Continuous-time Signals

Part 2
Dr. Edwin Sybingco
Outline
• Classifications of Signals
• Continuous-time vs discrete-time Signals
• Periodic vs Aperiodic
• Energy vs Power
• Even vs odd
• Basic Operations of Signals
• Shifting Operation
• Reflection Operation or Time Reversal
• Time Scaling
• Amplitude Scaling
• Amplitude Shifting
• Modulation
• Windowing
Classifications of Signals
• Continuous-time vs discrete-time Signals
• Periodic vs Aperiodic
• Energy vs Power
• Even vs odd
Continuous-time (CT) vs discrete-time Signals (DT)
• A signal is continuous if the independent variable is continuous also
known as continuous-time signal. Examples of continuous-time
signals are: telephone or radio signals as a function of time,
atmospheric pressure as a function of altitude

• A signal is considered a discrete-time signal if the independent

variable takes on discrete values 𝑛𝑇𝑠 , where 𝑇𝑠 is a fixed real positive
number and 𝑛 is an integer value. Examples of discrete-time signals
are the amount of loan payment in the nth month, the weekly
Philippine Stock Exchange index, and the output of an information
source that produces one of the digits 1,2,…,M every T seconds.
Continuous-time (CT) vs discrete-time Signals (DT)
𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑛𝑇𝑠

CT DT

𝑇𝑠 𝑡
𝑛 = ⋯ , −2, −1,0,1,2, … 𝑛𝑇𝑠
Periodic VS Aperiodic
• A continuous-time signal 𝑥 𝑡 is periodic if the following conditions are
satisfied
• 𝑥 𝑡 is defined for all possible values of 𝑡, −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞
• There is a positive real value 𝑇, fundamental period of 𝑥 𝑡 , such that

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇
for any integer 𝑛 = ⋯ , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … .
• The fundamental period of 𝑥 𝑡 is the smallest 𝑇 > 0 that makes the
periodicity possible

• A signal 𝑥 𝑡 that is not periodic is referred to as an aperiodic signal

Periodic vs Aperiodic
• A sinusoidal signal of frequency 𝑤0 > 0 is periodic with period 𝑇0 =
2𝜋Τ𝑇0 .

• The sum of two periodic signals 𝑥 𝑡 and 𝑦 𝑡 , of periods 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 is

periodic if the ratio of the periods 𝑇1 Τ𝑇2 is a rational number 𝑁/𝑀,
with 𝑁 and 𝑀 non-divisible integers. The fundamental period is:

𝑇0 = 𝑀𝑇1 = 𝑁𝑇2
Periodic vs Aperiodic
• Example: Let 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝑡 and 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑡 , consider their sum 𝑧 𝑡 =
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑦 𝑡 , Amplitude shifting 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 1 and their product
𝑤 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 . Determine if 𝑧 𝑡 and 𝑤 𝑡 are periodic, and if so
their fundamental periods. Also, is 𝑝 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑥 𝑡 1 + 𝑦 𝑡
periodic?
• SUM

𝑧 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑡 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋𝑡

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑇𝑥 𝑁 𝜋
𝑇𝑥 = =𝜋 𝑇𝑦 = =2 = = Irrational number
2 𝜋 𝑇𝑦 𝑀 2

𝑧 𝑡 is aperiodic
Periodic vs Aperiodic
• Amplitude Shifting
𝑚 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑥 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑒 𝑗2𝑡 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡 2𝜋
𝑇𝑚 = =𝜋
𝑚 𝑡 is periodic 2

• PRODUCT
𝑤 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗(2+𝜋)𝑡 2𝜋
𝑇𝑤 =
2+𝜋
𝑤 𝑡 is periodic
• AMPLITUDE SCALING AND MODULATION

𝑝 𝑡 = 1+𝑥 𝑡 1+𝑦 𝑡 = 1+𝑥 𝑡 +𝑦 𝑡 +𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡

𝑝 𝑡 is not periodic
Energy vs Power
• The energy and the power of a continuous-time signal are defined for
either finite- or infinite-support signals
∞
2 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑇 2 𝑑𝑡
𝐸=න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑃 = lim න 𝑥 𝑡
−∞ 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇

• A signal is said to be finite-energy or square integrable if

𝐸<∞

• A signal is said to be finite-power if

𝑃<∞
Energy vs Power
• A signal is said to be absolutely integrable if it satisfies the following
condition
∞
න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞

• The power of a periodic signal 𝑥 𝑡 of fundamental period 𝑇 is

1 𝑡0+𝑇 2
𝑃= න 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0

for any value of 𝑡0 , i.e., the average energy in a period of the signal
Energy vs Power
• Find the energy and power of the signal 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 , 𝑎 > 0.
Also, determine if the signal is finite-energy, finite-power, or both.

∞
∞
𝐴2 𝐴2 𝐴2
𝐸 = න 𝐴2 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑡 อ = − 0−1 =
0 2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
0

𝑇
1 𝑇 2 −2𝑎𝑡 𝐴2 1 −2𝑎𝑡 −𝐴2 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑇 − 1
𝑃 = lim න 𝐴 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = lim − 𝑒 ቤ = lim =0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 0 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 2𝑎 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 2𝑎
0

𝑥 𝑡 is a finite-energy and finite-power signal

Energy vs Power
• Consider the two energy signals 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 =
𝐵𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 , 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0, determine the energy of the sum
𝑥 𝑡 +𝑦 𝑡 2 = 𝑥2 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑡 + 𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡
∞ ∞
−2𝑎𝑡
𝐴 −2𝑎𝑡 𝐴 𝐴
𝐸𝑥 = න 𝐴𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑒 ቤ =− 0−1 =
0 2𝑎 0
2𝑎 2𝑎
∞ ∞
−2𝑏𝑡
𝐵 −2𝑎𝑡 𝐵 𝐵
𝐸𝑦 = න 𝐵𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑒 ቤ =− 0−1 =
0 2𝑏 0
2𝑏 2𝑏

