EC8452 - Electronic Circuits II
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pvrEC8452 - Electronic Circuits II
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pvrStrictly as per Revised Syllabus of
Anna University
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
Semester - IV (ECE)
Electronic Circuits II
Atul P. Godse
M.S. Software Systems (BITS Pilani)
B.E. Industrial Electronics
Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg.
Vishwakarma Institute of Technology
Pune
Uday A. Bakshi
M.E. (Electrical)
Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg.
Vishwakarma Institute of Technology
Pune
® TM
I S B N 9 7 8 - 9 3 - 3 3 2 - 2 111 - 5
TECHNICAL
PUBLICATIONS
An Up-Thrust for Knowledge
9 789333 221115
(i)
Electronic Circuits II
Semester - IV (ECE)
First Edition : January 2019
ã Copyright with Authors
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should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and
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PUBLICATIONS
I S B N 9 7 8 - 9 3 - 3 3 2 - 2 111 - 5
9 7 8 9 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 5
AU 17
9789333221115[1] (ii)
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Ii I Io = IL
Comparator + Basic amplifier + +
Signal Sampling Vo
or mixer Vi forward transfer gain V RL
source network
network – A – –
If
Feedback network
+
Vf reverse transmission
–
Voltage (node) sampler Current (loop) sampler
Io
Basic Basic
amplifier Vo RL amplifier RL
A A
Feedback Feedback
Vf network Vo network Io
(a) Voltage or node sampling (b) Current or loop sampling
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Vf Vo
Series mixer Shunt mixer
Rs
Basic Basic
Vi amplifier Is Rs amplifier
+ A A
Vs
–
Feedback If Feedback
Vf network network
(a) Series mixing (b) Shunt mixing
V
Av
Vi
I
Ai
Ii
I
Gm
Vi
V
Rm
Ii
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Av Ai Gm Rm
Af
Af
Vo
A Vf
Vs
Io
A If
Is
Io
G Mf
Vs
Vo
R Mf
Is
Comparator
or mixer Difference signal Output signal
x d = xi Basic xo = A xi
Input x xo
signal s amplifier
+ xd = xs – xf A
–
RL
Feedback
circuit
xf = xo
Feedback signal
Af
Xo Xo
Af
Xi Xs
Xo
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Xi
Xs
Xi Xs
Xi Xs Xf
Xf
Xo Xo
Af
Xs Xi Xf
Xi
Xo / Xi
Af
(X i X f ) X i
A Xo
1 Xf Xi Xi
A
X f X o
1
X o X i
A Xf
Af
1 A Xo
Av
A vf
1 Av
Av
A
Xi Xs Xf Af Af
1 A
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A
1 A
100
1 (100 0.04)
Vo
Vs
A 100000
A vf
1 A 1 100000 0.01
10000
1 (10000) (0.03)
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A
1 A
1000
1 1000
V of V in
V of 12.5
A vf
V in 1.5
V o 12.5
Av
V in 0.25
A
A vf
1 A
50
1 50
Vo Vo Vo
Vs 60 mV 0 .5
0 . 5 120
60
60mV
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Av
1 Av
1000
1 1000
Rs
+
A = 1000 Vo
Vs –
RL = 5 K
R2 = 9 K
R1 = 1 K
Rs
Vo
+ +
–
AVi
Vi RL = 5 K
Vs +
_
R1 –
R2 = 9 K
R1 R2
+
R1 1K
Vf R1 = 1 K
R1 R2 1 K9 K –
A 1250
1 A 1 1250 0.1
A
1 A
1000
1 1000
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R1
R1 R2
1 R1 R2 R2 1
R1 R1 0.019
R2
R1
Rs
+
+
Vi A = 1000 Vo
– –
Vs
RL
A 1000
1 A 1 1000 1
900
1 900 1
Af 0.99889 0.999
Af 0.999
A 1000
1 A 1 1000
R1 2K
R1 R2 2K R 2
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50
1 50
R1 2K
R1 R2 2K R 2
Vo 5V
Vs 1V
A A
1 A 1 A 0.199
1
A 1 1
1 A 1 / A 1
1
A
5 1
1
1
A
1
A
1
A
0.25 0.25
A 1000
1 1
5 5 0.00025
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dA f (1 A ) 1 – A 1
dA (1 A)2 (1 A ) 2
dA
Af
(1 A ) 2
Af
dA f dA 1
Af (1 A) 2 Af
dA (1 A ) A
Af
(1 A ) 2 A 1 A
dA f dA 1
Af A (1 A )
dA f
Af
dA
A
(1 A )
1
(1 A )
A A 1
Af
1 A A
dA
A
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dA f dA 1
Af A (1 A)
1
10
1 1000 0.04
A
Af
1 A
A mid
A f mid
1 A mid
A low
A f low
1 A low
A high
Af high
1 A high
A low 1 A mid
A low
A mid f f
1 j L 1 j L
f f
A low
A mid
f
1 j L
f A mid A mid
f f
1 j L A mid (1 A mid) j L
A mid f f
1
fL
1 j f
(1 A mid
A mid
1 A mid
A f low
fL
1 j
1 A mid f
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A f mid A mid
fL 1 A mid
1j
1 A mid f
Af low 1
A f mid f
1 j Lf
f
fL
f Lf
1 A mid
(1 A mid )
A high 1
A mid f
1 j
fH
A mid
A high
f
1 j
fH
A mid A mid
f f
1 j 1 j A mid
fH fH
A
1 mid
f
1 j f
H
(1 A mid )
A mid
1 A mid
f
1 j
(1 A mid ) fH
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A f mid A mid
f 1 A mid
1 j
(1 A mid ) fH
A f mid
f
1 j
fHf
(1 A mid )
(1 A mid )
fL
BWf f Hf – f Lf (1 A mid ) f H –
(1 A mid )
Gain
Amid
0.707 Amid
Af mid
0.707 Af mid
Frequency
fLF fL fH fHF
BW
BWf
(f Hf – f Lf ) (f H – f L )
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Av
Av 125
A vf
1 A v 1 0.04 125
1 10 6
f Hf
fH
f Lf 1 1 1
fL 1 Av 1 01
. 1000 101
20 0.0099
1 Change in gain with feedback 2
D Change in gain without feedback 20
1 A v
Av
A v A vf D 100 10
D
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1 A v
10 1 9
Av 1000
A
1 A
100
1 100 01
.
