Merinda Sautel, M.Sc.

Alameda Int’l Jr/Sr High School

Lakewood, CO, USA
msautel@jeffco.k12.co.us

Ricardo Chávez, Ph.D.

Newton College
Lima, Lima, PERU
ricardo.chavez@newton.edu.pe

S2. Models of Bonding and Structure

S2.1 The Ionic Model
(4 hours + 1 ML)
 GUIDING QUESTION
What determines the ionic nature and properties of a
compound?
 S2.1.1A: UNDERSTANDING
When metal atoms lose electrons, they form positive
ions called cations.

S2.1.1B: UNDERSTANDING
When non-metal atoms gain electrons, they form
negative ions called anions.
 S2.1.1: OUTCOME
Predict the charge of an ion from the electron
configuration of the atom.
 IONIC BONDING
• Ionic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

• In other words, ionic bonding occurs when one or more electrons are transferred from the
valence shell of one atom to the valence shell of another atom.
• The atom losing an electron or electrons forms a positively charged ion (cation) and the
.atom gaining an electron or electrons forms a negatively charged ion (anion).
• Ionic bonding is described as non-directional since each ion is attracted to every other ion
of opposite charge, though the attraction decreases with distance.
IONIC BONDING
 FORMATION OF IONS AND LATTICE
• The formation of an ionic compound typically involves the reaction between a metal
and a non-metal.
• Lewis diagrams can be used to represent the transfer of electrons that occurs during
the formation of ionic bonds.

In Lewis diagrams all the electrons of the atoms can be represented

(a), but it is usual to represent only the valence electrons (b).
 FORMATION OF IONS AND LATTICE
• The ions in an ionic compound will be arranged into a regular arrangement, a giant
structure known as lattice.

• Oppositely charged ions attract and ions of the same charge repel each other. However,
the repulsive forces are weaker than the attractive forces. Therefore, there is a net
attractive force.
 FORMATION OF IONS AND LATTICE
Lattice Enthalpy versus the Identity of the Halide (for
• The strength of force between the Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium Halides)
the ions is known as lattice
enthalpy and depends upon
the size of the ion and the
charge on the ion.
– The smaller the ion and the
greater the charge, the
higher the lattice enthalpy.
– The larger the ion and the
smaller the charge, the
lower the lattice enthalpy.
NOTE: The concept of enthalpy
will be studied later (R1.1).
 S2.1.2: UNDERSTANDING
The ionic bond is formed by electrostatic attractions
between oppositely charged ions.

S2.1.2B: UNDERSTANDING
Binary ionic compounds are named with the cation
first, followed by the anion. The anion adopts the suffix
“ide”.
 S2.1.2A: OUTCOME
Deduce the formula and name of an ionic compound
from its component ions, including polyatomic ions.

S2.1.2B: OUTCOME
Interconvert names and formulas of binary ionic
compounds.
 NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

Rules for naming ionic and covalent compounds are an important part
of scientific communication. These rules are established by IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry).

• Ionic compounds are composed of positive and negative ions.

• Many ions contain more than one atom. These types of ions are known as polyatomic
ions.
• Many polyatomic ions –such as sulphate, carbonate and phosphate− may be described
by two or more structures (resonance structures).
• The table shown in the next slide summarizes the names, formulas and structures of
commonly encountered polyatomic ions. A number of these ions are stabilized by
resonance (delocalization of π electrons).
NOTE: The concept of resonance structures will be studied later (S2.2 HL).
NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS
 NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

NAMING THE CATION

• The name of the cation is usually placed before that of the negative ion. If the cation is a
metal, it the takes the name of the element that is ionized, for example, sodium, Na+, and
calcium, Ca2+.
• If the element forms more than one positive ion then a Roman number showing the
oxidation state is also required, for example, copper(I), Cu+, and copper(II), Cu2+.
• There are two polyatomic cations: the ammonium ion, NH4+, and the hydronium ion,
H3O+.
 NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

NAMING THE ANION

• If the anion is monoatomic, it is named by changing the ending of the element name to
−ide, for example, chloride, Cl−, and oxide, O2−.
• There are a few negative ions that consist of more than one atom whose names also
end in −ide, for example, cyanide, CN−, and hydroxide, OH−.
• Oxyanions are polyatomic ions consisting of an atom of an element plus a number of
oxygen atoms covalently bonded to it. The name of the oxyanion is given by the name of
the element with the ending −ate.
• If the element has two or more oxidation states, it is necessary to add a Roman number
to show which is present, for example, nitrate(III), NO2− (also called nitrite), and
nitrate(V), NO3− (also called nitrate only).
NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS
 IONIC FORMULAS
• The formulas of many ionic compounds can be deduced using the list of ions shown below
(and available in the Google Classroom). However, you will not be able to use this list during
the IB DP exams.

• In forming compounds, the number of ions used is such that the number of positive
charges is equal to the number of negative charges, because ionic compounds are
electrically neutral.
 Formulae of Ionic Compounds - Exercises

Deduce the formula of each of the following compounds:

a) magnesium oxide Ca2+ and O2− so CaO

b) strontium chloride Sr2+ and Cl1− so SrCl2
c) sodium sulfide Na1+ and S2− so Na2S
d) lithium nitride Li1+ and N3− so Li3N
e) lithium nitrate Li1+ and NO31− so LiNO3
f) barium hydrogencarbonate Ba2+ and HCO32− so BaHCO3

g) ammonium phosphate NH41+ and PO43− so (NH4)3PO4

 ION CHARGES AND E-CONFIGURATIONS
• Atoms (except for those of noble gases and some non-metals, for example, B and C) form
simple ions by the gain or loss of electrons.
• Atoms of groups 1, 2, 13, 15, 16, and 17 will usually lose or gain electrons to attain
the electron configuration of a noble gas (ns2 np6).
 ION CHARGES AND E-CONFIGURATIONS
• Most of the transition elements form more than one stable simple cation.
• Charges of 2+ and 3+ (or oxidation states of +2 and +3 ) are the most common
charges on a simple transition metal ion.

