UNIT 2 : Environmental Regulations

Prevention vs. Control of Industrial Pollution:

Introduction
Industrial pollution is a significant environmental challenge that has far-
reaching impacts on air, water, and soil quality, as well as human health and
biodiversity. Tackling this issue requires a multifaceted approach, primarily
focused on two strategies: prevention and control. Understanding the distinction
between these two approaches is crucial for developing effective policies and
practices that can mitigate the adverse effects of industrial activities.
Prevention of Industrial Pollution
1. Definition:
Prevention refers to measures taken to avoid the generation of pollution at its
source. It involves altering industrial processes, materials, and practices to
reduce or eliminate the production of pollutants before they can cause harm to
the environment or human health.
2. Key Aspects: (measures)
Process Redesign: Industrial processes are redesigned to be more efficient,
reducing the waste and pollutants they generate. For example, implementing
cleaner production technologies can minimize emissions and discharges.
Resource Efficiency: By optimizing the use of raw materials, water, and
energy, industries can reduce waste and emissions. This includes using
renewable resources and adopting energy-efficient technologies.
Substitution: Replacing harmful materials and chemicals with less toxic or
non-toxic alternatives can prevent pollution. For example, industries can
substitute heavy metals in manufacturing processes with safer materials.
Innovation: Investing in research and development for new technologies and
methods that inherently produce less pollution. Innovations such as green
chemistry, closed-loop systems, and zero-emission processes are examples.
3. Advantages:
Long-term Sustainability: Prevention leads to a more sustainable industrial
system by minimizing environmental impacts from the outset.
Cost-Effectiveness: Although initial investments might be high, prevention
often reduces long-term costs associated with waste management, pollution
control, and environmental remediation.
Regulatory Compliance: Preventive measures can help industries meet
regulatory standards more easily, avoiding fines and legal issues.
Public Health Benefits: Reducing pollution at its source protects human health
by minimizing exposure to hazardous substances.
4. Challenges:
High Initial Costs: The initial investment in new technologies and processes
can be a barrier for some industries.
Technological Barriers: Not all industries have access to or can implement the
latest pollution-prevention technologies.
Resistance to Change: Industries accustomed to traditional methods may resist
adopting new practices due to perceived risks or complexities.

Control of Industrial Pollution

1. Definition:
Control refers to measures taken to manage and reduce pollution after it has
been generated. This involves capturing, treating, and disposing of pollutants to
mitigate their impact on the environment and human health.
2. Key Aspects: (measures)
End-of-Pipe Solutions: These are technologies and practices applied at the end
of the production process to remove or reduce pollutants before they are
released into the environment. Examples include filters, scrubbers, and
wastewater treatment plants.
Emission Standards: Regulatory bodies set limits on the amount of pollutants
that industries can emit. Compliance requires installing and maintaining
pollution control devices.
Waste Management: Proper disposal and treatment of industrial waste are
crucial in controlling pollution. This includes practices like recycling,
incineration, and secure landfilling of hazardous waste.
Monitoring and Reporting: Continuous monitoring of emissions and effluents
is essential to ensure compliance with environmental standards. Reporting to
regulatory agencies helps track pollution levels and enforce regulations.
3. Advantages:
Immediate Impact: Control measures can quickly reduce pollution levels,
providing immediate environmental benefits.
Wide Applicability: Pollution control technologies can be applied across
various industries, making them a versatile solution.
Regulatory Compliance: Control measures are often required to meet legal
standards, ensuring that industries adhere to environmental laws.
Public Perception: Visible pollution control efforts can improve an industry's
public image and demonstrate a commitment to environmental responsibility.
4. Challenges:
Ongoing Costs: Control measures require continuous investment in
maintenance, monitoring, and operation, which can be costly.
Incomplete Solutions: Control methods often address the symptoms rather than
the root causes of pollution, potentially leading to ongoing environmental
issues.
Potential for Secondary Pollution: Some control technologies can create
secondary pollutants, which need to be managed, adding complexity to
pollution control efforts.
Limited Scope: Control measures typically focus on specific pollutants or
processes, rather than taking a holistic approach to pollution prevention.
The most effective strategy for managing industrial pollution often
involves a combination of prevention and control. Industries can first focus on
reducing pollution at the source and then implement control measures to
manage any remaining pollutants.
Prevention and control are complementary approaches to managing
industrial pollution. Prevention offers a sustainable, long-term solution by
addressing pollution at its source, while control provides essential measures to
manage existing pollution. A comprehensive strategy that incorporates both
approaches is necessary to effectively mitigate the environmental and health
impacts of industrial activities. As industries continue to evolve, the emphasis
on prevention is likely to grow, driven by advancements in technology,
increased environmental awareness, and stricter regulatory requirements.
Industrial pollution refers to the release of harmful substances into the
environment as a result of industrial activities. It poses significant risks to
ecosystems, human health, and the overall well-being of our planet. To mitigate
industrial pollution, engineering controls play a crucial role. Here are some
common engineering controls employed in industries:
1. Source Control: This approach focuses on preventing or reducing pollution
at its source. It involves modifying industrial processes, technologies, or raw
materials to minimize pollutant generation. Examples include using cleaner
production techniques, optimizing combustion processes, or substituting
hazardous substances with less harmful alternatives.
2. Pollution Prevention: This control strategy aims to eliminate or minimize
the generation of pollutants. It involves implementing efficient waste
management practices, recycling and reusing materials, and adopting
sustainable production methods to minimize waste and emissions.
3. Treatment Systems: Industrial wastewater treatment and air pollution
control systems are vital for reducing the impact of pollution. These systems
employ various techniques such as physical, chemical, and biological processes
to remove or neutralize pollutants before their release into the environment.
4. Energy Efficiency: Enhancing energy efficiency in industrial processes
reduces the overall environmental impact. By optimizing energy use, industries
can lower greenhouse gas emissions and decrease the demand for fossil fuels,
thus mitigating air pollution and climate change.
5. Environmental Monitoring: Regular monitoring and assessment of
industrial operations help identify potential pollution sources and evaluate the
effectiveness of control measures. Real-time monitoring systems can detect
anomalies and trigger corrective actions promptly.
It's important to note that these engineering controls should be
complemented by strict regulations, environmental policies, and public
awareness to achieve sustainable and responsible industrial practices.