fL
(1 A mid )
(1 100 01
. ) 300
100 300 30 10 6
A vf BWf 9.09 3300 30 10 6
(1 A vmid ) f H
(1 100 ) 300
800
1
300
100
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R1 2K
R1 R2 2K8K
A 1000
1 A 1 1000 0.2
fL fL 10
D 1 A 1 1000 0.2
Vn
+
Vs A Vo
–
Vs
Vn
Vn
+
+ Noise-free Noisy
Vs amplifier amplifier Vo
– (AP) (A)
– + –
Vo
Feedback
network
( )
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A PA A
Vn
1 A P A 1 A P A
A
(V A Vn)
1 A P A s P
VS A P
Vn
Vs A P A 1 1000 5
1 A P A 1 1000 5 0.1
Vn A 15
1 A P A 1 1000 5 0.1
V so 9.98
V no 0.00998
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1 0. 3 100
4%
31
Av 100
D 5
f1 f2 Av
1 400
A vf
1 A v 1 0.01 400
f1 50
f1f
1 A v 1 0.01 400
f2f f2 (1 A v ) 200 10 3 (1 0.01 400)
Distortion 0.1
1 A v 1 0.01 400
A v mid
f L 50 Hz fH
fL fH
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Series Voltage
mixing sampling
Rs
+ + +
Vs + Voltage
_ Vi R L Vo
amplifier
– – –
Vo
– +
+ Feedback
Vf network
–
Shunt Current
mixing sampling
Ii Io = IL
Vs Rs Current
amplifier RL
If = Io
Feedback
network
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Series Current
mixing sampling
Rs Io = IL
+ Trans -
Vs +
– Vi conductance RL
– amplifier
+ Feedback
Io = Vf network
–
Shunt Voltage
sampling sampling
Ii
Trans - +
Is Rs resistance R L Vo
amplifier –
If = Vo
Feedback
network
Rs Ro
+
+ +
Vs + Vi Ri Av V i RL Vo
–
– –
Ri>>Rs RL>>Ro
A v Vs
Ri
Ro Ri Rs RL Ro
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Ii Io = IL
+
Is Rs Ri Ai Ii Ro RL Vo
Ri 0 or Ri << Rs RL<< Ro or Ro
Ri Ii Is
Ro IL AiI i
Ri
Ro R i R s
Ro RL
Rs Io = IL
Vs +
_ Vi Ro
Ri RL
GmVi
Ri>>Rs Ro>>RL
Ri
Ro Ri Rs
Ro RL R i R s , V i V s
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IL
Vs
Ii Ro
+
Is Rs Ri RmIi RL Vo
–
Ri<<Rs Ro<<RL
Ri Ro
R i R s Ro RL
Vo
Is
Vo IL IL Vo
Av Ai
Vs Is Vs Is
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Ii
+
Vs Vi Amplifier Sampling
RL
network
–
Vf
– +
Vf Vs
Ii
Ii
Vf
Vi Amplifier Sampling
Is RL
network
Vs
R if
Ii If
Is = Ii If Is
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Vi
R if
Is
R if
Io
+
Xs Mixer Amplifier R L Vo
network
–
Rof <Ro
Io
+
Xs Mixer Amplifier R L Vo
network
–
Rof >Ro
R of
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Ii Ro Io
+ +
+
Vs _ Vi Ri + A V RL Vo
– v i
Av Vf =Vo
– –
– +
Rs
Vs Vf
Rif = Voltage amplifier
Ii
Rs
Av A vs R if R ifs
Vs
R if
Ii
Vs – I i R i – Vf
Vs I i R i Vf I i R i Vo Vf Vo
Ii
A v Vi R L A v RL
Ro RL Ro RL
Av AV
RL
Vo
Vs Ii R i AV Ii R i
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Vs
R i AV R i
Ii
R if R i (1 A V )
Ro I
Vi Ri + A V V RL
– v i
– V +
f
RL Vf =V Rof = V R'of
I
A v Vi Ro
V – A v Vi
Ro
Vi – Vf Vs
V A v V V (1 A v )
Ro Ro
R of
V
I
Ro
(1 A v )
Av RL
TM
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Rof
Ro
RL
R of R of RL
R of R L 1 A v
R of R L Ro
RL
(1 A v )
RoRL RoRL
R o R L (1 A v ) Ro RL A v RL
Ro RL
RoRL
Ro RL
R of
A v RL
1
Ro RL
Ro RoRL A v RL
R of Ro
1 A V Ro RL Ro RL
R1
R2 R1
Basic amplifier
Rs (1 K) +
Ao = 1000
+ ro(1 K)
Rid
Vd Vo
+
Vs _ Rin (100 K)
+ AoVd
–
–
Rif RL
– (10 K)
Rout Rof
R2 (99 K)
+
Vf R1(1 K)
–
Feedback network
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Vf Vo Vf
180
( Vo
Vf
Vs
Rs ro
+ Vo
+
Vs Rid Vd + AoVd R1 + R2 RL
–
Ri –
Ro
–
R1 || R2
[(R 1 R 2 )||R L ]
[(R 1 R 2 )||R L ] ro
R id
R s R id (R 1|| R 2 )
Vo [(R 1 R 2 )||R L ] R id
Vs [(R 1 R 2 )||R L ro R s R id (R 1||R 2 )
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(1 99)|| 10 100
[(1 99)||10] 1 1 100 (1||99)
Vf R1 1
Vo R1 R2 1 99
Av Av 883.32
1 A v D 9.833
Ro 900
D 9.833
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Ii Io
+
Vs + Vi Ri GmVi Ro RL
–
Vf =Io
–+
–
Vf
Vs Transconductance amplifier
Rif =
Ii
Vs
R if
Ii
Vs – I i R i – Vf
I i R i Vf Ii R i Io Vf Io
G m Vi R o
Ro RL
Gm R o
Ro RL
I i R i G M Vi Ii R i GM Ii R i
Vs
R i (1 G M )
Ii
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I Io
Ii
+
Vs= 0 Vi Ri Ro V RL
Gm Vi
Vf =Io
Vs
– V +
f –
V R'of
Rof =
I
RL
V
G m Vi
Ro
Vi Vf Io
Io
Vi
V
Gm
Ro
V
I G m I I (1 G m)
Ro
V
R of Ro Gm
I
Gm RL
R of R L R o (1 G m ) R L R o R L (1 G m )
R of R of RL
