UNIT-I

ANTENNA BASICS & WIRE ANTENNAS

• Antenna can also be termed as an Aerial. Plural of it is, antennae or
antennas.

• Antennas are a very important component of communication

systems.

• Now a days, antennas have undergone many changes, in accordance

with their size and shape.

• There are many types of antennas depending upon their wide variety
of applications.
 HOW DO ANTENNAS WORK?

Oscillation of charges on a dipole wire and generated electric fields.

• The simplest and most widely used antenna is a dipole antenna.

• A dipole is simply made of two wires, which are equal in length

and connected to a receiver or a transmitter at one end.

• When an alternating voltage is applied to the antenna, the electric

charges oscillate along the wire, shifting between positive and
negative over time.
• The electric charges, and the electrons carrying the charges (electric
current), generate magnetic and electric waves that carry signals
and information through the air at the speed of light.
 ANTENNA THEORY FUNDAMENTALS
• The device, which converts the required information signal into
electromagnetic waves, is known as an Antenna.

• An Antenna (or aerial) is a transducer or electrical device, which

converts electrical power into electromagnetic waves (radio waves)
and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio
receiver.
An Antenna can be used either as a transmitting antenna or a
receiving antenna.
➢A transmitting antenna is one, which converts electrical signals
into electromagnetic waves and radiates them.
➢A receiving antenna is one, which converts electromagnetic waves
from the received beam into electrical signals.
➢In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for
both transmission and reception.
• In other words, the antenna is the transitional structure between
free-space and a guiding device.

• The guiding device or transmission line may take the form of a

coaxial line or a hollow pipe (waveguide), and it is used to
transport electromagnetic energy from the transmitting source to
the antenna or from the antenna to the receiver.
 Basic Working Principles of Antenna
• The working principle of an antenna is that it converts electrical
currents (carried along by metallic conductors) into EM
radiation in free space or vice versa.
Two Wire Transmission Line
• The working of the antenna is similar like transmission line but
there is slightly difference in it.

• The transmission line is bounded medium like copper wire, optical

fiber, wave guide in which signal is transmitted.

• While the antenna transmits the signal in free space and does not
require material medium.

• Antenna size: The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
and the smaller the antenna.
• Therefore, an antenna is used both to transmit and receive EM waves.

• Fundamentally, from Maxwell’s equations: Electromagnetic waves are

generated by accelerating electric currents and conductors carry those
currents. The EM waves that are generated then propagate through space.
We use them to communicate information (cellphone, Wi-Fi, radio, etc).

• The way that an antenna radiates (such as the frequency at which it

operates, and the direction and strength of the radiation) is determined by
its geometry and materials (among other things). Dipoles radiate
differently to horn antennas, for instance.
• The goal of antenna design is to make sure that the conversion
between current and radiation occurs as efficiently as possible,
and that power is transmitted or received with desired
characteristics (like in a specific direction and not others, or to
work over a frequency range while attenuating noise from another
band).
Equivalent Circuit
• An antenna is basically a transducer. It converts radio frequency
(RF) signal into an electromagnetic (EM) wave of the same
frequency.

• It forms a part of transmitter as well as the receiver circuits. Its

equivalent circuit is characterized by the presence of resistance,
inductance, and capacitance.

• The current produces a magnetic field and a charge produces an

electrostatic field. These two in turn create an induction field.
Examples:
➢Cell-phone antenna (transmit and receive)
➢TV antenna in your home (receive only)
➢Wireless LAN antenna (transmit and receive)
➢FM radio antenna (receive only)
➢Satellite dish antenna (receive only)
➢AM radio broadcast tower (transmit only)
➢GPS position location unit (receive only)
➢GPS satellite (transmit only)
Applications: Antennas are essential components of all equipment
that uses radio.

They are used in systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast

television, two-way radio, communications receivers, radar, cell
phones, and satellite communications, as well as other devices such
as garage door openers, wireless microphones, Bluetooth enabled
devices, wireless computer networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags
on merchandise.
 ANTENNA CLASSIFICATION
• Antennas are classified based on the radiation pattern or the
feeding mechanism.

• There are essentially three different types of antenna radiation

patterns: isotropic, omnidirectional and directional.