Policies and regulations

National Environment Policy, 2006
Article 48 of the Directive Principles of State Policy emphasizes the
state's responsibility to protect and enhance the environment, as well as
safeguard the country's forests and wildlife. On the other hand, Article 51-A
imposes a duty upon every Indian citizen to preserve and enhance the natural
environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, while promoting
compassion towards all living creatures.
The National Environment Policy of India, formulated in 2006, acts as a
comprehensive guideline for sustainable development and environmental
governance in the country. This policy aims to integrate environmental concerns
into all aspects of development planning and decision-making processes.
Objectives of the National Environment Policy, 2006
The key objectives of the National Environment Policy, 2006 are as follows:
The policy aims to protect ecosystems and natural resources through
conservation, sustainable use and good governance.
It wants to integrate environmental concerns into all development policies and
plans.
The policy promotes sustainable production and consumption to use resources
more efficiently and reduce pollution and waste.
It recognizes that education can build awareness about environment issues and
change people's attitudes and behaviors.
The policy tries to balance meeting current needs with preserving resources and
ecosystems for future use.
It encourages participatory governance and co-operation between government,
businesses and citizens to achieve its goals.

Environmental Protection Act, 1986

*Objective
To protect and improve the environment and environmental conditions.
* Key features
1) The act covers all forms of pollution; air, water, soil and noise.
2) It provides safe standards for the presence of various pollutants is the
environment.
3) It prohibits the use of hazardous material unless prior Permission is taken
from central Government.
4) To apply the decisions made at the United Nations Conference on Human
Environment, which was held in the year 1972 in Stockholm.
5) To take strict actions against all those who harm the Environment.
Air Act, 1981
* Objective.
To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, for
the establishment.
* Key features
1) Advising Central Government of Air and Air pollution related issues
2) Research about the causes and impact of Air pollution.
3) Spread awareness to stop air pollution
4) To establish Central and State Boards and empower them to monitor al
quality and control pollution.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
* Objective
To protect wild animals, birds and plants
7 Chapters, 6-Schedules, 66-sections.
* Main activities & provisions:
1) Define wildlife terminology
2) Appointment of wildlife Advisory Board, Wild life wardens their powers
& duties.
3) Listing of endangered species & prohibition of hunting of wild Life.
4) Setting up of National park/ wildlife sanctuaries/ Biosphere Reserves.
5) Constitution of central Zoo Authority.
6) For trade & commerce in some Wild Life species.
7) Ban on trade in Endangered species.
8) Provide power to officers & punishment to offenders.
9) Provide captive breeding programme.
10) Collaboration with NGO'S.
Forest Conservation Act ,1980
* Objectives.
1) Conservation of forest and related issues.
2) It covers all types of forests.
3) National forest policy, 1980:-
It prohibits any state govt. for declaring any forests as non-reserved.
*Amendment act - 1988
1) Prohibits lease of forest land to anybody.
2) Enhance conservation & increase forest cover upto 30%.
* Salient features:
1) State govt use forest for forestry purpose only.
2) If State govt wants to use for other purpose, it has to take approval
(CPCB).
3) Provision for conservation of all types of forest.
4) Any illegal non-forestry activity within a forest can be immediately
stopped.
* 1992-Amendment
1) Provision of allowing some non forest activities in forest
2) Wild life sanctuaries, national park are totally prohibited for any
exploration and survey.
3) Cultivation of tea, coffee, rubber etc not allowed.
4) Mining is a non-forest activity.
5) Any non- forest activity must have two criteria.
i. Cost benefit analysis
ii. EIS(Environmental Impact Statement).
Water (Prevention & control of pollution) Act,1974
* 8 chapters / 64 Sections
*Objectives:
1) Prevent & control of water pollution.
2) Maintain or restoring the wholesomeness of water.
3) Establishment of Boards for prevention & control of water pollution.
*Salient features/provisions
1) Define water pollution related terms.
2) Maintenance& restoration of quality of all types of surface &
underground water.
3) Establishment of Boards- CPCB & SPCB.
4) Assigns power & functions to boards.
5) Prohibits disposal of polluting matter to flow of water in a stream.
6) Provides punishment for violation of act –fine & imprisonment
*Section-43/45/45 3 months to 7yrs & fine.
2000, Municipal Solid Waste Management Handling Rules.
Municipal Solid waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 (MSW
Rules) are applicable to Every Municipal authority responsible for collection,
Segregation Storage, transportation, processing and disposal of municipal
solids.
The Rules contains four schedules namely;
1) Schedule-I: Relates to implementation schedule
2) Schedule-II: Specifications relating to collection, segregation, Storage,
transportation, processing and disposal of MSW.
3) Schedule-III: Specifications for landfilling indicating; Site Selection,
facilities at the site, specifications for Landfilling, pollution prevention,
water quality monitoring, ambient air quality monitoring, plantation at
landfill site.closure of landfill site and post care.
4) Schedule IV: Indicate waste processing options including: Standards for
comporting, treated leachate and incinerations.

1998, Biomedical waste Management Handling Rules

Waste generated during the testing, diagnosis, treatment, research or
production of Biological products for human or animals.
1) BWM handling rules came into effect in 1998.
2) The latest amendment came into effect on 2017.
3) The rules apply to all persons who generate, collect, receive, Store,
transport, treat, dispose of handle the BMW in any form.
*Colours for type of waste
Yellow - Human/animal anatomical wastes.
Soiled waste
Expired/discarded medicines
Chemical waste
Micro, Bio and other clinical lab waste
Chemical liquid waste.
Red-Contaminated waste (Recyclable)
Eg: Urine bags, Syringes &gloves.
White-Waste sharps including metals.
Blue-Glassware.
Hazardous waste Management and Handling Rules, 1989.
* HWM handling rules came into effect in 1989.
* Amendment in 2008 and recently again in 2016.
*HWM regulated by agencies like.
Ministry of Environment, forest & climate change.
Central Pollution Control Board
State pollution Control Board
Pollution control committees.
* Hazardous waste means any waste which is likely to cause danger to health or
environment.
Eg:- Flammable, explosive, reactive, toxic, corrosive.