R of R L R o (1 G m ) R L R o R L Gm R o
Ro RL
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R L R o (1 G m )
Ro RL
R of
Gm R o
1
Ro RL
R o (1 G m ) Ro RL Gm R o
R of R o GM
1 GM Ro RL Ro RL
GM RL
VDD
Rs = 1 K
– Ao = 400
+ gm = 1 mA/V
Vd Ao Q
+ Rid = 120 k
–
Vs +
_ o ro2 = 40 k
Rin
Rof RL= 5 K
Rif
+
Vf Rf = 2 K
–
Io
Vf Vs
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Rs ro1 Ro
G1
–
+ Vd Rid +
Io RL
+
AoVd gmVgs ro2
+ Vgs
Vi –
Rf
Rf
– –
Ri
R id
R s R id R f
ro2
ro2 R L R f
Io ro2 R id
Vi r
o2 R L R R
f s R id R f
~
40 120
40 5 2 1 120 2
Vf I oRf
Io Io
TM
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GM 0.332
D 665
GM ~ gm A o 1
1 G M 1 Rf g m A o Rf
1
2K
Vo I oRL
Vs Vs
TM
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Ii Ro
+
Is Vi Ri + RmIi RL Vo
–
If =Vo
–
Vs
Rif = Transresistance amplifier
Ii
I i Vo
Ii
R m Ii R o
R M Ii
Ro RL
Rm Ro
Ro RL
RL
Ii R M Ii I i (1 R M )
Vi Vi
Is I i (1 R M )
Ri Vi
Ri
(1 R M ) Ii
TM
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Ro I
Ii
+
I s= 0 Vi Ri + R I V RL
– m i
If =V
–
Rof R'of
I
R m Ii I R o – V
V – RmIi
Ro
Ii – If
V Rm V V (1 R m )
Ro Ro
R of
V
R of
I
Ro
R of
1 R m
Rm RL
Rof
R of R L
R of R of RL
R of R L
Ro RL
1 Rm Ro RL
Ro R o R L (1 R m )
RL
1 Rm
TM
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Ro RL
Ro RL
Ro RL
R of
Rm RL
1
Ro RL
R o R L R of Rm RL
R of Ro
1+ R M R L R of (R o R L )
RL
RF
RF
+
Ao Vo
Rin Ii –
Ao = 1000
Rid = 120 K
RL = 5 K
If ro = 100
Is
Rs = 1 K
RF = 10 K
Rif
Feedback circuit
Rout Rof
(Vo 0)
Ii Is – If
TM
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Ii ro
+ +
Vd –AoVd
Rid + Vo
Rs RF – RF RL
Ri
– –
Ro
(R F|| R L )
(R F|| R L ) ro
Vo (R F|| R L )
Ii (R F|| R L ) ro
(10||5)
(10||5) 0.1
Vi Vo Vo
RF RF
If 1 1
Vo RF 10
RM RM 873.79
1 RM D 88.379
Vo Vo R Mf 9.89 K
Vs I s Rs Rs 1K
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Ri 900
D 88.379
Ro 90
D 88.379
Ii Io
Is Vi Ri Ai Ii Ro RL Vo
If =Io
V
Rif = ––i Current amplifier
Is
Ii Io I f I o
TM
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I I
Ai Ii R o
AI Ii
Ro RL
Ai R o
AI
Ro RL
Ai AI
RL
Io
Is I i A II i I i (1 A I )
Vi Vi
R if
Is I i (1 A I )
Ri Vi
R if
(1 A I ) Ii
I Io
Ii
+
Is = 0 Io Vi Ri Ai Ii Ro V RL
Is
–
V
RL Rof =
I
R'of
V
Ai Ii
Ro
TM
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Ii If Io Is
Io
Ii
V
Ai I
Ro
V
I A i I I(1 A i )
Ro
V
R of R o (1 A i )
I
Ai RL
R of R L R o (1 A i ) R L R o R L (1 A i )
R of R of || R L
R of R L R o (1 A i ) R L R o R L Ai R o
Ro RL
R o R L (1 A i )
Ro RL
R of
Ai R o
1
Ro RL
R 'o (1 A i ) Ro RL Ai Ro
R of Ro AI
(1 A I ) Ro RL Ro RL
AI RL
Io
(I i I s – I f )
TM
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Io
+
Ao Rout = Rof
– Q
R2 = 82 k Io
Is Rs= 1 K Ao = 1000
Rid =
ro1 = 1 k
R1 = 10 k
gm = 5 mA/V
ro2 = 25 k
ro1 1/gm
0
R2 Io
–
Ii Rs Rid Vd + AoVd ro2
R1 R2 R1
A o Vd ro2
1 ro2 + (R 1||R 2 )
(R 2||R 1||ro2 )
gm
TM
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Io A oRi ro2
Ii 1 ro2 + (R 1||R 2 )
(R 2||R 1||ro2 )
gm
1000 989 25
1 25 (10||82)
( 82||10||25) 10 3
5 10 3
If R1 10
Io R1 R2 10 82
AI AI 554.8
1 A I D 61.3
Ri Ri 989
1A I D 61.3
~
TM
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+VCC
Rc = 4.7K
( Vo C
Rs = 1K B
Ii
+
Vf E +
Vs
Vs – Re 100 Vo
–
Vo
Vs Rs C
Rs Rc
Ii Ib Re B
Ii –
+
Vs E Re
– Vo
+
Rs
B C
Ii =Ib
Rc
+
Vs hie hfeIb –
–
–
Re
Vf Vo
+ +
Ri E Ro R'o
TM
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Vo h fe I b R e
Av
Vs Vs
Vs I b (R s h ie )
Vs
h fe R e 50 100
Av
R s h ie 1 K 1.1 K
Vo Vf
Vf
Re
Vo
A vf R if R of R'of
1 A v
Av Av 2.38
A vf
1 A v D 3.38
R if Ri
Ro
Ro
R of
1 A v 1 A v
Rs Ib = 0 I=0
Rc
Ix
Vs = 0 hie hfe Ib = 0 +
Re Vo
R'o –
Ro
Vo I x Re
Ro
Ix Ix
TM
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R 'o
R 'of R 'o Re
D
Re 100
R 'of
D 3 . 38
R of Rof
Re Re
lim Rof lim lim
R e R e D R e 1 A v
Re R e (R s h ie ) R s h ie
lim lim
R e h R R e R s h ie h fe R e h fe
1 (1) fe e
R s h ie
1K 1.1K
50
VDD
G = 40
rd = 40K
+
Vs S
– Vf R 5K Vo
Vf
Vs
D –
+ R Vo
Vs
Vo –
Vs
+
S
Ii IG Rs
TM
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G D
+ – –
+
Vs Vgs gmVgs rd Vf R Vo
