve Transport Options, create more
Livable communities, reduce public service costs and achieve other Land Use Objectives. Smart Growth is an
alternative to urban sprawl. Major differences between these two land use patterns are compared in table below.

Smart Growth emphasizes Accessibility, meaning that the activities people use frequently are located close
together. For this reason, the basic unit of planning is the local community, neighborhood or “village,” that is, a mixed-
use, Walkable area, one-half to one mile in diameter, with commonly used public services (shops, schools, parks, etc.)
Clustered into a central commercial area. This contrasts with conventional planning, which tends to emphasize mobility
as a solution to transport problems, and so tends to plan communities at a larger scale which relies primarily on motor
vehicle travel, with little consideration to pedestrian access.

11
Smart Growth policies can be implemented in urban, suburban and rural conditions:

• Urban: In urban areas it emphasizes redevelopment and infill of existing urban neighborhoods, improving
mixed-use design features (such as Traffic Calming of urban streets and Location Efficient Development),
and enhancing multi-modal transport systems, particularly walking and public transit.
• Suburban: In suburban areas it creates medium-density, mixed-use, multi-modal centers (sometimes called
Transit Villages), either by incrementally developing existing suburban communities or by master-plan
developments that reflect Smart Growth principles. It encourages more complete suburban communities
(more local services and employment in suburban jurisdictions) and improved regional travel options such as
Ridesharing and Transit Improvements. It supports greenspace preservation.
• Rural: In rural areas Smart Growth involves policies that help channel development and public services into
accessible, mixed-use villages (for example, having schools, stores and affordable housing located close
together and well connected by good walking facilities), and implementation of Rural Community TDM
(Twaddell and Emerine, 2007).

How Is It Implemented?

Smart Growth is usually implemented as a set of policies and programs by state/provincial, regional or local
governments. It can be incorporated into land use development, often in exchange for reduced development fees and
parking requirements (Seggerman, Hendricks and Fleury 2005). Implementation often requires Policy, Institutional and
Regulatory reforms. To be effective it requires multi-jurisdictional coordination. Many professional and non-profit
organizations involved in planning, urban development and quality of life issues support Smart Growth, including the
American Planning Association, the National Governor’s Association, and citizen-based environmental groups.

D. TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT

Source: https://www.treehugger.com/transit-oriented-development-key-better-cities-4858210

Transit Oriented Development (TOD) refers to residential and Commercial Centers designed to maximize
access by Transit and Nonmotorized transportation, and with other features to Encourage Transit Ridership. A typical

12
TOD has a rail or bus station at its center, surrounded by relatively high-density development, with progressively lower-
density spreading outwards one-quarter to one-half mile, which represents pedestrian scale distances.

Transit Oriented Development is a particular category of Smart Growth, New Urbanism and Location Efficient
Development. It can do more than simply shift some car trips to transit: it also increases Accessibility and Transportation
Options through land use Clustering and mix, and nonmotorized transportation improvements. This reduces the
distance required for car trips, allows a greater portion of trips to be made by walking and cycling, and allows some
households to reduce their car ownership, which together can result in large reductions in vehicle travel (Land Use
Impacts on Transport). This reduces total transportation costs and helps create a more Livable community, in addition
to supporting Mobility Management objectives.

High-quality transit supports the development of higher-density urban centers, which can provide accessibility
and agglomeration benefits (efficiencies that result when many activities are physically close together), while
automobile-oriented transportation conflicts with urban density because it is space intensive, requiring large amounts
of land for roads and parking facilities. Large scale Park & Ride facilities tend to conflict with Transit Oriented
Development, since a rail station surrounded by large parking lots and arterials with heavy traffic is unlikely to provide
a good environment for residential development or pedestrian access. It is therefore important that such facilities be
properly located, designed, and managed to minimize such conflicts.

Transit Oriented Development generally requires at least 6 residential units per acre in residential areas and
25 employees per acre in Commercial Centers, and about twice that for premium quality transit, such as rail service
(Pushkarev and Zupan 1977; Cervero, et al. 2004; Portland 2009; Reconnecting America and the CTOD 2008). These
Densities create adequate transit ridership to justify frequent service, and help create active street life and commercial
activities, such as grocery stores and coffee shops, within convenient walking distance of homes and worksites.
However, other factors are also important beside simple density. Transit ridership is also affected by factors such as
employment density and Clustering, demographic mix (students, seniors and lower-income people tend to be heavy
transit users), transit pricing and rider subsidies, Parking Pricing and Road Tolls, the quality of transit service, the
effectiveness of transit Marketing, walkability, and street design. A particular density may be inadequate to support
transit service by itself but becomes adequate if implemented with a variety of Transit Encouragement and Smart
Growth strategies. The assumption that transit cannot be effective except in large cities with high population densities
can be a self-fulfilling prophecy, because it results in transport and land use decisions that favor automobile travel over
transit.

How Is It Implemented?

