Teaching Implications of Kraget's Cogniwe Development Theory

What is desired is that the teacher cease being lectured statisfied with transmitting ready- made
solution; His role should rather be that of mentor stimulating initiative and research.

It behoves the teacher to creative in imparting knowledge and skills to the students to engage them in
active learning environment to they construct meaning and concept

Lepson 1: Piaget's Cognitive Development Therry

After completing this lesson, you will able to:

1. Explain terms and concept associated with Piaget's Cognitive Theory.

2. Discuss the stages of cognitive development; and

3. Identify teaching strategies that are supportive of Piaget's Theory.

Jean William Frite Piaget

Born: August 9, 1896

Address: Neuchâtel, Switzerland

Died: September 16, 1980

Geneva, Switzerland

Alma mater:

University of Neuchâtel University of Zürich.

Known for: Constructivism, Geneva School, genetic epistemology, Theory of Cognitive Development,
object permanence, egocentrism

Accommodation

Involves changing or altering existing schemas owing to the new information provided or learned.

How Learning Occurs?

To explain how cognitive development happens, Piaget introduced the concepts of schema, assimilation,
and accommodation.
What is Cognitive Learning?

Derives its meaning from the word cognition, defined by an electronic dictionary, as "the mental action
or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses."

Formal Operational Stage

Hypothetico Deductive Reasoning -They are capable of giving deductions as they systematically.
evaluate their observations as well as their answers.

Adolescent Egocentrism -assumption that although others have different perceptions and beliefs, every
individual shares other's thoughts, feelings, and concerns. This is opposite to the egocentric
characteristic in the earlier stages, wherein children think that what they and others. think are similar to
theirs.

Preoperational Stage

Children have not yet mastered mental operations because they use action schemes connected to
physical manipulations, not logical reasoning.By SEMANTIC OPERATION, it means actions a person
carries out by thinking them through instead of performing them (Woolfolk, 2016).

Another ability demonstrated at this stage is children's ability to form and use symbols to represent a
physical action or reality SEMEOTIC OPERATION.

Concrete Operational Stage

2+2=4

Characterized by organized and rational thinking. A major ability at this stage is reversible thinking,
thinking backward, from the end to the beginning
Conservation is the belief that, whatever the arrangement or appearance of the object, as long as there
is nothing added or decreased, the number or amount of the object would remain the

same.

A related skill is decentration, the children's ability to focus on more than one dimension of an object at
a time..

Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

Preoperational (2-7 years)

Concrete Operational (7-11 years)

Formal Operational (12 years and up)

Learns through reflexes, senses, and movement actions on the environment. Begins to imitate others
and remember events, shifts to symbolic thinking. Comes to understand that objects do not cease to
exist when they are out of sight object permanence. Moves from reflexive actions to intentional activity.

Begins about the time the child starts talking, to about seven years old. Develops language and begins to
use symbols to represent objects. Has difficulty with past and future thinks in the present. Can think
through operations logically in one direction. Has problems understanding the point of view of another
person.
Begins about first grade, to early adolescence, around 11 years old. Can think logically about concrete
(hands-on) problems. Understands conservation and organizes things into categories and in series. Can
reverse thinking to mentally "undo" actions.

Understands the past, present, and future. Can think hypothetically and deductively. Thinking becomes
more scientific. Solves abstract problems logically. Can consider multiple perspectives and develops
concerns about social issues,personal identity, and justice.

Berk (2013) provided a summary of teaching implications derived from Piaget's theory of cognitive
development. These considerations include the following:

1. A focus on the process of children's thinking, not just its products. Instead of simply checking for a
correct answer, teachers should emphasize the students' understanding and the process they used to
get the answer.

2. Recognition of the crucial role of children's self-initiative, active involvement in learning activities. In a
Piagetian classroom, children are encouraged to discover themselves through spontaneous interaction
with the environment, rather than the presentation of ready-made knowledge.

3. A de-emphasis on practices aimed at making children adult-like in their thinking. It refers to what
Piaget referred to as the "American question," which is "How can we speed up development?" He
believes that trying to speed up and accelerate children's process through the stages could be worse
than no teaching at all.

4. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget's theory asserts that children
go through all the same developmental stages. However, they do so at different rates. Because of this
variation, teachers must exert a special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and groups
of children rather than for the whole class.
In Add

Webb (1980) recommended some considerations for teachers to ponder upon in their teaching
practices. These include the following:

Consider the stage characteristics of the student's thought processes in planning learning activities.

Use a wide variety of experiences rather than drill on specific tasks to maximize cognitive development.

Do not assume that reaching adolescence or adulthood guarantees the ability to perform formal
operations.