–
Vo g m Vgs r d R + +
Av –
Vs (r d R) Vs S Ro R'o
g m rd R
Vgs Vs
rd R
R
g m rd
rd R
40 5 K
40 K 5 K
Vo Vf
Vf
Rs
Vo
A vf R if R of R of
1 Av 1 4 . 44
Av Av 4.44
1 A v D 5.44
Ri R if Ri
Ro rd
Ro R
R of lim A v lim
1 A v R R rd R
Ro rd 40 K
1 1 1 (1)(40)
R o
R of
D
R rd
R o R || r d
R rd
5 K 40 K
5 K 40 K
TM
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4.44 K
R of
5.44
B
Av1 Av2 +
I'
E R2
+
Vs Vo
–
R1 (I' + I)
Vs
–
Vo
Vf
Vs
B V1
Vo Av1 Av2
R2 R1
E R2
Vs Vo
Ii
R1 R2 Vf R1
I
R1
R2
Fig. 110
. .9
Vf R1
Vo R1 R 2
h ie h fe h re h oe
Vo Vo V I
A vf A vf Rif s A IF R 'of
Vi Vs Ii Ii
TM
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VCC
Rc2
Rc1
22K 4.7K
220K R1 C1 220K R3 C2
+
I
Rs = 100 B1 B2
Q2
Ii Q1
E1 E2 Vo
+
Vs 22K R2 22K R4
– 100 Re1 1K Re2
–
Rif Rf = 10K R'of
R e1
Vo
Re Rf E1 Ii
VCC
22 K Rc1 Rc2 4.7 K
220 K R3 220 K
R1
C1
Rs Ib1 I
Rf
Q1 Q2
Ii B1 10 K
Vi E1 Vo
VS R2 22 K R4 22 K
100 Rf 100 Re1
Re1
10 K
Rif Ri1 Ri2 R'of
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
Rf R e1
Rs
Ib1 Ib2
+
100
Ii hie hfeIb hfeIb Rf
Vs R1||R2 RC1 R1||R2 hie RC2 Vo
Vi Re1 Rf Re1
–
Ri1 RL1 Ri2 RL2
(A vi )
R L2 R C2 (R e1 R f )
A i2 h fe
R i2 h ie
A i2 R L2 –50 3 . 21 K
A v2
R i2 1100
A i1 – h fe
R L1 R C1 R3 R4 R i2
R i1 h ie (1 h fe ) R e
A i1 R L1 – 50 995
A v1
R i1 . 10 3
615
A vi A v1 A v2 – 8. 0
Vo
10K
Vf 100
Vo 100 10 10 3 Vf 100
1 A Vi 1 0 . 0099 1167.2
TM
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Vo A vi 1167.2
A vf
Vi D 12.55
R if R i1 6.15 10 3 12.55
Vi R 1 R 2 Rif 220 22 77.18
Vs (R 1 R 2 Rif ) R s (220 22 77.18) 0.1
Vo Vo Vi Vi
A vf 93 0.9937
Vs Vi Vs Vs
Vs
R s ( Rif R 1 R 2 )
Ii
100 (77.18 K 220 K 22 K)
V o I R L R C2
A If
V s I i R if R if
I R 16 K
A If 92.4 if 92.4 314.5
Ii R C2 4.7 K
Ro R L2 k
Ro 3.21 K
Rof
D 12.55
+ VCC
RC
R1
RC 22 k 4.7 k C5
220 k
Vo
C1
Vi C2
R2
22 k R5
100 C4
RE C3
R3
7.8 k
100 R4
TM
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+VCC
RC = 22 K RC = 4.7 k
R1 220 k
Vi R3 = 7.8 k
Vo
R3 = 7.8 k R4 = 100 k R
2 22 K
R4 = 100 k
Rif
Ri2 Ro R'of
R L2 R C (R 4 R 3 )
A i2
R i2
A i2 R L2 99 2.946 K
A v2
R i2 2K
A i1
R L1 R C1||R 1||R 2||R i2
h ie (1 h fe ) R e h ie (1 h fe )(R 4 R 3 )
TM
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A i1 R L1 99 1.679 K Vo
A v1
R i1 11.873 K
R3 7.8 k
Av A v1 A v2
R4 100 Vf
Vf 100
V o 100 7.8 K
A v
A v 2041.578
A vf
D 26.8259
Ro R L2 2.946 K
Rof 109.82
D D 26.8259
R of
+ 25 V
10 k 47 k 4.7 k 10 F
5 F
150 k Vo
5 F
33 k Q2
Vs Q1
47 k Vi
4.7 k 50 F
470 50 F
R'if
Rif 4.7 k
Vf R1 = 100 Rof
'
5 F
TM
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Re
VCC
RL = 2.2K
Io
C +
Rs = 1K B
hie = 1.1K
Ii
hfe = 50
+ Vo
E
Vs
– Vf Re Ie
I e Re
1.2K –
Io
Vf Vs
Io C
Io +
Re
Rs
Ii Re B
Ii RL Vo
+
Vs
– Re Re
E –
TM
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Rs
B C
Io +
Ii = Ib
+
Vs hie hfeIb RL Vo
–
Re Re
E –
E
Vf
+ –
Ri Ro
Io – h feI b
GM
Vi Vi
– h feI b – h feI b h fe 50
Vs I b (R s h ie R e ) R s h ie R e 1 K 1.1 K 1.2 K
Io Vf
Vf IeR e – IoR e
– Re
Io Io Io
G Mf A vf R if R of R of
1 GM 1 ( 1 . 2 K) ( 0 . 015)
GM 0 . 015
G Mf 0 . 782 10 3
D 19 . 18
A vf
Vo IoR L Io
A Vf G Mf R L G Mf
Vs Vs Vs
0 . 782 10 3 2 . 2 K
Ri
Ri R s h ie R e
TM
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R if Ri 3 . 3 K 19 . 18
Ro
Ro
R of Ro
(1 G m )
Rof Ro lim
(1 G M ) R L 0
h fe
R s h ie R e
Rof Ro Ro RL RL
1
h fe R c
Rs
Vo 1 R
b
Vs Rs h ie (1 h fe )R e
Rs
+VCC
Rc
R1
Rs
+ Vo
Vs R2
– Re
TM
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C
Io +
Rs
B
Rc Vo
+
Vs R1||R2 E
– Re Re
–
E
Rs
RC
Vs Vi R1 || R2 hie hfeIb Vo
=RL
Re Re
GM
GM ( h fe ) / (Rs h ie R e ) ( h fe ) / (Rs h ie R e )
G MF
D 1 G M 1 ( R e ) ( h fe ) / (Rs h ie R e )
h fe
Rs R s|| R 1|| R 2
Rs h ie (1 h fe )R e )
R s||R b
I oRL h fe R L
Vi Rs h ie (1 h fe )R e
Vo Vo V
i
Vs Vi Vs
Vi Rb
Vs Rs Rb
Vo h fe R L Rb
Vs Rs h ie (1 h fe )R e R s R b
TM
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Rb
h fe R c
Vo Rb Rs
Vs Rs h ie (1 h fe )R e
1
h fe R C
Rs
1 R
b
Rs h ie (1 h fe )R e
VCC
R1 RL
hfe = 80
R2 Re
R1 R2 h ie RL Re
h fe h re h oe
G M Rif A vf
Ib
Io RC
Vi R1 || R2 hie hfeIb Vo
