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Cambridge O Level Physics Your notes

1.5 Forces
Contents
Resultant Forces
Newton's First Law
Newton's Second Law
Newton's Third Law
Investigating Force & Extension
Hooke's Law
Circular Motion
Friction
Stopping Distances
Moments
Equilibrium
Centre of Gravity
Investigating Centre of Gravity

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Resultant Forces
Your notes
Types of Force
A force is defined as:
A push or a pull that acts on an object due to the interaction with another object

Forces can affect bodies in a variety of ways:

Changes in speed: forces can cause bodies to speed up or slow down
Changes in direction: forces can cause bodies to change their direction of travel
Changes in shape: forces can cause bodies to stretch, compress, or deform
Different forces

The effects of different forces on objects

Tension
Tension is:
The force experienced by a cable, rope, or string when pulled, hung, rotated or supported
This is normally labelled as T on free body diagrams
Tension force on a Picture Frame

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Your notes

Tension always acts away from the mass

Normal Contact Force
The normal contact force is:
The force arising when an object rests against another object acting at a 90° angle to the
plane of contact
It is sometimes also referred to as the reaction force
This is normally labelled as N or R on free body diagrams
This force arises from Newton's Third Law
Normal Contact Force

Normal contact force is the force with which a surface pushes against an object. The normal contact
force always acts perpendicularly to the surface

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Upthrust
Upthrust is:
Your notes

The upward buoyancy force acting on an object when it is in a fluid

Upthrust can occur in liquids and gases
Upthrust on a Boat

Upthrust always acts upwards

Friction
Friction is:
The force that arises when two surfaces are in contact with each other
Friction always opposes the motion
This is normally labelled as F or Fr on free body diagrams
Force of Friction Acting on a Car

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Your notes

Friction always acts at the point where the objects are in contact, and in the opposite direction to the
direction of motion

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Identifying Forces Acting on an Object

Free body diagrams are useful for modelling the forces that are acting on an object Your notes
Each force is represented as a vector arrow, where each arrow:
Is scaled to the magnitude of the force it represents
Points in the direction that the force acts
Is labelled with the name of the force it represents
Free body diagrams can be used:
To identify which forces act in which plane
To resolve the net force in a particular direction
Force Diagrams of a Mass on a Spring, and a Parachuter

Free body diagrams can be used to show the various forces acting on objects

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Worked example
Your notes
Draw free-body diagrams for the following scenarios:
a) A picture frame hanging from a nail
b) A box sliding down a slope
c) A car accelerating along a road
Answer:
(a)

The size of the arrows should be such that the 3 forces would make a closed triangle as they are
balanced
(b)

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Your notes

There are three forces acting on the box

The normal contact force, R, acts perpendicular to the slope
Friction, F, acts parallel to the slope and in the opposite direction to the direction of motion
Weight, W, acts down towards the Earth
(c)

As the car is accelerating, the size of the thrust must be larger than the size of the friction force
The upwards and downwards forces must be equal

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Worked example
Your notes
Draw a free-body diagram of an toy sail boat with weight 30N floating in water that is being pulled to
the right by an applied force of 35N.
Answer:
Step 1: Identify all of the forces acting upon the object in the question, including any forces that
may be implied
Weight: 30N down
Upthrust from the water (since the object is floating): 30N up
Applied force: 35N to the right
Step 2: Draw in all of the force vectors (arrows), making sure the arrows start at the object and are
directed away

An approximation can be made as to the final resultant force due to all of the forces
Decide whether the resultant force is approximately up or down
Decide whether the resultant force is approximately left or right
For example: The resultant force is directed up and to the right

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Resultant Forces on a Straight Line

A resultant force is a single force that describes all of the forces operating on a body Your notes
When many forces are applied to an object they can be combined (added) to produce one final force
which describes the combined action of all of the forces
This single resultant force determines:
The direction in which the object will move as a result of all of the forces
The magnitude of the final force experienced by the object
The resultant force is sometimes called the net force
Forces can combine to produce
Balanced forces
Unbalanced forces
Balanced forces mean that the forces have combined in such a way that they cancel each other out
and no resultant force acts on the body
For example, the weight of a book on a desk is balanced by the normal force of the desk
As a result, no resultant force is experienced by the book, the book and the table are equal and
balanced
Balanced Forces Acting on a Book at Rest on a Table