Remember that each person structures each learning situation in terms of his schemata; therefore, no
two persons will derive the same meaning or benefit from a given experience.

Sensorimotor Stage

Children at this stage think through what they see, hear, move, touch, and taste.

Two major accomplishments happen at this stage. 1.Object permanence- The belief that an object still
exists even if not within the sight of the child.

2.Goal-directed actions-Initially, children do not think about what they do as these actions are instinctive
and involuntary.

As the information held in the sensory memory is for about three seconds only, unattended stimuli are
forgotten. The information the person gave attention to is transferred to the short-term memory.
SHORT-TERM MEMORY

serves as a temporary memory while the information is given further processing before it is transferred
to long- term memory. Information in this stage is 15-20 seconds only and can hold from 5 to 9 bits of
information only at a given time.

THE 2 STAGES BEFORE INFORMATION IS TRANSFERRED TO LONG-TERM MEMORY:

01 Maintenance rehearsal

involves repetition of information to sustain maintenance in the short term memory.

SENSORY MEMORY

is the state in which the stimuli sensed (heard, seen, touched, smelled, tasted) are temporarily held in
mere seconds for the information to be processed further.

If a person is presented with a lot of stimuli at a given time, the sensory memory serves as a filter on
what to focus on. Selective attention is the individual's ability to choose and process information while
disregarding the other stimuli or information.

NATURE OF INFORMATION

PROCESSING, The INFORMATION

PROCESSING THEORY (IPT) of cognitive development pertains to the study and analysis of what occurs in
a person's mind as he or she receives a bit of information (Miller, 1956). 4
NATURE OF INFORMATION PROCESSINGcessing is

analogous to computer processing. The mind receives and represents/ encodes the stimulus from the
environment, processes the information, stores it, locates/ retrieves it, and gives a response to it.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, the students will

be able to: explain the major features of the

information processing theory;

cite teaching implications derived from the theory; and

identify teaching strategies that facilitate the storing and retrieving of information.

NATURE OF INFORMATION

PROCESSING

> Developed by American psychologist George A. Miller.

one of the founders of cognitive psychology.

was a pioneer who recognized that the human mind can be understood using an information-processing
model.

THE 2 STAGES BEFORE INFORMATION IS TRANSFERRED TO LONG-TERM MEMORY:

02 Elaborative rehearsal

- is the process of relating the new information to what is already known and stored in the long-term
memory to make the new information more significant.

STRATEGIES IN MEMORY-TAKING

01 ΜΝΕΜΟNIC DEVICES - elaborate information in different ways. For instance, learners are taught the
acronym "ROYGBIV" to recall that red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet are the rainbow
colors.

V
STRATEGIES IN MEMORY-TAKING

02 IMAGERY - is a strategy that involves the memory taking what is to be learned and creating
meaningful visual, auditory, or kinesthetic images of the information Schunk, 2012).

Information that is not rehearsed and maintained in the short-term memory is forgotten. The

information that

the person

13

LESSON 3: PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY

PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY

Refers to a cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal for which the problem solver does not
initially know a solution Method (Mayer, 2013).

VARIED THEORIES EXPLAIN HOW CREATIVITY IS DEVELOPED (Kozbelt et al., 2010)

1. Developmental theory

2. Cognitive theory of creativity

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

- Advocates that creativity develops over time (from potential to achievement).

It mediated by an interaction of person and environment.

- Problem solving occurs within the problem solver's cognitive system and can only be inferred indirectly
from the problem solver's behavior (including biological changes, introspections, and actions during
problem solving).

2. Process - Problem solving involves mental computations in which an operation is applied to a mental
representation, sometimes resulting in the creation of new mental representation.

3.Directed Problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal.

4. Personal Problem solving depends on the existing knowledge of the problem solver so that what is a
problem for one problem solver may not be a problem for someone who already knows a solution
method.

Barriers to Problem Solving

listed some of these and they are as follows:

1. Mental set - The situation when the person becomes fixated on the us of a strategy that previously
produced the right solution, but in the new situation it is not the application.

2. Functional fixedness - A phenomenon when individuals fail to recognize that objects can have other
purposes, aside from the tradition use they were made for.
3. Failure to distinguish relevant and irrelevant information- Happens when a situation arises during the
analysis of a problem when an individual cannot discern the relevant information needed in planning the
strategy to solve a problem.

CREATIVITY IN PROBLEM SOLVING

The interaction among aptitude, process, and the environment by which an individual or group produces
a perceptible product that is both novel and useful as defined within a social context.

Teaching Implications of Vygotsky's Theory

The theory of sociocultural learning has greatly influenced practices in facilitating learning. Vygotsky's
theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. His theory requires
that the teacher and student are collaborators in the learning process, with the teacher as facilitator or
guuide in learner's construction of knowledge and development of skills. The process makes learning a
reciprocal experience for both the teacher and learners.