Rules
1) HWM rules are notified to ensure safe handling, generation, Processing,
treatment, package, storage, transportation, collection, conversion and
destruction and disposed of Hazardous waste.
2) It is made for pollution prevention, waste minimization,3R Concept,
Efficient treatment and safe disposal and HW should sent to authorised
disposal facility only.
3) Storage requirements.
4) Labelling requirements.
5) HW Accumulation/storage area.

Environment friendly chemical processes.

Green chemistry is the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or
eliminate the use or generation of hazardous substances. Green chemistry
applies across the life cycle of a chemical product, including its design,
manufacture, use, and ultimate disposal.

Green chemistry:

 Prevents pollution at the molecular level

 Is a philosophy that applies to all areas of chemistry, not a single
discipline of chemistry
 Applies innovative scientific solutions to real-world environmental
problems
 Results in source reduction because it prevents the generation of pollution
 Reduces the negative impacts of chemical products and processes on
human health and the environment
  Lessens and sometimes eliminates hazards from existing products and
processes
 Designs chemical products and processes to reduce their intrinsic hazards

Green chemistry reduces pollution at its source by minimizing or eliminating

the hazards of chemical feedstocks, reagents, solvents, and products.

This is not the same as cleaning up pollution (also called remediation), which
involves treating waste streams (end-of-the-pipe treatment) or cleanup of
environmental spills and other releases. Remediation may include separating
hazardous chemicals from other materials, then treating them so they are no
longer hazardous or concentrating them for safe disposal. Most remediation
activities do not involve green chemistry. Remediation removes hazardous
materials from the environment; on the other hand, green chemistry keeps the
hazardous materials from being generated in the first place.

If a technology reduces or eliminates the hazardous chemicals used to clean up

environmental contaminants, this technology would also qualify as a green
chemistry technology. One example is replacing a hazardous sorbent [chemical]
used to capture mercury from the air for safe disposal with an effective, but
nonhazardous sorbent. Using the nonhazardous sorbent means that the
hazardous sorbent is never manufactured and so the remediation technology
meets the definition of green chemistry.

The 12 Principles of Green Chemistry

1. Prevent waste: Design chemical syntheses to prevent waste. Leave no waste
to treat or clean up.

2. Maximize atom economy: Design syntheses so that the final product

contains the maximum proportion of the starting materials. Waste few or no
atoms.

3. Design less hazardous chemical syntheses: Design syntheses to use and

generate substances with little or no toxicity to either humans or the
environment.

4. Design safer chemicals and products: Design chemical products that are
fully effective yet have little or no toxicity.

5. Use safer solvents and reaction conditions: Avoid using solvents,

separation agents, or other auxiliary chemicals. If you must use these chemicals,
use safer ones.

6. Increase energy efficiency: Run chemical reactions at room temperature and

pressure whenever possible.
7. Use renewable feedstocks: Use starting materials (also known as feedstocks)
that are renewable rather than depletable. The source of renewable feedstocks is
often agricultural products or the wastes of other processes; depletable
feedstocks are often fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, or coal) or mining
operations.

8. Avoid chemical derivatives: Avoid using blocking or protecting groups or

any temporary modifications if possible. Derivatives use additional reagents and
generate waste.

9. Use catalysts, not stoichiometric reagents: Minimize waste by using

catalytic reactions. Catalysts are effective in small amounts and can carry out a
single reaction many times. They are preferable to stoichiometric reagents,
which are used in excess and carry out a reaction only once.

10. Design chemicals and products to degrade after use: Design chemical
products to break down to innocuous substances after use so that they do not
accumulate in the environment.

11. Analyze in real time to prevent pollution: Include in-process, real-time

monitoring and control during syntheses to minimize or eliminate the formation
of byproducts.