The upward acting normal contact force is equal to the force of weight, therefore the forces acting on
the book ate balanced

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Unbalanced forces mean that the forces have combined in such a way that they do not cancel out
completely and there is a resultant force on the object
For example, imagine two people playing a game of tug-of-war, working against each other on Your notes
opposite sides of the rope
If person A pulls with 80 N to the left and person B pulls with 100 N to the right, these forces do not
cancel each other out completely
Since person B pulled with more force than person A the forces will be unbalanced and the rope
will experience a resultant force of 20 N to the right
Unbalanced Forces in a Game of Tug-of-War

The force exerted on the rope by Person B is greater than the force exerted on the rope by Person A,
therefore the forces acting on the rope are unbalanced
Resultant forces can be calculated by adding or subtracting all of the forces acting on the object
Forces working in opposite directions are subtracted from each other
Forces working in the same direction are added together
If the forces acting in opposite directions are equal in size, then there will be no resultant force – the
forces are said to be balanced
Resultant Forces on Different Objects

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Your notes

The resultant force is the net force acting on the object when all the individual forces have been added
and the directional components accounted for
Imagine the forces on the boxes as two people pushing on either side
In the first scenario, the two people are evenly matched - the box doesn't move
In the second scenario, the two people are pushing on the same side of the box, it moves to the
right with their combined strength
In the third scenario, the two people are pushing against each other and are not evenly matched,
so there is a resultant force to the left

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Worked example
Your notes
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force in the diagram below.

Answer:
Step 1: Add up all of the forces directed to the right
4 N + 8 N = 12 N
Step 2: Subtract the forces on the right from the forces on the left
14 N – 12 N = 2 N
Step 3: Evaluate the direction of the resultant force
The force to the left is greater than the force to the right therefore the resultant force is directed to
the left
Step 4: State the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
The resultant force is 2 N to the left

Exam Tip
Remember to always provide units for your answer and to state whether the force is to the left, to the
right, or maybe up or down
Always provide your final answer as a description of the magnitude and the direction, for example:
Resultant Force = 4 N to the right

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Newton's First Law

Your notes
Newton's First Law of Motion
Newton's first law of motion states:
Objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant
force
This means if the resultant force acting on an object is zero:
The object will remain stationary if it was stationary before
The object will continue to move at the same velocity if it was moving
When the resultant force is not zero
The speed of the object can change
The direction of the object can change

Applying Newton's First Law

Newton's first law is used to explain why things move with a constant (or uniform) velocity
If the forces acting on an object are balanced, then the resultant force is zero
The velocity (i.e. speed and direction) can only change if a resultant force acts on the object
Examples of Objects with Uniform Velocity

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Your notes

Constant velocity can only be achieved when the forces on an object are balanced - in other words,
when the resultant force is zero

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Worked example
Your notes
Lima did some online research and found out that the Moon orbits the Earth at a constant speed of
around 2000 mph. She says that this is not an example of Newton's first law of motion.
Is Lima correct? Explain your answer.
Answer:
Step 1: Recall Newton's first law of motion
Newton's first law of motion states that objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant
velocity, unless acted on by a resultant force
Step 2: Determine if the object in the question is at rest, or if it is moving with a constant velocity
The Moon, in this case, is not at rest
It is moving at a constant speed
But it is not moving in a constant direction - it continually orbits the Earth
Hence, it is not moving with a constant velocity, because velocity is a vector quantity
Step 3: State and explain whether Lima is correct
Lima is correct
The Moon moves with a constant speed, but always changes direction
So it is not moving with a constant velocity, and is not an example of Newton's first law of motion

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Worked example
Your notes
There are no external forces acting on the car and it is moving at a constant velocity.
State the value of the frictional force, F.