Isotropic Antenna: An isotropic antenna is a theoretical antenna

that radiates power equally in all directions. It's also known as an
omnidirectional antenna or an isotropic radiator.
• Omnidirectional Antenna: An omnidirectional antenna is a class of
antenna which radiates equal radio power in all directions
perpendicular to an axis (azimuthal directions).
• Omnidirectional antennas behave like isotropic antennas in one
plane.

• A common example of an omnidirectional antenna is the dipole

antenna or small loop antenna.

• Omnidirectional antennas are widely used for radio broadcasting

antennas, and in mobile devices that use radio such as cell phones,
FM radios, walkie-talkies, wireless computer networks, cordless
phones, GPS.
• Directional Antenna: A directional antenna radiates radio signal in
a particular direction.

• The most common directional antenna types are Yagi–Uda antenna,

log-periodic antenna, and corner reflector antenna.
• The application of directional antenna includes GPS (Global
Positioning system), cellular networks, etc.
TYPES OF ANTENNAS
 TYPES OF ANTENNAS
1) Wire Antennas 3) Aperture Antennas
• Short Dipole Antenna • Slot Antenna
• Dipole Antenna • Horn Antenna
• Loop Antenna
• Monopole Antenna 4) Microstrip Antennas
• Rectangular Microstrip Patch
2) Log Periodic Antennas Antenna
• Bow Tie Antennas • Quarter-Wave Patch Antenna
• Log-Periodic Antennas
• Log-Periodic Dipole Array
 TYPES OF ANTENNAS
5) Reflector Antennas 7) Travelling-wave Antennas
• Flat-plate Reflector Antenna • Long Wire Antenna
• Corner Reflector Antenna • Yagi–Uda Antenna
• Parabolic Reflector Antenna • Helical Wire Antenna
• Spiral Antenna
6) Lens Antennas
8) Array Antennas
• Two-Element Array Antenna
• Linear Array Antenna
• Phased Array Antennas
 Wire Antennas
• Wire antennas are the basic types of antennas.

• Wire antennas are also known as linear or curved antennas.

• These antennas are very simple, cheap, and are used in a wide range
of applications.

• Wire Antennas come in different shapes and sizes like Short Dipole
Antenna, Dipole Antenna, Loop Antenna, Monopole Antenna, Helix
antenna.
The advantages of wire antennae include the following.
➢The construction of this antenna is simple
➢These antennas provide satisfactory gain & directivity.
➢These antennas have sharp directional patterns.
➢These are not expensive.

The applications of wire antennae include the following.

➢Wire antennas are broadly used as receiving antennas on the
short wave, medium wave & long wave bands.
➢These antennas are used in ships, space crafts, buildings,
automobiles, satellites, missiles, microwave communication &
very high gain applications.
 Aperture Antennas
• An Antenna including an aperture at the ending is known as an
Aperture antenna. The best example of this antenna is Waveguide.

• These antennas are classified into three types namely slot antenna,
horn antenna, and microstrip slot antenna.

• Usually used in aircrafts and space crafts, because these antennas

can be flush.
 Reflector Antennas
• A reflector antenna uses a reflective face to concentrate radio or
other electromagnetic waves onto a lower antenna, called a feed
antenna.

• These antennas are classified into two types which are Corner
Reflector Antenna & Parabolic-Reflector Antenna.

• These are high gain antennas usually used in radio astronomy,

microwave communication and satellite tracking.
Incoming signal focused on to LNBF via parabolic reflector
 Lens Antennas
• Lens antennas use a curved surface or lens made of a dielectric
material to focus radio waves.

• These antennas are usually used for very high frequency

applications.

• These types of antennas are commonly used in applications such as

satellite communications, radar systems, and wireless networks.
 Microstrip Antennas
• Micro strip antenna consists of a very thin metallic strip placed on
a ground plane with a di-electric material in-between.
• Used in aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, missiles, cars, mobile
phones etc.
 Array Antennas
• An antenna array (or array antenna) is a set of multiple connected
antennas which work together as a single antenna, to transmit or
receive radio waves.

• Yagi-Uda antenna, microstrip patch array, aperture array, slotted

waveguide array.