=RL
Re Re
Ri
TM
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Io h fe I b
GM Io h fe I b
Vi Vi
h fe I b h fe I b h fe 80
Vi I b (h ie + R e ) h ie R e 2000 100
Vf I eRe I oRe
Re Ie Io
Io Io Io
1 G M
0.038
G MF 7.9 10 3
4.81
A vf G MF R L 7.9 10 3 1000
Ri h ie R e
Ri R 1|| R 2 || R i
R if Ri D 2100 4.81
VDD
RL = 4.7K
Io
Io
D +
= 50
+ Vo
+ S
Vo Vs rd = 40K
– Vf R
= 1K –
–
Io
Vf
Vf
TM
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D
+
Io R L Vo
+
Vs S
Io –
R R
–
Ii
Ri Ro
G D
+
+
Vs gmVgs rd Io R L Vo
–
R R
–
S + –
Vf
Io – g m Vgs r d
GM
Vs (r d R L R) Vs
– g m rd
rd R L R
g m rd
rd R L R
– 50
1 . 09 10 3
40 K 4.7 K 1 K
Vf – Io R
–R
Io Io
TM
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G Mf A vf R if R of R of
1 GM 1 . 09 10 3
GM 1 . 09 10 3
G Mf 0 . 5215 10 3
D 2 . 09
Vo IoR L
A Vf
Vs Vs
Io
G Mf R L G Mf
Vs
( 0 . 5215 10 3 ) ( 4 . 7 K)
Ri
Ri
Ri Ri
Ro
Ro rd R
lim
R of R o (1 G m ) Gm RL 0
GM
rd R R L rd R
( R)( ) R rd R R
1 Gm 1 1
rd R rd R rd R
r d (1 ) R
1 Gm
rd R
r d (1 ) R
R of rd R r d (1 ) R
rd R
R of RL R of
Rof
Ro (1 G m ) (rd R s ) R L (1 G m )
Rof
1 G M (rd R s R L ) (1 G M )
TM
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(rd R s )R L r (1 )R s 1
d
(rd R s R L ) rd R s D
R L [rd (1 )R s ] 1 4.7 K[40 K (1 50) 1K] 1
(rd R s R L ) D 40 K 1 K 4.7 K 2.09
R
+VCC
3K RC1 RC2 500
Io
Is Ii hie = 1.1K
Q1 Q2 hef = 50
Rs = 1K
1.2K Rof Vo
+
Vs Vi1 +
If R' Vi2
– Re2 =
Ve2
50
–
Ie
Rif
Vo
Io
(I i I s – I f )
R
R
TM
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VCC
Rc1 Rc2
Voltage source Io
converted to C1 C2 +
Ib1 Ic1 Ic2
current source Ib2
B1
Q1 Q2
B2
R' Ie Vo
Rs E2
Is E1 If
Re2 Re2 R'
–
Ri R hie Ri2
I c2 I c2 I b2 I c1 I b1
Is I b2 I c1 I b1 I s
I c2
I b2
Rc1
I c1 Ib2
I b1
Ri2
Ic1
I b2 R c1
I c1 R c1 + R i2
R
50 1.2 K
50 1.2 K
I b2 3K
I c1 3 K 3.55 K Ib1
Is R hie
I b1 R
Is R+ h ie
TM
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R
1.2 K 1.25 K
1.2 K 1.25 K
I b1 0.612 K
Is 0.612 1.1 K
( 50) ( 0 . 457) (50) ( 0 . 358)
I e R e2
R e R
I c R e2
R e R
I o R e2
R e2 R
If R e2 50
Io R e2 R 50 1.2 K
( 0 . 04) 406
AI 406
D 17.2
Vo I c2 R c2
Vs I s Rs
A If R c2 I c2
Rs Is
(23.6) (500)
1.2 K
0.612 K 1.1K
0.612 K 1.1K
Ri 0.394 K
D 17.2
TM
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Ro
lim
R c2 0
1 A i
Rof Ro Ro
1 A I
Io V V Io
A If Rif i A vf o A If
Is Is Vs I i
VCC
10 K 10 K
15 K
If Q2
Ii
Ii'
Q1 +
+
Rs 10 K Vo
Is V
=1 K i
–
–
Rif
Ii
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC
RC1 10 K 10 K 15 K
Ib1 Q2
Q1
Ib2
15 K Io +
Is IC2
1K
10 K RC2 Vo
10 K
R
hie
I o – I c2 I c2 I b2 I c1 I b1
Is Is I b2 I c1 I b1 I s
I c2
I b2
I b2 R c1
I c1 R c1 R i2
h ie (1 h fe )R e
2 K (1 50)(10 K 15K)
I b2 10
I c1 10 308
I c1
I b1
I b1 R 1 K (10 K 15 K)
Is R h ie 1 K||(10 K 15 K) 2 K
( 50) ( 0.031446) (50) (0.3246)
TM
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If R e2 10 K
Io R e2 R 10 K 15 K
AI AI 25.5
1 A I D 11.2
[1 K (10 K 15 K)] R i1
(1 K 25 K) 2 K R i1 h ie 2 K
Ri Ri 649
1 A I D 11.2
Vo I o R c2 R c2 10 K
A If 2.277
Vs I s Rs Rs 1K
A I
Io I c2 I c2 I b2 I c1 I b1
A I
Ii Is I b2 I c1 I b1 Ii
I b1 (15 K 10 K)
Ii (15 K 10 K) h ie
25 K
25 K 2 K
A I ( 50) ( 0.031446) (50) (0.926)
D 1 A I 1 (72.8) (0.4)
A I
A If
D
72.8
30.12
Io Vo
Is Vs
R of
TM
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Ib1 Ic1 Ib2 IC2 Io
VCC +
hie hfeIb2
27 K hfeIb1
91 K 4.7 K 91 K 4.7 K
Is 1K 10 K hie 18 K 1K 10 K Vo
+
3K
Q2
27 K 3 KIo
Q1
4.7 K Vo –
IR
si 4.7 K 10 K 10 K Ri2 Ro'
1K 100
–
Rif Rof
'
15 K
Ib1 Ib2 Ic2 I Io
hfeIb2 +
hie
91K||10 K
15 K hfeIb1
91K||10 K
Is Rs
hie 4.7 K 4.7 K 4.7 K Vo
4.7 K
100 15 K 100
Ri Ri2 Ro RL' Ro'
TM
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I I I c2 I b2 I c1 I b1
A I
Is I c2 I b2 I c1 I b1 I s
I I c2
I c2 I b2
I b2 Rc1
I c2 Rc1 R i2
100
Rc1 R c 91 K 10 K 4.7 K 91 K 10 K
I b2 – 3.089 K
I c2 3.089 K 6.166 K
I c1
I b1
I b1 4.7 K 15.1 K 91 K 10 K 2.564 K
Is h ie (4.7 K 15.1 K 91 K 10 K) 1.1 K 2.564 K
I
A I 1 50 ( 0.3337) 50 0.7
Is
Rof
If R e2 100
Io R e2 15 K 100 15 K
1 A I 1 6.622 10 3 584
A I 584
A If
D 4.867
Io I Io Io 4.7 K
A If
Is Is I I 4.7 K 4.7 K