Citing research findings e.g., John-Steiner & Mann, 2003; Webb, 2008; Slavin, 2004), Slavin (2018)
proposed the following teaching practices for consideration by the facilitator of learning. In the use of
ZPD, teachers can organize classrom activities in the following ways:

• Instruction can be planned to provide practice within the ZPD for individual children or groups of
children. For example, hints and prompts that helped children during a preassessment could form the
basis of instructional activities.

The Role of Social Interaction

Vygotsky emphasized the signficance of social interaction in one's thinking.

Children learn from the more knowledgeable others (MKOs), which include parents, teachers, adults,
and more advanced peers.

When children negotiate to create an acceptable rule on how to play the game, it is called as a co-
constructed process.

Experience

The concepts and principles of Vygotsky's sociocultural learning theory fouund credence in many
experiments. Tutoring as a form of scaffolding is an effective instructional intervention. In the study of
Wood, et al. (1976) for instance, 3-, 4-, and 5 years old were tutored in the task of constructing a
pyramid from complex interlocking constituent blocks. The results indicate that some of the properties
of an interactive system of exchange in which the tutor operates with an implicit theory of the learner's
acts to recruit his attention, reduces degrees of freedom in the task to manageable limits, maintains
"direction" in the problem solving, marks critical features, controls frustration, and demonstrates
solutions when the learner can recognize them.

Meanwhile, the role of the advanced Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learner's private speech
production characterized as being the externalization of the process of reasoning during carrying out
reasoning- gap tasks was tested (Mirzaee and Maftoon, 2016). While performing the reasoning- gap
tasks, the EFL learners produced produced four types of private speech- repetition, translation, filler,
and question- in both their L1 and L2, which enhanced learner's reasoning. The finding supported the
earlier assertion that private speech plays a mediational role in the problem-solving and self-regulatory
processes.

Lesson 2: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

The Role of Language

Vygotsky's theory emphasizes that language plays a central role in the theory of human cognitive
development.
Language plays multiple roles, including culturally shaping, the overt behavior of individuals as well as
influencing their covert behavior, such as thinking (Burkholder and Pelaez, 2000).

As people engage in social activites, they are involve in social communicative (Vygotsky. 1986). functions

Stages of Speech Development

3. Inner Speech

Inner speech is soundless speech or thought.

Speech becomes internalized and is used to guide thinking and behavior.

It eventually leads to higher levels and more complex types of thinking.

Zone of Proximal Development

One of the major feature of Vygotsky's theory is the zone of proximal development (ZPD) as illustrated
by Wheeler (2013).

One of the major feature of Vygotsky's theory is the zone of proximal development

(ZPD) as illustrated by Wheeler (2013).

At any time, children find difficulties in performing tasks or problems posed to them as they are not yet
matured enough to handle them.
The goal of the ZPD is to help the child move from the level of current independent performance (the
competence demonstrated to do a task alone) to the level of potential performance (the competence
achieved with the guidance of others).

Stages of Speech Development

• Social or External Speech

At this stage (birth to approximately age 3), thinking is not related to speech at all.

Thinking is primarily in the form of images, emotions, and impressions.

Speech only occurs on the external or social level to express a desire or to convey simple emotions such
as shouting or crying.

At this stage, speech is merely a tool to make things happen in the external world.

2. Egocentric Speech

At this stage, (approximately ages 3-7), children think out loud or talk to themselves as they are doing
something.

It is used to guide behavior and help to solve problems.

It is an important part of the transition to inner speech and more sophisticated thinking.

Sociocultural Theory

Formulated by Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist.

The theory underscores his belief that children's thinking is affected by their knowledge of the social
community, which Vygotsky considered as learned from either technical or psychological cultural tools
(Vygotsky. 1978).

By cultural tools, it meant real tools (like measuring instruments, calculators, etc.) and symbol systems
(like numbers, language, etc.) that allow people to communicate, think, solve problems, and create
knowledge (Woolfolk, 2016).

2. Scaffolding provides hints and prompts at different levels. In scaffolding, the adult does not simplify
the task, but the role of the learner is simplified through the graduated intervention of the teacher."

3. Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different levels who can help
each other to learn.

Moreover, Karpov and Haywood (1998) recognized that for the curriculum to be developmentally
appropriate, the teacher must plan activities that encompasses not only what children are capable of
doing on their own but what they can learn with help of others.

pjectives:

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

1. Understand the sociocultural theory of cognitive development

2. Learn the major terms and concepts related to the theory; and

3. Cite classroom implications of the theory