• Used for very high gain applications with added advantage, such
as controllable radiation pattern.
Fig.: Animation showing
a phased array works.
 RADIATION MECHANISM
• The radiation from the antenna takes place when the
Electromagnetic field generated by the source is transmitted to the
antenna system through the Transmission line and separated from
the Antenna into free space.

• When transmitting and receiving antenna is excited with an

alternating voltage, then the initial move will be started by the
balanced motion of charges in the antenna.

• Resonant oscillations are produced by the supplied energy.

 1. Radiation from a Single Wire
By the principle of radiation, the current must be time-varying.
For a single wire antenna:
➢If the charge is stationary, no current is developed. So, no
radiation is observed.
➢If the charge is moving with uniform velocity, then:
i) No radiation occurs for a straight wire which is infinity (∞)
in extent.
ii) Radiation is possible only if the wire is curved; bent,
discontinuous, terminated or truncated.
➢If the charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if
the wire is straight. These situations are shown in Fig.
• The figure (a) shows the curved nature wire antenna. Here the charge is
moving uniformly where its curve occurs properly at that point radiation
is possible.
• The figure (b) shows the bended wire antenna. The point at which bend
occurs, from that point starts radiation.
• The figure (c) shows the discontinuous of the wire antenna. Here, the
cross-sectional area of staring wire is less and the cross-sectional area of
after joint is more. The radiation starts at the point of discontinuous.
• The figure (d) shows the terminated wire antenna, which is not equal to
Z0, at this case also radiation is possible.
• The figure (e) shows the truncated wire antenna, at this case also
radiation is also possible when the charge is oscillating in time motion.
 2. Radiation from Two-Wires
• Let us consider a voltage source connected to a two-conductor T-
line which is connected to an antenna. This is shown in Figure (a).

• The creation of time-varying electric and magnetic fields between

the conductors forms electromagnetic waves which travel along the
transmission line, as shown in Figure (a).

• The electromagnetic waves enter the antenna and have associated

with them electric charges and corresponding currents.
• If we remove part of the antenna structure, as shown in Figure (b),
free-space waves can be formed by “connecting” the open ends of
the electric lines (shown dashed).
• The free-space waves are also periodic but a constant phase point P0
moves outwardly with the speed of light and travels a distance of λ/2
(to P1) in the time of one-half of a period.
 3. Radiation from a Dipole
• Consider that a small dipole is center-fed in
the first quarter of the period T i.e., t = T/4, at
this time the charge achieves maximum value.

• At this instant, the lines travel radially

λ
outwards at a distance of .
4

• Assume that the number of lines produced is

three as shown in fig (a).
• Now in the next quarter period of time,
three lines produced originally, travel an
λ
additional distance of . So, the total
4
λ
distance becomes .
2
• The charge density on the conductor
starts falling as the opposite charges are
introduced.
• These opposite charges neutralize the
charges on the conductor and they also
produce three lines of force which travel
λ
a distance of during the second quarter
4
of the first half.
• As compared with the lines of force in the first quarter of the first
half, the direction of lines of force is opposite (i.e., upwards) as
they are produced by opposite charges. As a result, the appearance
λ
of the three lines of force directing upwards in the first distance
4
λ
while three more lines of force directing downwards in the next
4
distance.
• Now there is no charge on the conductor, the lines of force get
detached from conductors and combine to form closed loops as
shown in fig (c).
• It is obvious that in the second half of the period the same
procedure is carried out but in the opposite direction. The process
is then repeated and carried out indefinitely.
Animation of an
omnidirectional
half-wave dipole
antenna
transmitting radio
waves.
The antenna in the
center is two
vertical metal rods,
with an alternating
current applied at
its center from a
radio transmitter
(not shown).
 How do Antennas Form and Radiate
Electromagnetic Fields?
• The charge and current on the dipole create fields that are
perpendicular to each other. The electric field, E, flows from the
positive charge to the negative charge placed on the elements by
voltage applied to the antenna as shown in Figure (a).

• Charging current applied to the antenna makes a magnetic field, H,

that circulates around the wire according to the right hand rule as
shown in Figure (b).
https://interferencetechnology.com/antenna-fundamentals/
As shown in Figure (c), the E and H fields are perpendicular to each
other. They spread out into space from the antenna in a circular
fashion.
• As the signal on the antenna oscillates, waves are formed.

• Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) waves are produced in which

E and H are perpendicular to each other.

• The antenna can also convert a TEM wave back into current and
voltage by something called reciprocity.

• The antenna has complementary behavior when sending and

receiving.
 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON A THIN
WIRE ANTENNA
• The figure shows the current distribution on a lossless two-wire
transmission line, flared transmission line, and linear dipole.

• Let us consider a lossless two wire transmission line in which the

movement of charges creates a current having value I with each
wire. This current at the end of the transmission line is reflected
back, when the transmission line has parallel end points (end of the
TL is open circuited, no load connected) resulting in formation of
standing waves in combination with incident wave.
• The current distribution remains altered and the radiated fields
getting cancelled resulting in net radiation is zero from the two-
wire transmission line.

• No net radiation occurs for two wire transmission lines, because

these two wires are very close to each other. While in flared
transmission some amount, net radiation occurs because the end of
the transmission line is flared.

• For linear dipole antenna, here the dipoles are opened and vertical
manner, so it occurs maximum radiation.
• When the transmission line is flared out at 900 forming geometry
of dipole antenna (linear wire antenna), the current distribution
remains unaltered and the radiated fields not getting cancelled
resulting in net radiation from the dipole.

• If the length of the dipole l < λ/2, the phase of current of the
standing wave in each transmission line remains same.

• The current distribution for dipole of length l << λ, l = λ/2 and

(λ/2)<l<λ are shown in figures.
 ISOTROPIC RADIATOR (OR)
ISOTROPIC ANTENNA
• An isotropic antenna is a theoretical antenna that radiates equally
in all directions - horizontally and vertically with the same
intensity.

• The antenna has a gain of 1 (0 dB) in the spherical space all around
it and has an efficiency of 100%.

• An isotropic antenna is used as a reference antenna to evaluate

antenna gain.
• The isotropic radiator is defined as a radiator from a point source,
which radiates energy in all directions uniformly. It is also called
isotropic source. As it radiates uniformly in all directions.

• Basically, isotropic radiator is a lossless ideal radiator or antenna.

• Generally, all the practical antennas are compared with the

characteristics of the isotropic radiator. The isotropic antenna or
radiator is used as reference antenna.
• Practically all antennas show
directional properties i.e.
directivity property. That
means none of the antennas
radiate energy in all directions
uniformly.

• Hence practically isotropic

radiator cannot exist.
• Consider that an isotropic radiator is placed at the center of sphere
of radius (r).
• Then all the power radiated by the isotropic radiator passes over
the surface area of the sphere given by 4πr 2 , assuming zero
absorption of the power.
• Then at any point on the surface, the Poynting vector Pത gives the
power radiated per unit area in any direction. But radiated power
travels in the radial direction.
• Thus, the magnitude of the Poynting vector Pത will be equal to
radial component as the components in θ and ∅ directions are zero
Pθ = Pφ = 0.
• Hence, we can write, Pത = Pr

• The total power radiated is given by,

Prad = ඵ Pത . dSത or Prad = ර Pത . dSത

==> Prad = ඵ Pr ds

==> Prad = Pr ඵ ds or Prad = Pr ර ds

• Now, this radial component Pr is the average power density
component which can be denoted as Pavg .
==> Prad = Pavg 4πr 2
Where, ‫ ׯ‬ds = ‫ ׭‬ds = Surface area = 4πr 2
Prad 2
==> Pavg = Watt/m
4πr 2
Where, Prad = Total power radiated in watts
Pavg = Radial component of average power density in Watt/m2
r = Radius of sphere in meters
• U(θ,φ) = 1 for isotropic antenna.

2π π
Applying the integral identity, ‫׬‬φ=0 ‫׬‬θ=0 sinθ dθdϕ = 4π

Umax 4πUmax 4πUmax

•D= = 2π π = = Umax = 1
Uavg ‫׬‬φ=0 ‫׬‬θ=0 U θ,ϕ sinθ dθdϕ 4π

• The directivity of an isotropic antenna is D = 1, or 0 dB