12. Minimize the potential for accidents: Design chemicals and their physical
forms (solid, liquid, or gas) to minimize the potential for chemical accidents
including explosions, fires, and releases to the environment.
 Unit: 3 Pollution
‘Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the chemical,
physical and biological characteristics of air, water and soil that may be
harmful to human life and living organisms along with their environment.’
“Pollution is the introduction of substances (or energy) that cause adverse
changes in the environment and living entities.”
Pollution occurs when harmful materials (called Pollutants) are introduced into
the environment.
Pollution can be natural or manmade
The substances that cause pollution are called pollutants.
Pollutants, can be either foreign substances or naturally occurring contaminants
where even its minuscule amounts, impacts the ecological balance.
These pollutants are different kinds, gases, metals, industrial, agricultural
pollutants etc.
Types of pollutants: The pollutants are classified into two types based on their
nature of disposal.
1. Bio degradable pollutants - decompose rapidly by natural processes –
Sewage, organic matter.
2. Non-degradable pollutants - do not decompose or slowly decompose in the
environment. Eg. Plastics, Salts (Mercury, chloride), cans
Pollutants Classified into 2 types based on their originating source
Primary – Directly from identifiable source,
Secondary- produced by mix of 10 pollutants
Classification of Pollution: The pollutions are classified into different types
 Air pollution
 Water pollution
 Soil pollution
 Noise pollution
 Air Pollution
Air pollution refers to the release of harmful contaminants (chemicals, toxic
gases, particulates, biological molecules, etc.) into the earth’s atmosphere.
These contaminants are quite detrimental/ dangerous and in some cases, pose
serious health issues.
Air pollutants composed of either gaseous–Oxides of Sulphur (SO2, SO3),
Nitrogen (N2O, NO2), CO2, CO
Solid – Dust, Soot, Aerosol, P.M2.5, P.M10 (Particulate matter less than the
size)
Types: Primary air pollutant – directly released from industries (So2, NO2)
Secondary – which are formed after the reaction with primary pollutants.
Eg: So2 and No2 mix with rain it forms acid rain
Smoke mix with fog it forms smog.
Photochemical smog – Noxides+ O3+ other pollutants
Sources : Natural Sources includes Volcano eruption, forest fires, pollens etc
Agricultural activities – pesticides, herbicides
Anthropogenic( major part) includes vehicles, industries, cutting
down of tress etc.
Vehicle pollution – releases Co, Nitrogen oxides, Hydrocarbons, the other
factories like thermal power plants which release flyash and sulphur
Large amount of air pollutants also exists within our home which is called
Indoor air pollution.
The effects of air pollution vary based on the kind of pollutant.
Air pollution can cause severe health impact on our respiratory system
It shows the Increased risk of respiratory illness and cardiovascular
problems
Exposure to air pollution during pregnancy causes miscarriages, premature
baby births, asthma.
Increased risk of skin diseases, May increase the risk of cancer, Global
warming, Acid rain,Ozone depletion, Hazards to wildlife.
Air pollution also effect plants. The plants exposed to high level of air
pollution causes -Chlorosis – loose its chlorophyll turns to yellow colour,
Necrosis – leaves develop tissues which are dead and so black spots will form,
epinasty means rolling or curling down of the leaves.
Impact on Aquatic life. the air pollutants can mix with rain water and comes
down through rain where in that scenario fishes and other aquatic life may die.
Material – Taj mahal stones had turned into yellowish due to acid rains.
Water Pollution
Water pollution is said to occur when toxic pollutants and particulate matter are
introduced into water bodies such as lakes, rivers and seas. These contaminants
are generally introduced by human activities like improper sewage
treatment and oil spills.
Water pollution is addition of certain substances in water that may alter
physical, chemical and biological property of water which may further result in
undesirable effect on living organisms and environment.
There are two sources of Water pollution
Point source and nonpoint source are two ways to categorize water
pollution based on the source of the pollution:
Point source
Pollution that comes from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe, ditch, or
industrial facility.
Nonpoint source
Pollution that comes from many different areas of human activity over a wide
area, making it difficult to pinpoint the source. Nonpoint source pollution can
include runoff from urban and suburban areas, discarded trash, and marine
debris
Effects: water pollution can also have lots of effects
1 Less Dissolved oxygen and high pollutants affects aquatic life
Where ever water is polluted amount of oxygen is reduced in water, high
concentrated pollutants with low dissolved oxygen pose threat to aquatic
life.
2 Increase in pathogen – sewage discharge increase the viruses and bacteria
in the water and where by when it is consumed there is a chance of diseases
like cholera, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice.
3 Eutrophication – excess of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers
enter in the water body then those chemicals act as a nutrient source of algae
and thereby entire water body cover with algal growth. Due to which the
aquatic life may get disturbed.
4 Increase in BOD – it is the amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break
organic waste into simpler form in given volume of water.
So more BOD indicates the more pollution in the water body and it leads
to the death of the organisms as insufficient Breaking down of organic
waste leads to death.
5 Biomagnification – where in the process chemicals substances increase in
conc through food chain. As we know All animals are interrelated.
6. minamata disease – Japan- minamata bay where the factories are dumping
the effluents directly, as a result of which the water had become extremely
polluted. Where the fishes are also contaminated gradually these are consumed
by humans and are effected by the diseases called minamata disease.
7. Itai Itai disease – Japan farmers of japan unknowingly used toxic industrial
effluents for irrigation. When these are consumed then the amount of cadmium
present in the crop had effected and shows crippling disorder called itai itai.
8. Blue Baby syndrome- nitrates increase leads to blue baby syndrome where
baby turns blue. Haemoglobin reduced due to the presence of nitrates.
9. Fluorosis – excess amount of fluorine.
Control: Less usage of agrochemicals.
Use of nitrogen fixing plants instead of fertilizers
Use of Biopesticides- neam extracts

Soil Pollution
Soil pollution, also called soil contamination, refers to the degradation of land
due to the addition of chemicals or other man-made substances in to the soil.
These alter the natural composition of soil and affect it negatively.
Soil can be polluted through different sources:
 Domestic waste, Industrial waste, Agricultural waste, Animal excreta,
Radioactive substance, Improper industrial waste disposal, Oil Spills, Acid rain
which is caused by air pollution, Mining activities, Intensive farming and
agrochemicals (like fertilisers and pesticides), Industrial accidents.

The effects of soil pollution are numerous.

Human Health. These can drastically impact life directly or indirectly. For
instance, any toxic chemicals present in the soil will get absorbed by the plants.
Since plants are producers in an environment, it gets passed up through the food
chain.
Affect soil fertility: Loss of soil nutrients, which renders the soil unfit for
agriculture.
Effect Soil flora and Fauna: Impacts the natural flora and fauna residing in the
soil
Degrades vegetation due to the increase of salinity of the soil.
Specific wastes, such as radioactive waste become particularly hazardous when
they are not well-contained. A well-documented example is a nuclear accident
in Chernobyl, which has left an area of 2,600 km2 uninhabitable for several
thousand years.
Control Measures:
Effluents should be properly treated before discharging them on to the soil.
Solid wastes should be properly collected and disposed off by appropriate
method.
From the wastes, recovery of useful products should be done.
Biodegradable organic waste should be used for generation of biogas.
Noise Pollution
Noise –Unpleasant and unwanted, something which is loud that causes
disturbance is Noise.
Noise pollution refers to the excessive noise in the surrounding that disrupts the
natural balance. Usually, it is man-made, though certain natural calamities like
volcanoes can contribute to noise pollution.
Sound is measured in two units Hertz and Decibles which gives us the idea of
loudness.
In general, any sound which is over 85 decibels is considered to be detrimental/
harmful. Also, the duration of an individual how much he is exposed plays an
impact on their health.
Noise pollution has several contributors/ Sources which include:
Industry-oriented noises such as heavy machines, mills, factories, etc.
Transportation noises from vehicles, aeroplanes, etc.
Construction Activities, Noise from social events (loudspeakers, firecrackers,
etc.)
Household noises (such as mixers, TV, washing machines, etc.)
Noise pollution has now become very common due to dense urbanisation and
industrialisation.
Adverse effects of Noise pollution:
Hearing loss, Sleeping disorders, Hypertension (high BP), digestive disorders,
Communication problems, behavioural changes etc.
Control: less sound emitted crackers, horn when it is highly needed.