∞ ∞
𝐴𝐵 − 𝑎+𝑏 𝑡 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵
𝐸𝑥𝑦 = න 𝐴𝐵𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑏)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑒 ቤ =− 0−1 = Cross energy
0 𝑎 + 𝑏 0
𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐸𝑥𝑦
Energy vs Power
• Determine the energy and the power of the pulse signal 𝑥 𝑡 . The
value 𝑇 represents the duration of the pulse

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑢 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑇𝑜

∞ 𝑇𝑜
𝐸=න 𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐴2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴2 𝑇𝑜
−∞ 0

1 𝑇 2 𝑑𝑡 = lim
1 𝑇𝑜
𝑃 = lim න 𝑥 𝑡 න 𝐴2 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 0
Energy vs Power
• Consider the periodic signal 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑜 𝑡 , −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞,
determine the power of 𝑥 𝑡
Identity:
Period
2𝜋 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑤𝑜 𝑡
𝑇= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑤𝑜 𝑡 =
𝑤𝑜 2

Power
0
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑤𝑜
2 2 2
𝐴 𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑜 𝐴 𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑜 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝐴 𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑜 2𝜋
𝑃= න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡ቚ + න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑤𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0 2 4𝜋 0 0

𝐴2
𝑃=
2
 Energy vs Power
• Compute the power of the following signals
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝜋𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡

• Squared signals

1 1
𝑥 2 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝜋𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 8𝜋𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6𝜋𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑡
2 2 Identities
1 1 1
𝑇1 = 𝑇 = 𝑇 = 0.5 𝑇4 = 1 𝑇=1 1
2 2 4 3 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝛽
1 𝑇 2
𝑃 = lim න 𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = 1
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
Energy vs Power
• Squared signals
𝑦 2 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝜋𝑡 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑡

1
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜋 + 1 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜋 − 1 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝛽
2

1 𝑇 1 1 𝑇 1
𝑃𝑦1 = lim න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑃𝑦2 = lim න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 2 𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 2

1 𝑇
𝑃𝑦1 𝑦2 = lim න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜋 + 1 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜋 − 1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑦1 + 𝑃𝑦2 + 𝑃𝑦1 𝑦2 = 1

Energy vs Power
• The power of a sum of sinusoids

𝑥 𝑡 = ෍ 𝐴𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑘 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑥𝑘 𝑡
𝑘 𝑘

With harmonically or non-harmonically related frequencies 𝑤𝑘 is the sum of

the power of each of the sinusoidal components

𝑃 = ෍ 𝑃𝑥𝑘
𝑘
Even vs Odd 𝑥 𝑡

• Even Signals
𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡

• Odd Signals 𝑥 𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑥 −𝑡
𝑡
Even vs Odd

• Any signal 𝑥 𝑡 can be represented as a sum of even components

𝑥𝑒 𝑡 and an odd component 𝑥𝑜 𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 𝑡

• Where
1
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡
2

1
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡
2
Basic Signal Operations
• Shifting Operation
• Reflection Operation or Time Reversal
• Time Scaling
• Amplitude Scaling
• Amplitude Shifting
• Modulation
• Windowing
The Shifting Operation
• A signal 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝜏 represents a time-shifted sequence version of 𝑥 𝑡 .
The amount of shift is 𝜏 seconds.

• If 𝜏 > 0, then the signal is delayed by 𝜏 seconds or signal is shifted to

the right.

• If 𝜏 < 0, the then signal is an advanced replica of the signal 𝑥 𝑡 or

signal is shifted to the left by 𝜏 seconds.
Reflection Operation
• A signal 𝑥 −𝑡 means that the signal time-reversed of 𝑥 𝑡 .

• If a signal 𝑥 𝑡 is flipped and shifted to the right by 𝜏 seconds, the

new signal can be represented by 𝑥 𝜏 − 𝑡 .
Time Scaling
• Given a signal 𝑥 𝑡 , and real values 𝛼 ≠ 0, the time scaling operation
can be expressed as
𝑥 𝛼𝑡

• 𝑥 𝑡 is reflected if 𝛼 = −1
• 𝑥 𝑡 is compressed if 𝛼 >1, and if 𝛼 < 0 it is also reflected
• 𝑥 𝑡 is expanded if 𝛼 <1, and if 𝛼 < 0 it is also reflected
Time Scaling
• Example
𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 −𝑡

𝑥 0.5𝑡
𝑥 2𝑡
Amplitude Scaling
• The signal is either multiplied by a positive or negative constant. The
amplitude scaling can be expressed as follows

𝛼𝑥 𝑡

• If 𝛼 > 1, there is an amplification, and if 𝛼 < 0, the amplitude

change sign.

• If 𝛼 < 1, there is an attenuation, and if 𝛼 < 0, the amplitude

change sign.
Amplitude Shifting
• Amplitude shifting will either shift the signal upward or downward.
This can be expressed as

𝑥 𝑡 +𝑐

• If 𝑐 > 0, the signal is shifted upward in the positive direction of

amplitude.

• If 𝑐 < 0, the signal is pushed down in the negative direction of

amplitude.
Amplitude Shifting
• Example

𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 +1 𝑥 𝑡 −2
Modulation
• The signal is modulated or shifted in frequency by 𝑤𝑜

𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝑤0 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑡 𝑤𝑜 = 20𝜋

𝑡
Windowing
• For a Window signal 𝑤 𝑡 , the time windowed signal is 𝑥 𝑡 𝑤 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡

𝑤 𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 𝑤 𝑡