Answer:
Step 1: Recall Newton's first law of motion
Newton's first law of motion states that objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant
velocity unless acted on by a resultant force
Step 2: Relate Newton's first law to the scenario
Since the car is moving at a constant velocity, there is no resultant force
This means the driving and frictional forces are balanced
Step 3: State the value of the frictional force
Frictional force, F = driving force = 3 kN

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Newton's Second Law

Your notes
Newton's Second Law
Newton's second law of motion states:
The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and
inversely proportional to the object's mass
Newton's second law explains the following important principles:
An object will accelerate (change its velocity) in response to a resultant force
The bigger this resultant force, the larger the acceleration
For a given force, the greater the object's mass, the smaller the acceleration experienced
Examples of Newton's Second Law

Objects like baseballs and lawnmowers accelerate when a resultant force is applied on them. The size
of the acceleration is proportional to the size of the resultant force

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Calculations Using Newton's Second Law

Newton's second law can be expressed as an equation: Your notes
F = ma
Where:
F = resultant force on the object in Newtons (N)
m = mass of the object in kilograms (kg)
a = acceleration of the object in metres per second squared (m/s2)
The force and the acceleration act in the same direction
This equation can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle:
Equation Triangle for Newton's Second Law

Force, mass, acceleration formula triangle; you can use this if you need support with the rearrangement
until you feel able to do it on your own

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Worked example
Your notes
A car salesman says that his best car has a mass of 900 kg and can accelerate from 0 to 27 m/s in 3
seconds.
Calculate:
a) The acceleration of the car in the first 3 seconds.
b) The force required to produce this acceleration.
Answer:
(a)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Initial velocity = 0 m/s
Final velocity = 27 m/s
Time, t = 3 s
Step 2: Calculate the change in velocity
change in velocity = Δv = final velocity − initial velocity
Δv = 27 − 0 = 27 m/s

Step 3: State the equation for acceleration

∆v
a=
t
Step 4: Calculate the acceleration

27
a= = 9 m/s2
3
(b)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Mass of the car, m = 900 kg
Acceleration, a = 9 m/s2
Step 2: Identify which law of motion to apply
The question involves quantities of force, mass and acceleration, so Newton's second law is
required:

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F = ma
Step 3: Calculate the force required to accelerate the car Your notes
F = 900 × 9 = 8100 N

Worked example
Three shopping trolleys, A, B and C, are being pushed using the same force. This force causes each
trolley to accelerate.

Which trolley will have the smallest acceleration? Explain your answer.
Answer:
Step 1: Identify which law of motion to apply
The question involves quantities of force and acceleration, and the image shows trolleys of
different masses, so Newton's second law is required:
F = ma
Step 2: Re-arrange the equation to make acceleration the subject
𝑎 = 𝑚
𝐹

Step 3: Explain the inverse proportionality between acceleration and mass

Acceleration is inversely proportional to mass
This means for the same amount of force, a large mass will experience a small acceleration
Therefore, trolley C will have the smallest acceleration because it has the largest mass

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Newton's Third Law

Your notes
Newton's Third Law
Newton's third law of motion states:
Whenever two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and
opposite
The pair of forces exerted by the interacting objects are known as force pairs
Newton's third law explains the forces that enable someone to walk
The foot exerts a push force on the ground
The ground exerts a push force force on the foot
The forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
Example of Newton's Third Law

The foot pushes the ground backwards, and the ground pushes the foot forwards. Newton's third law
explains the forces that enable people to walk
Vector diagrams can be used to represent Newton's third law
Use the following three rules to help you identify a third law pair:
1. The two forces in a third law pair act on different objects

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2. The two forces in a third law pair always are equal in size but act in opposite directions
3. The two forces are always the same type: weight, normal contact force, etc.
Your notes

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Worked example
Your notes
A physics textbook is at rest on a table. Student A draws a force diagram for the book and labels the
forces acting on it as weight and normal contact force.

Student A says the diagram is an example of Newton's third law of motion. Student B disagrees with
Student A. By referring to the vector diagram, state and explain who is correct.
Answer:
Answer:
Step 1: Identify the forces and objects involved
The gravitational pull of the Earth acts downwards on the book (weight) and the push force of the
table acts upwards on the book (normal contact force)
Step 2: State Newton's third law of motion
Whenever two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction
Step 3: Check if the diagram satisfies the two conditions for identifying Newton's third law
Newton's third law identifies pairs of equal and opposite forces, of the same type, acting on two
different objects
In this example:
Both forces are acting on the book
The forces acting on the book are different forces- normal contact force and weight
The image below shows how to apply Newton's third law correctly in this case, considering the
pairs of forces acting:

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Your notes

The third law pairs in this scenario would be:

The gravitational pull of the Earth on the book (weight) and the gravitational pull of the book on
the Earth (weight)
Both forces are the same type (weight)
Both forces are equal and opposite
The arrows in the vector diagram of the book on the table are equal and opposite, which is where
lots of students get confused
This is because the forces are balanced
Step 4: Conclude who is correct
In this case, Student B is correct
The vector diagram in the question is an example of Newton's first law
In the vector diagram of the book on the table, both forces are acting on one object and the
forces are not the same type

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Third law pairs will always be different objects exerting the same type of force on each other. Once
you have identified a set of third law pairs, then you know that the forces will be equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

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Investigating Force & Extension

Your notes
Investigating Springs
When forces are applied to materials, the size and shape of the material can change
The method below describes a typical procedure for carrying out an investigation into the properties
of a material
Experimental Set-Up to Measure the Extension of a Spring

To measure the extension of a spring, masses are hung from the spring and the extension of the spring is
measured with a ruler
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the spring, with a pointer attached to the bottom, and the
position of the spring is measured against the ruler
The mass (in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded in a table
A further mass is added and the new position measured
The above process continues until a total of 7 masses have been added

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The masses are then removed and the entire process repeated again, until it has been carried out a
total of three times, and averages can then be taken
Your notes
Once measurements have been taken:
The force on the spring can be found by multiplying the mass on the spring (in kg) by 9.81 N/kg (the
gravitational field strength)
The extension of the spring can be found by subtracting the original position of the spring from
each of the subsequent positions
Finally, a graph of extension (on the y-axis) against force (on the x-axis) should be plotted
Force-Extension Graph

A graph of force against extension for a metal spring

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Hooke's Law
Your notes
Hooke's Law
Hooke’s law states that:
The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force

force = spring constant × extension

F = kx
Where:
F is the force applied
k is the spring constant
x is the extension of the spring

The spring constant is the force per unit extension

The units are N/m
The spring constant is a measure of how stiff the spring is
Directly proportional means that as the force is increased, the extension increases
If the force is doubled, then the extension will double
If the force is halved, then the extension will also halve
The limit of proportionality is the point beyond which the relationship between force and extension is
no longer directly proportional
This limit varies according to the material

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Your notes

Hooke's Law states that a force applied to a spring will cause it to extend by an amount proportional to
the force

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Circular Motion
Your notes
Circular Motion
Velocity is a vector quantity, and the velocity of an object is its speed in a given direction
When an object travels along a circular path, its velocity is always changing
The speed of the object moving in a circle might be constant - that is, it is travelling the same
distance every second
However, the direction of travel is always changing as the object moves along the circular path
This means that an object moving in circular motion travels at a constant speed but has a changing
velocity
The image below shows an example of a famous object that moves in a circular path with a constant
speed but changing direction:
International Space Station Orbiting Earth

The International Space Station’s velocity is always changing - it whizzes around the Earth at a constant
speed of about 7660 m/s but is always changing direction

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When a force acts at 90 degrees to an object’s direction of travel, the force will cause that object to Your notes
change direction
An Impact Force Causing a Change in the Motion of a Car

When the two cars collide, the first car changes its direction in the direction of the force

If the force continues to act at 90 degrees to the motion, the object will keep changing its direction
(whilst remaining at a constant speed) and travel in a circle
This is what happens when a planet orbits a star (or satellite orbits a planet)
The Moon Orbiting the Earth

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Your notes

The Moon is pulled towards the Earth (at 90 degrees to its direction of travel). This causes it to travel in a
circular path

The force needed to make something follow a circular path depends on a number of factors:
The mass of the object
A greater mass requires a greater force when the speed and radius are constant
The speed of the object
A faster-moving object requires a greater force when the mass and radius are constant
The radius of the circle
A smaller radius requires a greater force to keep the speed and radius constant

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Friction
Your notes
Friction
Friction is a force that works in opposition to the motion of an object
This slows down the motion of the object
When friction is present, energy is transferred in the form of heat
This raises the temperature (thermal energy) of the object and its surroundings
The work done against the frictional forces causes this rise in the temperature
Friction in solids is caused by imperfections in the surfaces of the objects moving over one another
Not only does this slow the object down but also causes an increase in thermal energy
Friction Acting on a Sledge

The interface between the ground and the sledge is bumpy which is the source of the frictional force