Effluent treatment and Toxicity

Effluent treatment is necessary to protect the environment and public health
from waterborne diseases and contaminants. It also helps to meet environmental
regulations and standards.
Effluent treatment is important because of the following
Prevent pollution: Effluent treatment plants (ETPs) remove toxic and non-toxic
materials from water so that it can be reused or released into the environment
with less harm.
Meet regulations: ETPs help industries meet the government's standards for
pollutant emissions.
Protect public health: ETPs help to protect the public from waterborne diseases
and contaminants.
Reduce water usage: ETPs can help industries reduce their use of fresh water.
Reduce water acquisition costs: ETPs can help industries reduce their
expenditure on water acquisition.
 UNIT 4: Principles of Water Treatment
The purpose of wastewater treatment is to remove the contaminants from
water so that the treated water can meet the acceptable quality standards. The
quality standards usually depend upon whether water will be reused or
discharged into a receiving stream. Available wastewater treatment processes
can be broadly classified as Primary (physical), secondary (biological) and
Tertiary (chemical) treatments.
Primary treatment
Primary treatment removes material that will either float or readily settle out
by gravity.
It includes the physical processes of screening, grit removal and sedimentation.
First, roughing filtration is usually carried out. This process separates out
the large and medium-sized solid waste using different thickness screens and
sieves. Screens are made of long, closely spaced, narrow metal bars.
They block floating debris such as wood, rags, and other bulky objects
that could clog pipes or pumps. A comminutor may be used to grind and shred
debris that passes through the screens. The shredded material is removed later
by sedimentation or flotation processes.
Suspended solids that pass through screens and grit chambers are
removed from the sewage in sedimentation tanks.
These tanks, also called primary clarifiers, provide about two hours of
detention time for gravity settling to take place. As the sewage flows through
them slowly, the solids gradually sink to the bottom. The settled solids—known
as raw or primary sludge—are moved along the tank bottom by mechanical
scrapers. Sludge is collected in a hopper, where it is pumped out for removal.
Mechanical surface-skimming devices remove grease and other floating
materials.
Subsequently, grease and sand particles are removed using desanders and
degreasers.
Secondary treatment
It removes the soluble organic matter that escapes primary treatment. It
also removes more of the suspended solids.
 Removal is usually accomplished by biological processes in which microbes
consume the organic impurities as food, converting them into carbon dioxide,
water, and energy for their own growth and reproduction.
The sewage treatment plant provides a suitable environment, albeit of steel
and concrete, for this natural biological process.
There are three basic biological treatment methods: the trickling filter, the
activated sludge process, and the oxidation pond.
Trickling filter
Trickling Filters is an aerobic treatment system that utilizes microorganisms
attached to a medium to remove organic matter from wastewater.
A trickling filter is essentially a tank filled
with porous media such as a deep bed of stones or
slag or purposely designed porous plastic media.
The plastic media can be designed to create
crossflow, which has been shown to minimize
clogging.
The wastewater from the first treatment is
continuously trickled over the top of the trickling
filter from revolving arms and percolates to the
bottom, where it is collected for further treatment.
During this process, bacteria gather and multiply on surfaces of the filter
material, creating biofilms. Because of this, the process may be also described
as biofilm filtration.
Activated Sludge Process
This secondary treatment, which is mainly biological, generally utilizes bacteria
and microorganisms to degrade and eliminate the organic matter and the
different nutrients contained in the water. The most widespread treatment is
activated sludge.
The Activated sludge is the process where the water to be treated is left in a tank
for several days under varying oxygen conditions (aerobic, anoxic and
anaerobic) depending on the required removal requirements.
Here, the different types of bacteria that live in the tank or
reactor feed on the organic matter and the nutrients
contained in the water, removing them from the water and
taking them into their organisms.
A second or secondary settling process is usual after the biological
process. Here, the bacteria that have grown in the previous process precipitate to
the lower part of the settling tank, generating a mixture of water and solids,
which is called biological sludge.
This mixture is extracted or flushed out through the lower part of the decanter
and the purified water flows out through the upper part without most of the
bacteria and solids, giving rise to clarified water.
Tertiary treatment
During tertiary or chemical treatment, the aim is to increase the final
quality of the water so that it can be returned to the environment (sea, rivers,
lakes and other hydrographic basins) and, in some cases, used for human
activity. To achieve this, a series of processes are carried out to eliminate
pathogenic agents, such as feacal bacteria.
The techniques used include filtration with sand beds or other materials,
and disinfection, either using chlorine (usually sodium hypochlorite) or UV
light, to reduce the amount of microscopic living organisms that have been
generated in the previous stages.
The process of tertiary disinfection may take a few different forms:
Chlorine treatment: Chlorine is one of the most commonly used disinfectants
in wastewater treatment, particularly in North America, because it is budget-
friendly, easy to use and effective.
Wastewater treatment plants can dump chlorine into the wastewater to kill
harmful microorganisms like bacteria and viruses.
However, chlorine can harm aquatic ecosystems, so chlorinated wastewater
requires dechlorination before discharge into the environment.
When chlorine reacts with organic material, it can also sometimes form
potentially carcinogenic compounds like trihalomethanes and mutagen X.
Ultraviolet light treatment:
Ultraviolet (UV) light is a common disinfectant in tertiary treatment.
The wastewater flows under banks of UV lights, and the light sterilizes
microorganisms by damaging their genetic structures.
Ultraviolet light does not typically kill viruses and bacteria, but it renders
them unable to infect humans or wildlife.
 The effluent must have received aggressive treatment beforehand, though,
because any residual organic matter can shield the microorganisms from the UV
light. The lamps also require a relatively high level of maintenance.
Ozone treatment
An alternative method is to use ozone — a compound formed by using
electrical energy to add a third oxygen atom to standard diatomic O2 — as a
disinfectant.
Ozone is highly reactive and can destroy most microorganisms it comes
into contact with.
It is safer than chlorine because plants can generate it on-site as needed
rather than storing it over the long term and risking a toxic leak.
It also not forms hazardous by products in the water.
However, the treatment equipment is relatively expensive to maintain.
Advanced Waste Water Treatment Methods!
The effluent from a typical secondary treatment plant still contains 20-40
mg/L BOD which may be objectionable in some streams. Suspended solids, in
addition to contributing to BOD, may settle on the stream bed and inhibit
certain forms of aquatic life.
The BOD if discharged into a stream with low flow, can cause damage to
aquatic life by reducing the dissolved oxygen content. In addition, the
secondary effluent contains significant amounts of plant nutrients and dissolved
solids. If the waste water is of industrial origin, it may also contain traces of
organic chemicals, heavy metals and other contaminants.
A wide variety of methods are used in advanced wastewater treatment to
satisfy any of several specific goals, which include the removal of (1) sus-
pended solids, (2) BOD, (3) plant nutrients, (4) dissolved solids and (5) toxic
substances. These methods may be introduced at any stage of the total treatment
process as in the case of industrial wastewaters or may be used for complete
removal of pollutants after the secondary treatment.
1. Removal of Suspended Solids
Removal of suspended solids in the advanced treatment implies the
removal of those materials that have been carried over from a secondary settler.
Of the several methods proposed, the two methods most commonly utilized in