• For elements in groups up to 8, the highest oxidation state is equal to the group number.
For example, manganese is in group 7, and forms the strongly oxidizing ion, MnO4−,
where the oxidation state of Mn is +7.
 IONIC BONDING AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• The electronegativity of an atom is the ability of the atom to attract shared pairs of
electrons to itself.
• The greater the electronegativity of an atom, the greater its ability to attract shared
pairs of electrons.

Electronegativity values
(Pauling scale)
 IONIC BONDING AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• The difference in electronegativity () among atoms involved in a chemical bond, is
used to predict the bonding type (ionic or covalent) and polarity (in case of covalent
bonds).

  
 S2.1.3: UNDERSTANDING
Ionic compounds exist as three-dimensional lattice
structures, represented by empirical formulas.
 S2.1.3: OUTCOME
Explain the physical properties of ionic compounds to
include volatility, electrical conductivity and solubility.
 PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
MELTING AND BOILING POINTS
• Ionic compounds are hard crystalline solids at room T and P.
• Large amounts of thermal energy are required to overcome the strong electrostatic
forces of attraction. Consequently, ionic compounds have high melting and boiling
points.
– The higher the charge and smaller the ion, the greater the melting point.
– The lower the charge and larger the ion, the smaller the melting point.
 PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
BRITTLENESS
• The brittle nature of an ionic crystal, and its ability to be cleaved along planes,
results from the mutual repulsion between layers when ions are displaced (moved) as
shown below..
 PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
SOLUBILITY
• When an ionic solid dissolves in water, the ions become hydrated by the polar water
molecules. The solubility of an ionic solid will decrease as the polarity of the solvent
molecules decreases.
• This is partially due to the decrease in strength of the interaction between the ions and
the solvent molecules.
 PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

SOLUBILITY
• If a metal ion has empty low-energy
3d and 4s orbitals, it can form a
coordination bond with the lone
pair of electrons on the oxygen
atom in the a water molecules.
• Transition metals and metals from
period 3 onwards (for example
lead(II) ions, aluminium ions, and
tin(II) ions) can all form complex
ions with water molecules.
 PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
• Electrical conductivity is the ability to conduct electricity. Freely moving ions must be
present to conduct electricity.
• Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity because the ions are locked into
place and are not free to move about.
• Molten or dissolved ionic compounds conduct electricity.
 T1: EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
Measuring variables (temperature, electrical
conductivity).

I2: COLLECTING AND PROCESSING DATA

(1) Identify and record relevant qualitative observations.
(2) Collect and record sufficient relevant quantitative data.
(3) Interpret qualitative and quantitative data.
IB CHEMISTRY PRACTICAL WORK

Properties of Ionic Compounds:

Melting point, Brittleness, Solubility and
Electrical conductivity
Mini Lab Report

I can identify and explain the physical properties of ionic compounds.

 LATTICE ENTHALPY

• The formation of an ionic compound from elements is usually an exothermic

(favourable) reaction, with heat being released to the surroundings.
• For example, when one mole of KCl(s) is formed from their elements K(s) and Cl2 (g) (under
standard conditions), 436.7 kJ of heat is released:
𝟏
𝑲(𝒔) + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑲𝑪𝒍(𝒔) ∆𝑯𝒐𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 = −𝟒𝟑𝟔. 𝟕 𝒌𝑱 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏
𝟐
• This equation describe the enthalpy of formation of KCl. In other words, the change in
energy when 1 mole of KCl is formed.
• This energy is not just from the tendency of metals to lose electrons and non-metals to
gain electrons.
• In fact, the transfer of one electron from a potassium atom to a chlorine atom to form
ions actually absorbs energy.
 LATTICE ENTHALPY

• The 1st I.E. of K is +419 kJ mol-1 and the 1st E.A, of Cl is −349 kJ mol-1. Based only on
these energies, the change in energy for the formation of KCl should be endothermic
(unfavourable) by +70 kJ mol-1.
• However, since the potassium ions are positively charged and the chloride ions are
negatively charged, the potential energy decreases when these ions pack together to
form a lattice. That energy is emitted as heat when the lattice forms.
• The ionic compounds form
Reverse of
because of the reverse of Lattice Enthalpy
lattice enthalpy: the energy
associated with the formation
of a crystalline lattice of
cations and anions from the
gaseous ions.
 CITATIONS
1. International Baccalaureate Organization. Chemistry Guide,
First assessment 2025.
2. Talbot, Christopher, et al. Chemistry for the IB Diploma.
Hodder Education Group, 3rd ed., 2023.
3. Bylikin, Sergey, et al. Chemistry: Course Companion. 2023
Edition. Oxford University Press, 2023.
4. Brown, Catrin, et al. Chemistry for the IB Diploma
Programme: Higher Level ; 3rd ed. Pearson, 2023.
NOTE:
Most of the information found in this PowerPoint presentation
comes directly from these textbooks. The PowerPoint presentation
is used for direct instructional purposes only.