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Motion of Objects & Drag

Friction in Fluids Your notes
Gases and liquids are known as fluids
Fluids are different to solids because the particles in fluids can move around
Friction acts on objects moving through gases and liquids as the particles collide with the object
This type of friction is called drag
Air resistance is a type of friction that slows the motion of an object
Particles bump into the object as it moves through the air
As a result, the object heats up due to the work done against the frictional forces
Air Resistance Acting on Return Module

The return module of a rocket heats up due to the work done by air resistance as it travels a distance
through the atmosphere

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Stopping Distances
Your notes
Stopping Distances
The stopping distance of a car is defined as:
The total distance travelled during the time it takes for a car to stop in response to some
emergency
It can be written as an equation involving two distances:
Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance
Where:
Thinking distance = the distance travelled in the time it takes the driver to react (reaction time) in
metres (m)
Braking distance = the distance travelled under the braking force in metres (m)
Stopping distance = the sum of the thinking distance and braking distance, in metres (m)
For a given braking force, the greater the speed of the vehicle, the greater the stopping distance

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Worked example
Your notes
At a speed of 20 m/s, a particular vehicle had a stopping distance of 40 metres. The car travelled 14
metres whilst the driver was reacting to the incident in front of him. What was the braking distance?
A 54 m
B 34 m
C 26 m
D 6m
Answer: C
Step 1: Identify the different variables
Stopping distance = 40 m
Thinking distance = 14 m
Step 2: Rearrange the formula for stopping distance
Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance
Braking distance = Stopping distance – Thinking distance
Step 3: Calculate and identify the correct braking distance
Braking distance = 40 – 14 = 26 metres
Therefore, the answer is C

Factors affecting Stopping Distance

There are various factors which can affect a vehicle's stopping distance. These are:
Vehicle speed - the greater the speed, the greater the vehicle's braking distance will be (because
the brakes will need to do more work to bring the vehicle to a stop)
Vehicle mass - a heavy vehicle, such as a lorry, takes longer to stop
Road conditions - wet or icy roads make it harder to decelerate
Driver reaction time - a driver's thinking distance depends on their reaction time. Being tired, or
intoxicated (i.e. alcohol, or drugs) can increase reaction time

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Moments
Your notes
Moments

As well as causing objects to speed up, slow down, change direction and deform, forces can also
cause objects to rotate
An example of a rotation caused by a force is on one side of a pivot (a fixed point that the object can
rotate around)
This rotation can be clockwise or anticlockwise
Pivot Point on a Metal Bar

The force will cause the object to rotate clockwise about the pivot
A moment is defined as:
The turning effect of a force about a pivot
The size of a moment is defined by the equation:

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M=F×d
Where: Your notes
M = moment in newton metres (Nm)
F = force in newtons (N)
d = perpendicular distance of the force to the pivot in metres (m)
Moment of a Spanner

The moment depends on the force and perpendicular distance to the pivot
This is why, for example, the door handle is placed on the opposite side to the hinge
This means for a given force, the perpendicular distance from the pivot (the hinge) is larger
This creates a larger moment (turning effect) to make it easier to open the door
Opening a door with a handle close to the pivot would be much harder, and would require a lot more
force
Some other examples involving moments include:
Using a crowbar to prize open something
Turning a tap on or off

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A wheelbarrow
Scissors
Your notes

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Equilibrium
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The Principle of Moments
The term equilibrium means that an object keeps doing what it’s doing, without any change
Therefore:
If the object is moving it will continue to move (in a straight line)
If it is stationary it will remain stationary
The object will also not start or stop turning
The above conditions require two things:
The forces on the object must be balanced
There must be no resultant force
The sum of clockwise moments on the object must equal the sum of anticlockwise moments
there must be no resultant moment
A Moving Car and a Balanced Beam in Equilibrium

When the forces and moments on an object are balanced, the object will remain in equilibrium
If the above two conditions are met, then the object will be in equilibrium

The Principle of Moments

The principle of moments states that:
If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total
anticlockwise moment about that pivot

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Remember that the moment = force × distance from a pivot

The forces should be perpendicular to the distance from the pivot
For example, on a horizontal beam, the forces which will cause a moment are those directed Your notes
upwards or downwards

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Worked example
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A parent and child are at opposite ends of a playground see-saw. The parent weighs 690 N and the
child weighs 140 N. The adult sits 0.3 m from the pivot.