this application are microstraining, and chemical coagulation followed by
settling and mixed-media filtration.
 Microstraining -Microstraining utilizes a rotating drum-type filter to
screen suspended solids. The filtering media consist of a finely woven stainless
steel fabric with a mesh size of 23 to 35 microns. The fabric is mounted on the
periphery of the drum and water is allowed to pass from inside to the outside as
shown in Fig. Back-washing is accomplished by high pressure water jets placed
at the highest point of the drum. The solids which are retained on the fabric are
washed into a trough, which recycles the solids to the sedimentation tank.
Micro strainers can handle high flow rates of influent but cannot hand
fluctuations in solid content and shock loads. Furthermore, the removal
suspended solids depends on their filterability characteristics; colloid
suspensions usually pass through the unit unhindered.
Coagulation and Filtration- Coagulation is the method in which certain
chemicals are rapidly dispersed in wastewater to change the characteristics of
the suspended particles so that they coalesce and form flocs which sink rapidly.
Coagulation is employed to improve or make possible the removal of negatively
charged colloidal suspensions which do not normally settle out and cannot be
removed by conventional physical treatment. Coagulation is done by the
addition of positive ions, e.g., Al3+, which reduce the electrokinetic repulsion
between the particles.
In industrial wastewater treatment, coagulation is frequently used for oily
emulsions, and finely divided and nonsettleable solids such as pigments, paper
fibre, meat and tannery effluents, and mineral beneficiation slimes. The most
widely used coagulants for wastewater treatment are aluminium and iron salts
such as aluminium sulphate (alum), ferric sulphate, and ferric chloride. At high
(alkaline) pH prevalent in the water these salts produce insoluble aluminium
hydroxide or ferric hydroxide flocs.
The reaction may be represented as
Al(SO₂), + 3Ca(HCO₂)  2Al(OH), + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2
As they form and grow, the aluminium hydroxide flocs entrap the solid
particles. The precipitate is then flocculated to produce large, dense settleable
solids. Sometimes, with very low concentration of colloidal matter, floc
formation is difficult; therefore, coagulant aids like polyelectrolytes are added
to promote the coagulation-flocculation process.
If properly performed, the addition of chemicals for promoting coa-
gulation and flocculation can remove both suspended and colloidal solids. After
the flocs are formed, the solution is led to settling tank where the flocs are
allowed to settle. While most of the flocculated material is removed in the
settling tank, some floc particles still do not settle in the settling basin. These
flocs are removed by the filtration process, which is usually carried out using
beds of porous media such as sand or coal. The current trend is to use a mixed-
media filter, graded coarse to fine, in the direction of water flow.
2. Removal of Dissolved solids
The dissolved solids are of both organic and inorganic types. The most
common method used for the removal of soluble organics from wastewater is
adsorption on activated carbon. Solvent extraction is also used to recover certain
organic chemicals like phenol and amines from industrial waste- waters. A
number of methods have been investigated for the removal of inorganic
constituents from wastewater. Three methods which are finding wide
application in advanced waste treatment are ion exchange, electro dialysis and
reverse osmosis.
Adsorption on Activated Carbon
Adsorption is a surface phenomenon wherein the dissolved substances in
wastewater are attracted to and adhere to the surface of the adsorbent. Activated
carbon, with its extensive internal microporous structure, is the most commonly
used adsorbent either in powdered or granular form. Adsorption on activated
carbon is probably the most economical and technically attractive method
available for removing soluble organics such as phenols, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, surfactants, and colour and odour producing substances from
wastewater.
Adsorption systems based on granular activated carbon can either be of
fixed-bed type (flow down) or expanded-bed type (flow up). The adsorbers can
be arranged in several different process configurations, as shown in Fig. In
series operation, the wastewater enters the first column and leaves the second
column whereas in parallel operation, each column receives the same feed and
the effluents from each column are combined to form a composite product.
When the carbon bed is saturated with chemicals, it is regenerated. In the series
operation, the first column is removed from service when the bed is exhausted
and a fresh column is placed at the end of the series. The second column then
becomes the lead column. In parallel operation the beds become saturated
simultaneously and are replaced by a fresh batch.
After the bed becomes saturated, it is necessary to regenerate it for reuse.
In thermal regeneration the activated carbon is dewatered and then passed
through a multiple-hearth furnace where the adsorbed organics are oxidized at
temperatures of 815 to 925°C. The regenerated carbon is then water-quenched
and stored for return to the treatment system.
Solvent Extraction
 Solvent extraction has long been practised to recover phenolic materials
from wastewaters of refineries and coke plants. For solvent extraction, solvents
such as benzene are used from which phenol is recovered by distillation after
the addition of alkali. In liquid extraction, the wastewater is intimately brought
in contact with a solvent having low aqueous solubility and high affinity for the
solute. After contact of the wastewater with the solvent, two immiscible layers
are formed and an equilibrium is reached between the two layers. The solvent-
rich product is called the extract and the residual liquid from which the solute
has been removed is called the raffinate.
For example, in the extraction of phenol from wastewater using benzene
as the solvent, the extract is predominantly a mixture of phenol and ben- zene,
and the raffinate is predominantly water, containing a little bit of phenol and
solvent. The contact between the feed and the solvent could be accomplished in
several configurations: single-stage contact, multistage cross current extraction,
and multistage counter-current extraction.
Ion exchange:
This technique has been used extensively to remove hardness, and iron
and manganese salts in drinking water supplies. It has also been used selectively
to remove specific impurities and to recover valuable trace metals like
chromium, nickel, copper, lead and cadmium from industrial waste discharges.
The process takes advantage of the ability of certain natural and synthetic
materials to exchange one of their ions with another contained in the water
passing through them.
Water passes through the resin beads, and the ions in the water are
exchanged for other ions on the beads. For example, in water softening, calcium
and magnesium ions are removed and replaced with sodium ions.
When the resin beads become saturated with unwanted ions, they need to
be regenerated, or recharged. This is done by flushing the resin with a salt brine
solution, which replaces the unwanted ions with sodium ions.
Reverse Osmosis
In the reverse osmosis process, demineralized water is produced by
forcing water through semipermeable membranes at high pressure. In ordinary
osmosis, if a vessel is divided by a semipermeable membrane (one that is
permeable to water but not to dissolved material), and one compartment is filled
with water and the other with a concentrated salt solution, water diffuses
through the membrane towards the compartment containing salt solution until
the difference in water levels on the two sides of the mem- brane creates a
sufficient pressure to counteract the original water flow (Fig. 9.33a). The
difference in levels represents the osmotic pressure of the solution. The process
can be reversed by applying sufficient pressure to the concentrated solution to
overcome the osmotic pressure and force the net flow of water through the
membrane towards the dilute phase. The solute concentration (impurity) builds
up on one side of the membrane while rela- tively pure water passes through the
membrane. In order to obtain adequate solvent (water) flux through the
membrane, pressures of the order of 4000 to 7000 kN/m² are required.
Electrodialysis:
In contrast to the reverse osmosis process, electrodialysis employs the re-
moval of the solute from the solution rather than the removal of the solvent. In
this process, use is made of selective permeable membranes and an electrical
potential difference to extract ions from solution.