Transit Oriented Development can consist of new urban transit lines and stations, new suburban
neighborhoods designed around public transit stations, and incremental changes to existing urban neighborhoods that
have public transit. Cervero, et al, 2004 describe Transit Oriented Development planning practices. Nelson/Nygaard
(2002) and Dittmar and Ohland (2004) describe specific changes to zoning laws and policies to encourage TOD.
Christopher (2007) describes land use policies to support bus transit. TCRP (2012) describes how to improve transit
station access by various modes (walking, cycling and automobile). Complete Streets policies can help improve
walking, cycling and public transit in TODs. McNeil, et al. describe various ways to improve pedestrian and bicycle
safety and access to transit, including information on evaluating, planning for, and implementing improvements to
pedestrian and bicycle access to transit. In addition to covering key concepts such as access sheds, connected
networks, and station area comfort, safety, and legibility, the manual covers need specific to pedestrians, such as
complete sidewalks and safe, convenient crossings, and to bicyclists, such as bicycle parking and on-transit
accommodations.

13
Summary:

14
15
References:

• http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm45.htm
• http://www.uli.org/wp content/uploads/2012/07/TP_DevTransit.ashx_.pdf
• Sustainable Transport:A Sourcebook for Policy makers in Developing CitiesModule 2b: Mobility
Management www.sutpasia.org or www.gtz.de/transport
• Dunphy, R. et. al. Ten Principles for Successful Development Around Transit. Urban Land
Institute. Retrieved from:
http://americas.uli.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/07/TP_DevTransit.ashx_.pdf
• Litman , Todd (2014). Implementing Transit Oriented Development in Indian Cities: Learnings
and Challenges. Victoria Transport Policy Institute. Retrieved from:
http://www.wrirosscities.org/media/implementing-transit-oriented-development-tod-indian-
cities-learnings-and-challenges

16
 POINTERS TO REVIEW | PTE 413 MTE

TABLE OF SPECIFICATION OF MIDTERM EXAM IN PTE 413

Outcomes/Skills Pointers/Topics No. of Items Test Type

• Ability to understand and comprehend the • Introduction to 3 ANALYZING

importance of Transportation Engineering Transportation Planning and
and the Transportation Planning Process.
Engineering

• Ability to understand and comprehend the • Urban Transport Planning in 10 UNDERSTANDING

impacts of urbanization in the transportation the Philippines Odd-one-out
system.

• Ability to understand and comprehend the • Mobility Management 10 REMEMBERING

importance of Mobility Management and Morse-type
how does it improve the problems with
Transportation System. 15 EVALUATING
Modified Matching
Type

The first two parts of the exam will be multiple-choice. The answer sheet will be provided on the
first page of the exam papers. Test I will be a multiple-choice odd-one-out focusing on urban
transport planning in the Philippines. Test II will be a morse type multiple-choice focusing on
mobility management. Test III’s type will be modified matching-type concentrating on
implementing different mobility management strategies. The last part will be essays focused on
the overall transportation engineering topics. On the next page are SAMPLE test questions (some
of the last year’s exam), for your reference and review.

1|Page

POINTERS TO REVIEW | PTE 413

Choose which idea is not related to the rest.

01. The statements below are under the topic of Funding for Urban Transport: Motor
Vehicle User’s Charge.
A. Special Traffic Road Fund
B. Special Local Support Fund.
C. Special Road Safety Fund
D. Special Road Control Fund.
E. None of the initial choices.

02. The statements below are under the topic of Funding for Urban Transport: Local
Funds.
A. The experience of DILG in managing the SLRF is notable as it demonstrates
the catalytic impacts of fund allocations that can be channeled to LGUs.
B. One of the major reasons why urban transport-related projects do not figure
dominantly in the CDP is the absence of transport data on the local level.
C. More specifically, LGUs can help affect the cost of doing business through
their expenditure as well as regulatory policies and thus, make their
jurisdictions more competitive to new investments relative to other locations.
D. With decentralization, LGUs are envisioned to play a major role in altering the
relative attractiveness of urban centers to firms and skilled labor by offering
different bundles of local services (most especially infrastructure) vis-a-vis
varying levels of local taxes and user charges.
E. None of the initial choices.

03. The statements below are under the topic of Urban Transport Challenges in the
Philippines: Traffic Accidents.
A. In Metro Manila, the Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA) maintains
the Metro Manila Accident Reporting and Analysis System (MMARAS
B. Cities like Makati, Pasay, Caloocan, and Pasig have posted negative growth
rates while cities that are located at the fringes of Metro Manila have very
high vehicle registration growth including Taguig, Valenzuela, and
Paranaque.
C. The cities of Makati, San Juan, and Mandaluyong registered non-fatal accident
rates of over 1,000 occurrences per 100,000 people, the highest in Metro
Manila.
D. The Philippines lacks comprehensive accident studies, but it is generally
known that cities in the country face serious challenges in road safety.
E. None of the initial choices.

04. The statements below are under the topic of Urban Transport Challenges in the
Philippines: Traffic Congestion.
A. Cities in Metro Manila have generally higher road densities compared to other
cities as this indicates that Metro Manila cities have a comprehensive road
network system.
B. The average travel times of bus, jeepney and tricycle users are 79 minutes, 43
minutes, and 17 minutes, respectively.
C. A study in 2000 states that time lost due to serious road traffic congestion in
Metro Manila amounts to PHPl00 Billion each year.
D. To improve the meet the future travel demand at an improved level of traffic
situation than the 1996 conditions, the MMUTIS formulated a "Do-maximum
network.”
E. None of the initial choices.