A If 0.5
Vo I o R L A If R L 60 4.7 K
Vs I s Rs Rs 4.7 K
4.7K 15.1K 91 K 10 K 1.1 K
TM
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Ri 770
D 4.867
Rof R of 4.7 K 4.7 K
Io Vo Vs
A If
Is Vs Rs
V
o
A vf R of
Vi
VCC
10 K
18 K Io
+
Q2
Q1 Vo
+ 1K
Is Rs 1K Vi 27 K
10 K 3K
–
–
Rif Rof
'
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
Ib1 Ic1 Ib2 Ic2 Io
+
hie hfeIb2
27 K hfeIb1
Is 1K 10 K hie 18 K 1K 10 K Vo
3K
27 K 3K
–
Ri Ri2 Ro'
Io I o I c2 I b2 I c1 I b1
Is I c2 I b2 I c1 I b1 I s
Io I c2
h fe 50
I c2 I b2
I b2 R c
I c1 R c R i2
h ie (1 h fe )R e
3K
– 18 K
18 K 190.7 K
I c1
I b1
I b1 1 K||10 K||30 K 0.88235 K
0.306
Is h ie 1 K||10||30 K 2 K 0.88235 K
Io
1 50 ( 0.08624) 50 0.306
Is
A vf Rof
Vi V
27 K
V
27 K
TM
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(I 3 K)
27 K Io
Q2
[( I o I f ) 3K] Io If
27 K 9
Io If 1K
27 K If
9
If
3K V
Io I
1 A I 1 0.1 66
AI 66
D 7.6
1 K 10 K (27 K 3 K) h ie 1 K 10 K 30 K 2 K
615
7.6
Vo I o R c2 A If R c2 8.684 10 K
Vs I s Rs Rs 1K
Vo Vo Vs V o I s Rs
A vf
Vi Vs Vi V s I s R if
Rs 1000
A vf 86.84
R if 81
1 A i
Rof Ro
1 A I
lim Rof Ro
RL 0
Rof
+VCC
Rc = 4.7 K
R R' = 40K
If
C
Rs = 10K
Is Ii
hie = 1.1K
+ Vo h = 50
E fe
(Vo 0) Vs Vi
–
Ii Is – If
R'if R'of
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC
Vo R
Rc
Io
Voltage source
Vi converted to C Ic
R current source Ib
B
If R' V
Vs o
I s= RS R' E
Rs
Ri R hie
If R
Ib Ic Io
+
hfeIb
Is Rs R' hie R' Rc Vo
Ri R Ri' Ro
Vo I o Rc
Is Is
Io Io Ic Ib
Is Ic Ib Is
Io R 40 K
Ic R R c 40 K 4.7 K
Ib R
R
Is R h ie
Ib 8K
Is 8 K 1.1 K
TM
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Io Ic Ib
R 0.895 50 0.879 4.7 K
Ib Ib Is c
Vi Vo Vo
If V o V i
R R
If 1 1
2 . 5 10 5
Vo R 40 K
Rof
5
2 . 5 10 184 . 87 10 3
RM 184.87 K
D 5.62
Vo Vo R Mf 32.89 K
Vs I s Rs Rs 10 K
R h ie 8 K 1.1 K
R h ie 8 K 1.1 K
Ri 0.967 K
D 5.62
Ro
lim
1 Rm Rc
Vo
Is R c
V o I o R Rc
I o R Io Ic Ib
R
Is Ic Ib Is
Io
Rc –1
Ic
Ic Ib
Ib Is
1 50 0.879 40 10 3
1 Rm 1 ( 2.5 10 5 )( 1758 10 3 )
TM
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Ro R 40 K
1 Rm 1 Rm 44.95
Rof R of R c 889.88 4.7 K
Rof
Ro R R c 40 K 4.7 K
Ro 4.2 K
Rof
D 5.62
RB
Cc
Rs Q RL
h ie h fe Cc
Rs Vo
RL RB
A V Rif A Vf R of
VCC
Rof Vs
Ib Ic Io
+
hfeIb
Is Rs R' hie R' Rc Vo
Ri R Ri' Ro
Vo V o RL Io I I
RM c b RL
Is Is Ic Ib Is
RB R
– hfe RL
RB RL R hie
R S||R B 600||40 K
40 K 591.13
– 80 2K
40 K 2 K 591.13 5 K
TM
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If –1 1
– – 2.5 10 –5
Vo RB 40 K
R MF A vf R if R of Rof
RM 1 (–2.5 10 –5 ) (–16.11 10 3 )
RM – 16.11 K
R MF
D 1.4
Vo Vo R Mf –11.5 K
A vf
Vs I s Rs Rs 600
591.13 5000
Ri R||h ie
591.13 5000
Ri 528.63
R if
D 1.4
Ro RB
R of
1 RM 1 RM
I o RB Io I I 591.13
RM c b RB –1 80 40 10 3
IS Ic Ib Is 591.13 5K
40K
R of
–5
1 (–2.5 10 )(–338.324 10 3 )
Rof R of||R L 4.23 K||2 K
Vo Vs Vo
A vf R of
Is Rs Vs
VCC
10 K
100 K
+
R'
Vo
Is Rs Re = 1 K
Rif R'of
TM
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(Vo 0)
Ii Is – If
Vo R
Vi R
Ib Ic Io
+
Rs hie hfeIb
Is R' R' Rc
1K 100 K 100 K 10 K Vo
Re
1K
–
Ri R'i
Vo Io
R
Is Is c
Io Io Ic Ib
Is Ic Ib Is
Io R 100 K
Ic R R c 100 K 10 K
Ic
Ib
Ib R s R
Is R s R Ri
Ri h ie (1 h fe )R e
1 K (1 100) 1 K
TM
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1 K||100 K
9.7 10 3
1 K||100 K 102K
I oRc Io Ic Ib
Rc 0.909 100 9.7 10 3 10 10 3
Is Ic Ib Is
, Rof
If 1 1
1 10 5
Vo R 100 K
1 RM 1 ( 1 10 5 )( 8.82 10 3 )
RM 8.82 K
8.1 k
D 1.0882
Vo Vo R Mf 8.1 K
Vs I s Rs Rs 1K
R s R Ri 1 K 100 K 102 K
Ri 980
D 1.0882
Ro
lim
1 Rm Rc
Vo
I o R Rc
Is Rc
I o R Io Ic Ib
R
Is Ic Ib Is
Rc
Ic Ib
Ib Is
1 100 9.7 10 3 100 10 3 97 k
1 Rm 1 ( 1 10 5 )( 97 10 3 )
Ro R 100 K
k
1 Rm 1 Rm 1.97
Rof R of R c 50.76 K 10 K 8.354 k
TM
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Vo Vs
Is Rs
Vo
A vf R of
Vs
VCC
10 K
100 K
+
Vo
Is Rs = 1 K
Rif R'of
Rif R of
A v A vf
TM
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Av
A vf
Av Gm Ai Rm
A vf G mf Aif R mf
1 Av 1 Gm 1 Ai 1 R mf
R if R i (1+ A v ) R if R i (1+ GM ) Ri Ri
R if R if
1 AI 1 RM
Ro R of R o(1+ G m ) R of R o(1+ Ai ) Ro
R of R of
1 Av 1 Rm
R o R o(1 G m ) R o(1 A i ) R o