Fig shows a simple electrodialysis cell in which wastewater may be

deionized. As shown in the figure two types of membranes (anionic and
cationic) are arranged alternatively to form many compartments between the
electrodes placed at the two ends. When voltage is applied across the cell
containing mineralized water, the anions migrate to the positive electrode and
the cations migrate to the negative electrode. This causes solution in alternate
compartments to become more concentrated while that in the remaining
becomes more dilute. The electric power requirement is proportional to the
number of ions removed from the water.
3. Nitrogen Removal
All forms of nitrogen in wastewater effluents are potentially harmful.
Plants can utilize the inorganic forms as nutrients; ammonia can be utilized by
certain bacteria as an energy source with the result that oxygen is depleted in the
aquatic systems. Similarly, the organic nitrogen puts a heavy demand of oxygen
on the receiving water bodies. The organic nitrogen can be metabolized in the
secondary treatment plants by nitrifying bacteria but this step does not remove
nitrogen from wastewater. Nitrification merely converts the organic nitrogen to
nitrate, thereby reducing oxygen demand in the effluent. Two popular methods
of nitrogen removal from wastewater are Ammonia stripping and biological
nitrification and denitrification.
Ammonia stripping is a simple and cost-effective process for removing
nitrogen from wastewater in the form of ammonia. It's often used to treat
wastewater that contains high levels of ammonia and toxic compounds.
Here's how ammonia stripping works:
Desorption: In an ammonia stripping tower, wastewater flows downward while
air enters and flows through the packing.
Stripping: Free ammonia (NH3) is removed from the water droplets and into the
air stream.
Discharge: The ammonia is then discharged into the atmosphere.
Nitrification-Denitrification
This is essentially a modification of the activated sludge process and is
specifically geared to the removal of nitrogen. In nitrification, the waste is
thoroughly treated in the aeration chamber when NH 4+ is converted by bacteria
to nitrate ions. This usually involves longer detention times than those for the
conventional activated sludge process. and F/M ratios are maintained around
0.3. During nitrification, bacteria such as nitrosomonas and nitrobacter
catabolize ammonia to nitrite and nitrates according to the following two
equations:
NH4+ ------- NO2- (Nitrosomonas)
NO2- ----- NO3- (Nitrobacter)
The NO2- and NO3- forms are removed from the system by the process
of denitrification. an anaerobic process in which heterotrophic bacteria found in
activated sludges reduce NO2- and NO3- to nitrogen gas. These organisms
require an organic carbon cell growth. and because the effluent from the
nitrification tank is very low in organic carbon, some organic compound must
be added. Methanol is usually recommended for this purpose. The organisms
metabolize methanol according to the following reaction:
NO2- + 5/6 CH3OH --- ½ N2 + 5/6 CO2 + 7/6 H2O + OH-
The equation indicates that 5/6 mole of methanol is required to reduce
completely one mole of nitrate to molecular nitrogen or 1.9 mg/l of CH 3OH for
1 mg/l of nitrate on the weight basis. If properly operated, the nitrification-
denitrification process has been shown to convert or remove nitrogen in an
extremely efficient manner. A three-stage nitrification-denitrification process is
shown in Fig.