05. The statements below are under the topic of Road Network Improvement of
Regional Growth Centers
A. To enhance the capability of the National Government as well as the Local
Government Units for urban road network planning and feasibility study.
B. To assess the existing traffic condition in Davao City through compilation of
primary and secondary data
C. To formulate a Master Plan for the Urban Road Network Development
including short-, medium- and long-term implementation programs.
 D. To carry out a feasibility study for high priority road projects.
E. None of the initial choices.

06. The statements below are under the topic of Road Network Improvement of
Regional Growth Centers
A. Urban transport and land use modeling.
B. Socio-economic profiling of the metropolitan areas.
C. Review of transport and traffic conditions.
D. Development of urban road master plans.
E. None of the initial choices.

07. The statements below are under the topic of Simplified Urban Transport Analysis:
Public Transport Data
A. Some data on road maintenance expenditure are, however, available at the
central office level.
B. The level of investment and the source of financing urban transport
investment are necessary in determining the capacity and efficiency of LGUs
for financing urban transport programs and projects.
C. Data integration is often done according to the minimum requirements and
standard format of the Bureau of Local Government Finance (BLGF).
D. Majority of city transport investment data are only available at the local budget
or treasury office.
E. None of the initial choices.

08. The statements below are under the topic of the key elements of Environmentally
Sustainable Transport
A. Vehicle emission control, standards, and inspection and maintenance.
B. Road safety and maintenance.
C. Public transport planning and travel demand management
D. Strengthening roadside air quality monitoring and management.
E. None of the initial choices.

09. The statements below are under the topic of Funding for Urban Transport:
Performance-Based Grants.
A. Fund allocations can be subject to appropriate levels of monitoring and
evaluation with a mix of capacity-building strategies.
B. In the case of SLRF, DOTC conducts field visits and dialogues with concerned
LGUs. The DOTC have also collected useful statistics relating to the urban
transport system of LGUs.
C. While DOTC is the main policy and planning agency in relation to transport
development, the DILG works closely with city governments.
D. While DILG does not have the financial resources to support the urban
transport development needs of LGUs, DOTC may be able to provide seed
funds to assist LGUs.
E. None of the initial choices.

10. The statements below are under the topic of Metro Manila Transportation
Integration Study
A. They were in the range from continuation of current trends to strong
interventions to decentralize and force growth at the regional level.
B. The Metro Manila Transportation Integration Study (MMUTIS) followed the
conventional transport planning process, but also incorporated participatory
planning through its planning workshops and consultative activities.
C. A phased program of transportation infrastructure investments had been
prepared in the context of the Structure Plan.
D. MMUTIS formulated and evaluated four scenarios on future urban
development patterns.
E. None of the initial choices.

11. The statements below are under the topic of Urban Transport Challenges in the
Philippines: Rapid Urbanization.

3|Page

POINTERS TO REVIEW | PTE 413

 A. The Philippines is one of the most rapidly growing and urbanizing countries in
Asia.
B. General Santos City has the highest urban density followed by Cebu City, both
of which have densities over 13,000 persons per square kilometer.
C. In 1980, the total population of the country was 48.098 million. Twenty years
later, in 2000, the total population of the Philippines became 7 6.504 million.
D. Explosive population growth rate occurred during the period from 1960 to
1970 with a rate of 3.08%
E. None of the initial choices.

12. The statements below are under the topic of Urban Transport Challenges in the
Philippines: Urban Density.
A. The urbanization rate of the Philippines was around 60% in 2000. This is
expected to reach around 77% in 2030 higher than that of Japan, Indonesia,
and Thailand.
B. An analysis on urban density of cities is very useful since it is considered an
important factor in understanding how cities function.
C. Studies like Newman and Kenworthy (1989) and Kenworthy and Laube (1999)
has strongly influenced urban policy that advocates reduction in automobile
use by generating higher population density.
D. Urban density is a term used in urban planning and urban design to refer to the
number of people inhabiting a given urbanized area.
E. None of the initial choices.

13. The statements below are under the topic of Simplified Urban Transport Analysis:
Road Network Data.
A. The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) maintains a regular
inventory of national roads.
B. Road network data, which include information on surface type and surface
conditions, are available in different offices in charge of road administration.
C. There is central repository of barangay road data as these are usually kept at
local planning or engineering offices, or the district engineering offices of the
DPWH.
D. The DILG, in the office of Special Local Road Fund, keeps an updated
inventory of provincial and city roads.
E. None of the initial choices.

14. The statements below are under the topic of Simplified Urban Transport Analysis:
Motor Vehicle Registration Data.
A. Traffic counts for city roads, are commonly not performed except for cities
that have prepared local transport plans and have conducted local traffic
counts.
B. Motor vehicle registration data are available at the Management and
Information Division of LTO.
C. Motor vehicle registrations are classified according to vehicle type, ownership
type, engine type, and age among others.
D. Electronic data on district office level statistics are however not available for
older years. Since paper-based district level data at Management Information
Department (MID) are commonly lent out to researchers coming to LTO, pages
are sometimes mixed up or have missing sections.
E. None of the initial choices.

15. The statements below are under the topic of the key elements of Environmentally
Sustainable Transport
A. Traffic noise management.
B. Public health.
C. Local Funding
D. Cleaner fuels.
E. None of the initial choices.