R of R of
R of
R of
1 Av 1 GM 1 AI 1 RM
TM
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Xf Xo Vf Vo Vf Io If Io If Vo
Xo Xi Vo Vi Io Vi Io Ii Vo Ii
AV
Af AV GM AI RM
TM
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Rif Ri Ri Ri Ri
R of Ro Ro
1 A v 1 R m
R 'of R of RL R 'o R' R 'o (1 G m ) R 'o (1 Ai ) R 'o R
o o
1 AV D 1 GM 1 AI 1 RM D
TM
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xs + xi xo
Source A Load
–
xf
+ xr xt xo
xs = 0 A Load
–
xr
xt
Equivalent impedance
+
Rin +
A xo
+ –
A xo Rin Vr + Vt
_
–
–
xf
(a) (b)
TM
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Vr
Vt
Ir
It
+
ro
Rid
R Rin +
–
AoVd
– RL
R2
R1
ro
+ +
R Vr Rid Vt + Rid Vd + AoVd RL
_ –
– –
R2
R1
R id R 1||(R id R) R L||[R 2 R 1||(R id R)]
R id R [R
1 |
|(R id R)] R 2 R L||[R 2 R 1||(R id R)] ro
TM
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Vr Vr
Vt Vd
xo A
xs 1 A
TM
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A(s) A(s)
1 A(s) (s) 1 T(s)
A(j) A(j)
1 T(j) 1 A(j) (j)
TM
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Imaginary T(j)
negative and
increasing in
+90º
magnitude
0
= =0
–1, j0 Real T(j)
= 180
|T(j)|
or
|A(j)(j)|
positive and
increasing
–900
Im(A)
A
fn
1+A
Negative feedback
– 1 + j0 O Re(A)
Positive
feedback f1
f2
f3
Increasing frequency
Increasing f
Increasing f
– 1 + j0 – 1 + j0
(a) Stable (b) Unstable
TM
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TM
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Stable, decaying Imaginary,
oscillatory response j Stable oscillatory response
Time Time
X s-plane
X X
Real,
X X
X
Time
Unstable, exponential
growth oscillator response
Ao
1 s / P
A o / (1 A o )
1 s / P (1 A o )
A o p
s
TM
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Gain (dB) x : Open - loop bandwidth
y : Close - loop bandwidth
20 log (1+Ao)
|Ao|
|A|
x |Af| Open-loop gain
|Afo|
y Close loop gain
p pf (Log scale)
(a)
Imaginary (j)
S-plane
0
X X
p Real ()
pf = p(1+Ao)
(b)
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Gain (dB)
|Ao|
6 dB/octave
12 dB/octave
Ao
(1 s / p1 ) (1 s / p2 )
p1 p2 (Log scale)
( p 1 p 2 ) ( p 1 p 2 ) 2 4(1) (1 A o p 1 p 2
2
( p 1 p 2 ) 1
( p 1 p 2 ) 2 4(1 A o p 1 p 2
2 2
Imaginary (j)
( p 1 p 2 )
s-plane
2
X X
– p2 – p1 0 Real ()
– (p1+p2)
2
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180
j
j j s 2
n s
2n 2n
Q
n 2 2
/ n
1 1 n
2 2 / n 2
Imaginary (j)
X –1
= sin
2n
s 2 2 n s n2 n S-plane
n
0 Real ()
= 2Qn
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Q=1
Normalized gain in dB
0
Q = 0.707
Q = 0.5
Q = 0.3
– 40 dB/decade
(Log scale)
Imaginary (j)
s-plane
X X X
p3 p2 p1 0 Real ()
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Ao
(1 s / p1 ) (1 s / p2 ) (1 s / p3 )
Ao
A
(1 s / D ) (1 s / p1 ) (1 s / p2 ) (1 s / p3 )
m
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Loop gain
(in dB) Before
compensation
– 3 dB – 20 dB/decade
–20 dB/decade – 40 dB/decade
After
compensation
– 60 dB/decade
0
f(in Hz)
fD fp1 fp2 fp3
BW2
BW1 – 40 dB/decade
Phase (a) Magnitude plot
0
f (in Hz)
– 45º
– 90º
– 135º
Phase margin
– 180º
– 225º
Before
compensation
– 270º Phase margin
after compensation
– 315º (b) Phase plot
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1
2 RC x
R R
+
vi Cx v'i A Cx vo
–
1
2 R i (C i C x )
1 1
2 R i C i 2 50 10 10 10 12
3
1
2 R i (C i C x )
1
2 50 10 3 (C i C x )
Ci Cx
fd
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dB
Original response
100 – 20
fp 10 6 80
A 10 4
60
40
A = Ao = 20 dB
20
– 40
f
2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10
5 * 105
f f f
1 j 6 1 j 7 1 j 8
10 10 10
º
f f f
6 7 8
10 10 10
f f f
6 7 8
10 10 10
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C
Cx B Cx C
+ +
Ii Ri V Ci gmV Ro C o Vo
B
– –
(a) Gain amplifier stage (b) Equivalent circuit
1
2 R i C i
1
2 R o C o
1
fp1
2 R i R og m C x
g mCx
fp2
2 [C i C o + C x (C i + C o )]
gm
2 (C i + C o )
fp1
fp2
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1
2 R i C i
1
2 100 10 12 200 10 3
1
2 R o C o
1
2 10 10 12 1 10 6
1
fp
2 R i (C i C x )
1
2 7.958 10 3 ( 100 10 12 C x )
~
1
fp
2 R i g m R o C x
1