4. Phosphorous Removal:
The main process used for the removal of phosphorus from wastewater is
chemical precipitation, although some biological methods have also been
suggested. Many chemicals are effective in the precipitation of phosphorous
from solution.
Chemical Precipitation
Chemical precipitation, also known as a chemical phosphorus removal or
primary phosphorus removal, can remove inorganic phosphates from water by
adding a coagulant into the wastewater. During chemical precipitation,
aluminum, calcium, or iron can be used as multivalent metal ions to form a
phosphorous precipitate, which will then settle out of the wastewater.
One common chemical additives is lime, Ca(OH)2, which contains calcium.
Lime reacts with the wastewater’s natural alkalinity to create calcium carbonate
and increase the water’s pH. Once the wastewater’s pH value has increased
beyond 10, the calcium ions will react with the phosphate and precipitate as
hydroxyapatite (a calcium phosphate).
This reaction is between the lime and alkalinity of the wastewater, meaning the
quantity needed will be independent of the amount of phosphate present in the
water. Instead, it depends largely on the wastewater’s alkalinity and pH levels.
The overall lime dose needed can be measured as 1.5 times the alkalinity as
CaCO3. After this process, the wastewater may need to be neutralized to lower
the pH levels before additional treatments or disposal.
Aluminum or hydrated aluminum sulfate are also commonly used for
precipitating phosphates. The overall dosage rate is directly dependent on the
level of phosphorus removal needed. The overall coagulation efficiency drops
as the phosphorus concentration decreases.
Necessary doses can be determined primarily using bench-scale tests and then
verified during full-scale testing. Testing on actual wastewater samples (not
imitation water created in the lab) is recommended due to chemical and polymer
interactions with other constituents in the wastewater. Aluminum coagulants
may negatively impact microbial levels in activated sludge, including rotifers
and protozoa, when dosage rates exceed 150 mg/l.
Ferric chloride or sulfate is also commonly used during ferric dosing for
phosphorus removal. During phosphors removal, ferric ions can combine,
creating ferric phosphate. Ferric ions react with the natural alkalinity, and a
coagulant aid like lime can be added to raise the pH level to improve the
coagulation process.

Metal recovery processes include:

Leaching: Leaching process is used in the extraction of substances from solids.
This is achieved by dissolving the given substance in a liquid. This can be done
via an industrial process or even through a natural process.
Leaching process describes the release of organic and inorganic contaminants or
radionuclides from a solid phase into a water phase when influenced by
processes such as desorption, complexation, and mineral dissolution.
The Leaching process is a universal process – Water will leach the components
of any material it comes in contact with, from its surface or the interior of the
material (based on the porous nature of the material).
Using this process, the ore of metal can be concentrated by causing a chemical
reaction with a reagent which would lead to the ore being dissolved but the
impurities remaining undissolved.
Example of this process would be the leaching of noble metals such as gold and
silver with the help of dilute aqueous solutions of sodium cyanide or potassium
cyanide, with air present. The chemical reaction for the leaching of silver can be
given by:
Ag2S + 4NaCN → 2Na[Ag(CN)2] + Na2S
Bioleaching: An environmentally friendly process that recovers heavy metals
from contaminated soil, sludge, sediment, and metallic ores.
Bioleaching is a biochemical process that uses living organisms to extract
metals from ores. It is an environmental friendly method that is cleaner than
traditional cyanide-based methods. It's particularly useful for extracting metals
from low-grade ores. Some metals that can be recovered using bioleaching
include: copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, antimony, nickel, molybdenum, gold, silver,
and cobalt.
The process involves oxidizing metals and converting them into a soluble
form. Here's how bioleaching works:
Bacteria convert metal compounds- Bacteria, fungi, or algae convert metal
compounds in ores into a solution. This solution is called the leachate.
Separate the metal-The leachate is separated into copper metal using
electrolysis or displacement reactions.
However, bioleaching can be slow, complex, and time-consuming.
Electrostatic separation: A technique that uses electric fields to separate
minerals based on their electrical conductivity or charge.
Electrostatic separation is a technology that uses electric forces to separate
granular mixtures of materials, including metals, into different groups. It's
commonly used in industrial waste processing to recover metals from materials
that are difficult to separate using other methods and also used to recover metals
from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), such as printed circuit
boards. The process can improve the recovery and purity of the resulting
products.
Electrochemical recovery: A selective process that uses an electrolyte to leach
metals in ionic form. It uses fewer chemicals, consumes less energy, and has a
lower environmental impact.
These Electrochemical processes are a versatile and environmentally friendly
way to recover metals from wastewater and e-waste, some of them are as
follows
Electrodeposition: This traditional method uses an electroplating bath and
inert electrodes to transform metal ions into metallic coatings. It's a simple and
safe process, but the design of the electrochemical reactor is important for
recovering metals from dilute solutions.
Electrosorption: This method is popular for removing toxic metal ions from
polluted water, but it produces metal ions that need to be further processed to
become pure metals.
Electrodialysis and electrodeionization: These electricity-driven processes
use membranes to selectively recover metals while producing pure water.
Bioelectrochemical and photoelectrochemical techniques: These techniques
use microorganisms and photocatalysis to recover metals and organic products.
Ionic liquid systems: This method involves transferring metal ions from the
leachate into ionic liquid systems for electrolysis. It can achieve high selectivity
and low operating temperatures.
Solvent extraction: Solvent extraction is a technique that separates, purifies,
and recovers metals from solutions. It's also known as liquid-liquid
extraction. The process involves:
1. Contacting the aqueous solution with an organic solvent
The aqueous metal solution is put into contact with an organic solvent that can
chemically interact with the metal species.
2. Separating the phases
Once equilibrium is reached, the two phases are separated, resulting in an
extract and a raffinate.
3. Stripping the metal
The metal-loaded organic solvent transfers the metal ions to a new aqueous
solution.
4. Regenerating the organic solvent
The purified organic phase can be reused in a subsequent extraction process.
Solvent extraction is used to recover a range of metals, including uranium,
copper, nickel, cobalt, and rare earths. The composition of the feed solution and
the nature of the metal to be purified are factors to consider when selecting a
solvent extraction technology
Recovering metals can improve environmental quality, and the recovered
metals can be recycled in metal-manufacturing industries or reused for
construction.