16. The statements below are under the topic of the key elements of Environmentally
Sustainable Transport
A. Non-motorized transport.
B. Environment and people friendly infrastructure development.
C. Social equity and gender perspectives.
D. Road Congestion Pricing
E. None of the initial choices.
 17. The statements below are under the topic of City Development Strategies
A. The goals of CDS include a collective city vision and action plan aimed at
improving urban governance and management, increasing investment to
expand employment and services, and systematic and sustained reductions
in urban poverty.
B. The significance of this undertaking is viewed from the recognition that
traditional transport system management concentrated on individual transport
modes and physical infrastructure results to disconnected efforts.
C. The City Development Strategy (CDS) is an action plan for equitable growth in
cities, developed and sustained through participation, to improve the quality of
life for all citizens.
D. The CDS programs, a project preparation grant from the Japanese
Government supported several cities in preparing city strategies and project
feasibility studies.
E. None of the initial choices.

18. The statements below are under the topic of Metro Cebu Land Use and Transport
Study
A. The Metro Cebu Land Use and Transport Study (MCLUTS) prepared a
structure plan to guide the development of Metro Cebu from 1981 to 2000.
B. The plan was a product of two rounds of plan testing and evaluation. The first
round of network development produced a network that would entail an
investment of USD30 billion.
C. The strategic planning component of the MCLUTS formulated, tested, and
evaluated four basic urban forms
D. The Metro Cebu Development Project has been established to manage the
implementation of the MCLUTS recommendations.
E. None of the initial choices.

19. The statements below are under the topic of Simplified Urban Transport Analysis:
Traffic Accident Data.
A. Two of the main sources of traffic accident data in the country are the Traffic
Accident Reporting and Analysis System (TARAS) and Metropolitan Manila
Accident Reporting and Analysis System (MMARAS).
B. TARAS started in 2004 and is integrated by DPWH. MMARAS started in 2002
and is maintained by MMDA.
C. Details on traffic accidents are recorded in TARAS forms, processed into the
database, and are submitted to the DPWH district offices.
D. MMARAS, on the other hand, is operated under the Metropolitan Road Safety
Unit (MRSU) of the MMDA Traffic Operation Center (TOC) with the
cooperation of the Traffic Enforcement Group of the NCR Police office of the
PNP.
E. None of the initial choices.

20. The statements below are under the topic of Simplified Urban Transport Analysis:
Public Transport Data.
A. Deregulated public transport in the country has contributed to the absence of
centralized data collection system for public transport system particularly on
the level of passenger ridership.
B. Franchising for other public transport modes like tricycles and pedicabs are
performed by the LGUs.
C. Public transport supply and operations data are critical to the planning of public
transport system.
D. Traffic counts data are available for some national road’s sections at the
DPWH Planning Service Division.
E. None of the initial choices.

21. The statements below are under the topic of Urban Transport Challenges in the
Philippines: Motorization.
A. The largest increase in private vehicle registration in the period 2000 to 2008
is attributed to the drastic rise in the number of motorcycles.

5|Page

POINTERS TO REVIEW | PTE 413

 B. Vehicle registration statistics indicate a nationwide average vehicle registration
growth rate of 7.5% annually for the period 2000 to 2008.
C. Based on the LTFRB record of franchises in 2007, there are about 61,800
public utility vehicles operating in Metro Manila.
D. Among the cities outside Metro Manila, only Cebu City has experienced
negative growth in annual private vehicle registration.
E. None of the initial choices.

22. The statements below are under the topic of Urban Transport Challenges in the
Philippines: Public Transport Supply.
A. Public transport supply data for cities outside of Metro Manila are not readily
available because the LTFRB regional offices do not regularly produce this.
Local governments also do not produce tricycle statistics.
B. The public transport system in Philippine cities is road-based except in Metro
Manila where there is a network of 3 light rail transit lines and intra-city public
transport services are mainly provided by public utility jeepneys (PUJ) and
tricycles.
C. For buses, the average fleet size per operator is about 13.6 while majority of
jeepney operators owned only one unit.
D. Cities in Metro Manila have generally higher road densities compared to other
cities. This also indicates that Metro Manila cities have a comprehensive road
network system.
E. None of the initial choices.

23. The statements below are under the topic of Issues in the Transportation Sector
A. Greenhouse Gases (GHG) resulting to Global Warming
B. Gender Gaps in Public Transportation
C. Travel Demand Management
D. Economic Impacts of Traffic Congestion
E. None of the initial choices.

24. The statements below are under the topic of Issues in the Transportation Sector
A. Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program (PUVMP)
B. Lack of fundings for developments of transportation infrastructures.
C. Travel chains of women resulting to a higher transportation cost.
D. Unreliability of public transportation due to unsystematized transportation
system.
E. None of the initial choices.

25. The statements below are under the topic of Urban Transport Challenges in the
Philippines: Energy Consumption and Climate Change.
A. The continuous release of CO2 and other GHG to the environment beyond
the Earth's natural absorptive capacity is accountable for global warming.
B. Increase in motorization as well as reliance on fossil fuels and inefficient
vehicle technologies in the transport sector has led to increased emission of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHG).
C. The ambient air quality statistics from the Environmental Management Bureau
(EMB) shows a general decrease in TSP concentration in Metro Manila from
1998 to 2006
D. The latest GHG emission inventory for the country points to a 22% share of the
transport sector to the annual CO2 load and 30% share to the total GHG
emissions.
E. None of the initial choices.
Choose the item that best corresponds to the questions given.