Calculate the distance the child must sit from the pivot for the see-saw to be balanced.
Answer:
Step 1: List the know quantities
Clockwise force (child), Fchild = 140 N
Anticlockwise force (adult), Fadult = 690 N
Distance of adult from the pivot, dadult = 0.3 m
Step 2: Write down the relevant equation
Moments are calculated using:
Moment = force × distance from pivot
For the see-saw to balance, the principle of moments states that
Total clockwise moments = Total anticlockwise moments
Step 3: Calculate the total clockwise moments
The clockwise moment is from the child
Momentchild = Fchild × dchild = 140 × dchild

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Step 4: Calculate the total anticlockwise moments

The anticlockwise moment is from the adult Your notes
Momentadult = Fadult × dadult = 690 × 0.3 = 207 Nm
Step 5: Substitute into the principle of moments equation
140 × dchild = 207
Step 6: Rearrange for the distance of the child from the pivot
dchild = 207 ÷ 140 = 1.48 m

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Exam Tip
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Make sure that all the distances are in the same units and you’re considering the correct forces as
clockwise or anticlockwise, as seen in the diagram below

Clockwise is defined as the direction the hands of a clock move (and anticlockwise as the opposite)

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Your notes

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Demonstrating Equilibrium
A simple experiment to demonstrate that there is no net moment on an object in equilibrium involves Your notes
taking an object, such as a beam, and replacing the supports with newton (force) meters:
Forces on a Beam

Several forces act on a supported beam, including the mass of the beam and the mass of an object
suspended from it

The beam in the above diagram is in equilibrium

The various forces acting on the beam can be found either by taking readings from the newton meters
or by measuring the masses (and hence calculating the weights) of the beam and the mass suspended
from the beam
The distance of each force from the end of the ruler can then be measured, allowing the moment of
each force about the end of the ruler to be calculated
It can then be shown that the sum of clockwise moments (due to forces F2 and F3) equal the sum of
anticlockwise moments (due to forces F1 and F4)

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Your notes
More detail on setting up this experiment
Use a meter ruler for the beam
Suspend it via two Newton meters, one on each side, that each hang from a clamp stand
F1 is the reading given on the left side Newton meter and F4 is the reading given on the right
Create a loop of string, tie a tight knot and slide the ruler through it
F3 will be the weight of a mass hook with 10 N weights suspended from this string
F2 is the weight of the beam

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Centre of Gravity
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Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of the object may be considered to
act
For example, for a person standing upright, their centre of gravity is roughly in the middle of the body
behind the navel, and for a sphere, it is at the centre
For symmetrical objects with uniform density, the centre of gravity is located at the point of symmetry
Centre of Gravity of Differently Shaped Objects

The centre of gravity of a shape can be found by symmetry

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Your notes

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Stability
Stability Your notes
The position of the centre of gravity of an object affects its stability
An object is stable when its centre of gravity lies above its base
Stability of Objects

The object on the right will topple, as its centre of gravity is no longer over its base

The wider base an object has, the lower its centre of gravity and it is more stable
The narrower base an object has, the higher its centre of gravity and the object is more likely to topple
over if pushed
Stability of Objects with Different Sized Bases

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Your notes

The most stable objects have wide bases and low centres of gravity

Exam Tip
Since the centre of gravity is a hypothetical point, it can lie inside or outside of a body. The centre of
gravity will constantly shift depending on the shape of a body. For example, a human body’s centre of
gravity is lower when learning forward than upright

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Investigating Centre of Gravity

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Investigating the Centre of Gravity
When an object is suspended from a point, the object will always settle so that its centre of gravity
comes to rest below the pivoting point
This can be used to find the centre of gravity of an irregular shape:
Method for Finding the Centre of Gravity for Irregular Shapes

Diagram showing an experiment to find the centre of gravity of an irregular shape

The irregular shape (a plane laminar) is suspended from a pivot and allowed to settle

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A plumb line (lead weight) is then held next to the pivot and a pencil is used to draw a vertical line from
the pivot (the centre of gravity must be somewhere on this line)
The process is then repeated, suspending the shape from two different points Your notes
The centre of gravity is located at the point where all three lines cross

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