_____ 1. Which among these statements is true?

I. Urban areas are now home to 50 percent of the world’s population, but they account
for 60-80 percent of energy consumption and 75 percent of carbon emissions.
II. Rapid urbanization is exerting pressure on freshwater supplies, sewage, the living
environment, and public health, which does not affect the urban poor.
III. In many cases, urbanization is characterized by urban sprawl and peripheralization –
which is not only socially divisive but increases energy demand, and carbon emissions
and puts pressure on ecosystems.
IV. Due to the rapid urbanization and lack of consideration of land use and transport
interaction in the development, there’s a need for mobilization.
V. The term “mobilization” is a military term that describes rallying and preparing troops
for war.
A. I, II, and III D. I and V
B. I, III, IV and V E. None of the given statements.
C. I, II, and IV F. All of the given statements.

_____ 2. Which among these statements is true?

I. Motorization is the process of adopting and using motor vehicles as a core part of
economic and daily life – is closely linked with other dimensions of development such
as urbanization and industrialization.
II. For many households, being able to afford their own vehicle is often perceived as the
key to accessing more jobs, more services, and more opportunities—not to mention a
status symbol.
III. Motorization also comes with a serious downside, in terms of challenges that many
governments have difficulty managing.
IV. Motor vehicles cannot undermine the livability of cities by cluttering up roads and open
spaces.
V. From an environmental standpoint, motorized transport is, of course, a major
contributor to urban air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
A. II, III, IV, and V D. IV and V
B. I, II, IV and V E. None of the given statements.
C. I, II, III, and V F. All of the given statements.

_____ 3. Which among these statements is not true?

I. The Black hole theory of road investment, also known as Braess’s paradox states that
“For each point of a road network, let there be given the number of cars starting from
it, and the destination of the cars.
II. Under these conditions, one wishes to estimate the distribution of traffic flow.
III. Whether one street is preferable to another depends not only on the quality of the
road but also on the density of the flow.
IV. If every driver takes the path that looks most favorable to him, the resultant running
times need to be minimal.
V. Furthermore, it is indicated by an example that an extension of the road network may
cause a redistribution of the traffic that results in longer individual running times
A. I D. I and V
B. IV E. None of the given statements.
C. II and II F. All of the given statements.

_____ 4. Which among these statements is true?

I. Transportation Demand Management or TDM (also called Mobility Management)
refers to various strategies that change travel behavior (how, when, and where people

7|Page

POINTERS TO REVIEW | PTE 413

 travel) to increase transport system efficiency and achieve specific planning
objectives.
II. TDM emphasizes the movement of just motor vehicles.
III. A typical person makes more than a dozen trips away from home each week and
many of these trips are not so flexible in terms of their timing, mode, and destination.
IV. Many factors affect people’s transport decisions including the relative convenience
and safety of travel modes (such as whether streets have sidewalks and bike paths,
and the quality of transit services available), prices (transit fares and the price of
parking at destinations); and land use factors (such as whether schools, parks and
shops are located close to residential neighborhoods).
V. Many commuters can vary when and how they travel to work or school, at least some
days.
A. I, II, and III D. IV and V
B. I and II E. None of the given statements.
C. II and III F. All of the given statements.

_____ 5. Which among these statements is true?

I. Flextime and CWW are usually implemented as an employee and manager option
(both employees and their managers must agree).
II. They just vary from day to day, depending on circumstances and all jobs are suitable
for alternative schedules.
III. Positions that require employees to provide service at a particular time and place
demand a rigid schedule.
IV. Alternative Work Schedule is typically implemented as part of a Commute Trip
Resolution program.
V. Formal Alternative Work Scheduling is common at many worksites, so an official
policy may simply formalize and support existing practices.
A. I, II, and III D. II and IV
B. I and III E. None of the given statements.
C. I,III, and V F. All of the given statements.

_____ 6. Which among these statements is not true?

I. Non-motorized Transportation (also known as Active Transportation and Human
Powered Transportation) includes Walking and Bicycling, and variants such as Small-
Wheeled Transport (skates, skateboards, push scooters and hand carts) and
Wheelchair travel.
II. Non-motorized Transportation provide both recreation (they are an end in themselves)
and transportation (they provide access to goods and activities), although users may
consider a particular trip to serve both objectives.
III. Pedestrian and cycling improvements are usually implemented by local governments,
sometimes with funding and technical support of regional or state/provincial
transportation agencies.
IV. Complete Streets means that roadways are designed to accommodate all modes,
including walking and cycling.
V. Traffic signals are designed to make motor vehicle travel faster, to the detriment of
cyclists and pedestrians.
A. II, III, and V D. II, IV and V
B. I, II, and III E. None of the given statements.
C. I, II, III and IV F. All of the given statements.

_____ 7. Which among these statements is not true?

I. Employee Parking Pricing means that companies charge for parking at their parking
lots or eliminate existing subsidies for off-site employee parking.
II. Parking Cash Out means that commuters who are offered subsidized parking are also
offered the cash equivalent if they use alternative travel modes.
III. Travel allowances are financial payments provided to employees instead of parking
subsidies. Commuters can use this money to pay for parking or for another travel
mode.
IV. Transit and rideshare benefits are not free nor discounted transit fares provided to
employees.
V. Commuter financial incentives cannot be prorated according to how much employees
use alternative modes for example, employees who drive twice a week should not
receive 60% of the full Parking Cash Out allowance.
 A. IV and V D. I, II and IV
B. I, II, and III E. None of the given statements.
C. III, IV and V F. All of the given statements.

_____ 8. Which among these statements is true?

I. Road Pricing means that motorists pay directly for driving on a particular roadway or in
a particular area.
II. Tolls are a common way to fund highway and bridge improvements such that tolls are
fee-for-service, with revenues dedicated to roadway project costs.
III. Congestion Pricing refers to variable road tolls (lower prices under congested
conditions and higher prices at less congested times and locations) intended to
reduce peak-period traffic volumes to optimal levels.
IV. High Occupancy Toll (HOT) lanes are High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes that also
allow use by a limited number of high occupancy vehicles if they pay a toll.
V. Cordon tolls are fees paid by motorists to drive in a particular area, usually a city
center.
A. I, III, and V D. II and III
B. I, II, and V E. None of the given statements.
C. II, IV, and V F. All of the given statements.

_____ 9. Which among these statements is true?

I. Smart growth (also called New Urbanism and Location Efficient Development) is a
general term for policies that integrate transportation and land use decisions.
II. Smart Growth can help create more accessible land use patterns, improve transport
options, create more livable communities, reduce public service costs and achieve
other land use objectives.
III. Smart Growth is not an alternative to urban sprawl.
IV. Smart Growth emphasizes accessibility, meaning that the activities people use
frequently are located close together.
V. Smart Growth policies can be implemented in urban and suburban conditions only.
A. III and IV D. III, IV and V
B. I, II, and IV E. None of the given statements.
C. II, III, and IV F. All of the given statements.

_____ 10. Which among these statements is not true?

I. Transit Oriented Development (TOD) refers to only commercial centers designed to
maximize access by transit and non-motorized transportation, and with other features
to encourage transit ridership.
II. A typical TOD has a rail or bus station at its center, surrounded by relatively high-
density development, with progressively lower-density spreading outwards one-
quarter to one-half mile, which represents pedestrian scale distances.
III. Transit Oriented Development is a particular category of Smart Growth, New
Urbanism and Location Efficient Development.
IV. Transit Oriented Development can do more than simply shift some car trips to transit:
it also decreases accessibility and transportation options through land use clustering
and mix, and nonmotorized transportation improvements.
V. Transit Oriented Development can reduce the distance required for car trips, allows a
greater portion of trips to be made by walking and cycling, and allows some
households to reduce their car ownership, which together can result in large
reductions in vehicle travel (Land Use Impacts on Transport).
A. I, II, and IV D. I and III None of the given
B. II, IV and V statements.
C. I and IV E. All of the given statements.

_____ 11. Which among these statements is true?

9|Page

POINTERS TO REVIEW | PTE 413

 I. The transportation planning process was designed to be thorough, involving the
gathering, analysis, and interpretation of important data pertaining to current
conditions and past growth.
II. Transport planning has evolved over the last 400 years, and with clear theoretical
foundations. Everyone is aware of the problems created by the increased demand for
transport and most effort has been directed at finding methods of analysis with a
practical, usually quantitative, output.
III. Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that focuses on
transportation infrastructure: all of the elements that support the movement of goods
and people.
IV. Application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design,
operation, and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to
provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods is covered by Traffic Engineering.
V. The evaluation stage of the Chicago Area Transportation Study's Transport Planning
Process is primarily concerned with determining the value for money, typically through
some type of cost-benefit analysis or financial appraisal of the alternatives.
A. I, II, and IV D. I, IV and V
B. I, III, and IV E. None of the given statements.
C. I, III, and V F. All of the given statements.

_____ 12. Which among these statements is true?

I. The last stage of the Transport Planning Process by Chicago Area Transportation
Study is usually through a modelling process to see whether each alternative can
achieve the stated objectives and how each compare with other alternatives.
II. At the appropriate stages, information regarding transportation networks, facility
locations, and household characteristics are all included in the model sequences.
III. The framework of the transportation planning process followed the systems approach
to analysis and indicated a shift away from judgments based on intuition and
experience and toward an analytical approach.
IV. The first stage of the Chicago Area Transportation Study's Transport Planning
Process is to define the problem and the planning objectives.
V. The constraints is one of the stages of the Transport Planning Process by Chicago
Area Transportation Study is categorized into three main types of constraints, limit the
choice of alternatives into social, economical, and environmental.
A. I, II, and III D. I, IV and V
B. I, III and V E. None of the given statements.
C. II, III and IV F. All of the given statements.

_____ 13. Which among these statements is true?

I. The TPM's underlying conceptual underpinnings are that each traveler's decisions
follow this straightforward sequence - whether to undertake a journey, where to go,
what mode to utilize, and which route to take.
II. The early breakthroughs in transportation planning were concerned with aggregate
analysis and the overall efficiency of people and commodities movement.
III. Forecasting what is likely to happen in the future is the most challenging stage of the
Chicago Area Transportation Study's Transport Planning Process.
IV. Not all transport development is economic in origin. The chief preoccupation of the
first human was the procurement of food, shelter, and sometimes clothing.
V. The three elements of a transportation system can be represented by their examples
such as roads, planes, and freight.
A. I, II, and III D. I, IV and V
B. II, III, and IV E. None of the given statements.
C. II and III F. All of the given statements.

_____ 14. Which among these statements is not true?

I. Concerns a range of modes employed in tandem in order to maximize the benefits of
each mode in air transportation. Although intermodal transportation applies to
passenger movements, such as the use of diverse, linked modes of a public
transportation system, the most substantial consequences have been noticed in
freight transportation.
II. After considering the constraints in the Transport Planning Process, it will be followed
by identifying the range of options that can be used to achieve the planning objectives
stated in the first stage.
 III. The role of highway engineers is to protect the environment while providing mobility, to
preserve scarce resources while assuring economic activity, and to assure safety and
security to people and vehicles, through both acceptable practices and high-tech
communications.
IV. Transportation is all about moving goods and people from one place to another. It is
also a safe, efficient, reliable, and sustainable movement of persons and goods over
time and space.
V. The aim of the Transportation Planning Process was to establish goals and objectives,
synthesize the ‘current patterns of movement’ within the city, and forecast future
demand patterns either with trend-based changes or with a range of investment
options.
A. I and IV D. III
B. III and V E. None of the given statements.
C. II F. All of the given statements.

_____ 15. Which among these statements is true?

I. Transit Oriented Development can consist of new urban transit lines and stations, new
suburban neighborhoods designed around public transit stations, and incremental
changes to existing urban neighborhoods that have public transit.
II. High-quality transit supports the development of higher-density urban centers, which
can provide accessibility and agglomeration benefits.
III. Automobile-oriented transportation conflicts with urban density because it is space-
intensive, requiring large amounts of land for roads and parking facilities.
IV. Large-scale Park & Ride facilities tend to conflict with Transit Oriented Development
since a rail station surrounded by large parking lots and arterials with heavy traffic is
unlikely to provide a good environment for residential development or pedestrian
access.
V. Transit Oriented Development generally requires at least 6 residential units per acre in
residential areas and 25 employees per acre in Commercial Centers, and about twice
that for premium quality transit, such as rail service.
A. I, II, and III D. II, III and IV
B. I and III E. None of the given statements.
C. II and IV F. All of the given statements.

_____ 16. Which among these statements is not true?

I. Multi-objective is characteristic of the transportation system that encourages national
and regional economic development, urban development, environmental quality, and
social quality.
II. Multi-problem is a characteristic of the transportation system that covers a broad
range of topics, such as regional system planning and national and international
policy.
III. Multi-disciplinary is a characteristic of the transportation system which includes the
concerns and perspectives of the government, the private sector, and the general
public.
IV. Multi-modal is one of the characteristics of the transportation system that covers all
modes of transport; air, land, and sea for both passenger and freight.
V. Multi-sector is one of the characteristics of the transportation system that
encompasses a wide variety of concerns such as the placement and design of specific
facilities, carrier management difficulties, and regulatory, institutional, and financial
policies.
A. I, II, and III D. I and V
B. II and IV E. None of the given statements.
C. II and V F. All of the given statements.

_____ 17. Which among these statements is not true?

I. Multi-disciplinary is one of the characteristics of the transportation system that draws
on the theories and methods of engineering, economics, operations research, political
science, psychology, other natural, and social sciences, management and law.

11 | P a g e

POINTERS TO REVIEW | PTE 413

 II. In contrast to the structural design of the facilities, Geometric Design deals with the
physical proportioning of other transportation infrastructure.
III. Geometric Design is about the structural design of roadways
IV. Pavement Analysis and Design is involved with material design, determining layer
thickness, and construction and maintenance activities.
V. Cross-sectional characteristics, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, and
intersections are all covered by Pavement Analysis and Design.
A. III, IV, and V D. II, IV and V
B. I, II and IV E. None of the given statements.
C. I, II and III F. All of the given statements.

_____ 18. Which among these statements is true?

I. Although there are several modes of transportation such as road, rail, and air, the core
concepts of Geometric Design are mostly the same.
II. Traffic Engineering entails creating a transportation model that comes to understand
both the current and future transportation systems.
III. Traffic Engineering covers a high understanding of the traffic flow behavior and
characteristics by an extensive collection of traffic flow data and analysis.
IV. Based on traffic engineering analysis, flow is controlled so that the transport
infrastructure is used optimally as well as with good service quality.
V. Traffic Engineering encompasses a wide range of technical applications with a focus
on public safety, effective use of transportation resources, and people and
commodities movement.
A. I, II, III, and IV D. I, II, IV, and V
B. I, III, IV, and V E. None of the given statements.
C. I, II, III, and IV F. All of the given statements.

_____ 19. Which among these statements is true?

I. Transportation Planning necessitates a wide range of engineering and management
skills, such as design, operation, and system optimization, in order to protect the
environment while providing mobility.
II. Transportation Planning also considers conserving scarce resources while ensuring
economic activity and ensuring the safety and security of people and vehicles through
both acceptable practices and high-tech communications.
III. Transportation Planning was designed largely to support political goals and pay for
national defense. As a result, it frequently has a direct impact on transportation
development.
IV. Economic Factor is frequently decisive in transportation development. Essentially, it is
a method of forming and controlling an integrated political system.
V. Military focuses on the location of natural resources, which defines the transport
routes that provide access to those resources and provide economic utility, that is,
time and place utility, by transporting them from a region with low value to processing
and consuming places with high value.
A. I D. V
B. IV E. None of the given statements.
C. II and III F. All of the given statements.

_____ 20. Which among these statements is not true?

I. Progress in direct and supporting technologies has clearly had a role in transportation;
for example, the introduction of a new affordable transportation mode into the existing
system necessitates transportation development.
II. Urbanization addresses the quick advances that have an influence on the constantly
rising population, a phenomenon that cannot be neglected as a factor in transportation
development.
III. Land accessibility and intensity of land usage are intimately tied to transportation
availability.
IV. Economic Factors meant that strategies for transferring commodities from remote
locations had to be established, raising the costs of the items secured as a result.
V. As the transportation system has gotten more sophisticated and complicated,
transportation productivity has decreased and unit costs have increased.
A. I D. V
B. IV E. None of the given statements.
C. II and III F. All of the given statements.
 _____ 21. Which among these statements is not true?
I. Competition centers around the availability of many alternatives and supports the
growth and enhancement of various areas of the transportation industry such as
various goods, modes of transportation, materials, and so on.
II. Trip Assignment directs all trips to the actual road network based on origin and
destination zones. Each mode is usually held at a separate venue.
III. The Transport Pricing Model (TPM) framework took several years to develop, but
variants on the basic format have been used to hundreds of transport studies
conducted all over the world and constituted the fundamental portion of the transport
planning process.
IV. Trip Generation is the total number of travels associated with a zone or unit, which
includes both trips generated, and trips attracted to that zone.
V. Trip Generation is the allocation of travels in the studied area between each pair of
zones.
A. I, II, and IV D. III and V
B. I and III E. None of the given statements.
C. II and III F. All of the given statements.

_____ 22. Which among these statements is not true?

I. Rail Transportation is a huge user of space have the fewest physical limits of any form
of transportation and has substantial maintenance costs for both cars and
infrastructure.
II. Road Transportation is mostly associated with light industries in which quick
transportation of freight in small batches is the norm.
III. Air Transportation are connected to the tertiary and quaternary industries, particularly
banking and tourism, which rely on people's long-distance transportation.
IV. Maritime Transportation have average physical restrictions due to the different types
of locomotives, and a low gradient is necessary, especially for freight.
V. Pipelines are made up of traced pathways with bound vehicles.
A. I, III, and IV D. III, IV and V
B. I, IV, and V E. None of the given statements.
C. II, IV, and V F. All of the given statements.

_____ 23. Which among these statements is true?

I. Modal Split determines the number of trips by each mode of transport between each
pair of zones.
II. Air Transportation is the most effective mode to move large quantities of cargo over
long distances.
III. Maritime Transportation is almost limitless because it may be laid on land or
underwater.
IV. In arctic or subarctic regions, physical restrictions include the topography and pergelic
in constructing pipelines.
V. Pipelines expenses vary according to diameter and grow proportionally with distance
and fluid viscosity.
A. I, III, and IV D. III, IV and V
B. I, IV, and V E. None of the given statements.
C. II, IV, and V F. All of the given statements.

_____ 24. Which among these statements is true?

I. The structure of the transport planning process followed the systems approach to
analysis and marked the move towards an analytical approach rather than decisions
being based on intuition and experience.
II. The broad structure of the approach followed that of the California Area Transportation
Study (1960), one of the first classic aggregate studies.
III. This is the basic structure, which is still used, albeit with many modifications.

13 | P a g e

POINTERS TO REVIEW | PTE 413

 IV. Expected vehicle and passenger volumes in the main travel corridors were estimated
and increases in road and public transport capacities were proposed to accommodate
those expected increases over the following 20 years.
V. As itemized by Thomson (1974) the basic process can be summarized in seven
stages.
A. I, III, and IV D. III, IV and V
B. I, IV, and V E. None of the given statements.
C. II, IV, and V F. All of the given statements.

_____ 25. Which among these statements is true?

I. Other factors such as land-use and population changes are input exogenously to the
TPM once it has been calibrated for the existing situation.
II. It is sequential in that the output from one sub model is the input to the next.
III. Information about transport networks, about the location of facilities and about the
characteristics of households (for example car ownership and income) are all
introduced into the model sequences at the appropriate stages.
IV. The output represents the transport system, and this is used as the basis against
which to evaluate alternative plans.
V. The implicit conceptual foundations of the TPM are that the decisions made by each
traveler follow this simple sequence – whether to make a trip, where to go, what mode
to use, and which route to take.
A. I, III, and IV D. III, IV and V
B. I, IV, and V E. None of the given statements.
C. II, IV, and V F. All of the given statements.

ESSAY (Sample essay questions)

What is transportation engineering?

What is road transportation?

Provide a solution for the problem in public transport.

What is the Braess’s paradox?

Is the current public transportation system inclusive? Yes, or no? Why?

Does political will plays a major role in the development of transportation system?