2 7.958 10 250 10 3 15.915 10 3 C x
3
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Av
1 A v
(1 A mid )
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(1 A mid )
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VCC
RC
RB
Vo
RL
Vs
Re
Rf
–
R1 Vo
+
Vs
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0º Phase shift
Input signal Output signal
Mixer
Vi Amplifier Vo Vo
+
Vs + A
Feedback
Vf signal
Feedback Feedback
Input and feedback signal network
are in phase with
each other
0º phase shift
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Vo
Vi
Vo
Vs
Vo
Vi Vo
(Vo / Vi )
1 (Vo / Vi )
A Vo
1 A Vi
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180º Phase shift
Vi
+ _ Amplifier _ +
A
Vo = AVi
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180 Phase shift _
+ _
+
Basic
Vi = 0 inverting Vo
amplifier
A
Feedback
acts as input
Feedback
Vf = Vo network Vo
+ _ 180 Phase shift _ +
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180º
0 2
A
Output
Time
A
Output
Time
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A Output
Time
A
16 10 6
j
10 3
[ 2 10 3 j] 2
16 10 6 10 3
j [ 2 10 3 j] 2
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A
A A
16 10 6 10 3 16 10 9
A
j [ 2 10 3 j] 2 j [ 4 10 6 4 10 3 j ( j) 2 ]
16 10 9
j 4 10 6 j 4 10 3 2
16 10 9 16 10 9
4 10 6 j j 2 2 4 10 3 j 3 j [ 4 10 6 2 ] [ 2 4 10 3 ]
16 10 9 [ 4 10 3 2 j ( 4 10 6 2 )]
A
(4 10 3 2 ) j(4 10 6 2 ) ( 4 10 3 2 ) j(4 10 6 2 )
16 10 9 [ 4 10 3 2 j ( 4 10 6 2 )]
A
( 4 10 3 2 ) 2 [ j ( 4 10 6 2 )] 2
16 10 9 [ 4 10 3 2 j ( 4 10 6 2 )]
16 10 6 4 2 ( 4 10 6 2 ) 2
A 0 A
( 4 10 6 2 ) 4 10 6 2
4 10 6
103
A
16 10 9 [ 4 10 3 2 ]
A 2 10 3
16 10 6 4 2 ( 4 10 6 2 ) 2
16 10 9 [ 4 10 3 4 10 6 ] 2.56 10 20
16 10 6 16 10 12 4 10 6 [ 4 10 6 4 10 6 ] 2 2.56 10 20 0
2 10 3 A 0 A
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A
A 0
10 3
2 10 3
2 2
9 10 6 6 10 3
A
j
3 10 3 j
2
A 1 A 1 A 1
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Oscillators
Based on Based on Based on Based on
output circuit range of type of
waveform component frequency feedback
Triangular Rectangular R and C Crystal R-C L-C UJT relaxation
Sinusoidal Low High oscillator in
C and L
frequency frequency which feedback
20 Hz-200 kHz more than is not used
300 kHz
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VC
C
VR = Vo
O I
Vi I R VR Vo VR=Vo VC = IXC
Vi
(a) Circuit (b) Phasor diagram
1
2 f C
1
2 f C
Vi 0º Vi 0º Vi
+
Z | Z| Z
X
R 2 (X C ) 2 tan 1 C
R
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( 3 60º )
Output of feedback network
Three R-C circuits
Input to feedback
C C C
t input R R R output t
60º + 60º + 60º = 180º total phase
shift
Vo
t
+VCC
Forward RC
path Vo C C C
R1
R R
R2 R3
RE CE
hie + R3 = R
Feedback path
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RC
R
RC = kR C C C
+ – + – + – + –
+ – + – +
_
+
hfebRC R R R
Voltage – + – + –
source 1 2 3
1
I 1 RC I I 1 R I 2 R h fe I b R C
j C 1
1
I 1 [(k + 1) R ] I2 R hfe I b kR
sC
1 1
I I 2 R I 2 R + I 1 R+ I 3 R I 1 R+ I 2 2R I 3R
j C 2 sC
1 1
I3 I 3R I 3R + I2R I 2 R+ I 3 2R
j C sC
1
(k 1) R R 0
sC
1
R 2R R
sC
1
0 R 2R
sC
2
(k 1) R 1 2R 1 R 2 2R 1 R 2 (k 1) R 1
sC sC sC sC
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[sRC (k 1) 1] [2sCR 1] 2 R 2 (2sCR 1) R 2 [(k 1) sRC 1]
s3 C3 sC sC
s 3 C 3 R 3 [3k + 1] s 2 C 2 R 2 [4k + 6] sRC[5+ k]+ 1
s3 C3
1
(k 1) R R h fe I b kR
sC
1
R 2R 0
sC
0 R 0
D3
D
kR 3 h fe I b s 3 C 3
s 3 C 3 R 3 [3k 1] s 2 C 2 R 2 [4k 6] sRC [5+ k ] 1
Output of feedback circuit I3
Input to feedback circuit h fe I b
Output of amplifier circuit I3
Input to amplifier circuit Ib
I3 I3
A h fe
h fe I b Ib
kR 3 h fe s 3 C 3
s 3 C 3 R 3 [3k 1] s 2 C 2 R 2 [4k 6] sRC [5+ k] 1
2 2 3 3
j 3 kR 3 C 3 h fe
A
j 3 C 3 R 3 [3k 1] 2 C 2 R 2 [4k 6] jRC [5 k]+ 1
j 3 kR 3 C 3 h fe
A
[1 4k 2 C 2 R 2 6 2 C 2 R 2 ] j 3k 2 R 3 C 3 + 2 R 3 C 3 5RC kRC]
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j 3 R 3 C 3
k h fe
A
(1 4k 2 C2 R2 2 C2 R2 ) 2 3 3 2 3 3
6 j 3k R C + R C 5RC kRC]
j 3 R 3 C 3 j 3 R 3 C 3
k h fe
1 4k 6 5 k
j 3k + 1
3 R3 C 3 R C R C 2 R 2 C 2 2 R 2 C 2
1
RC
k h fe
A
[ 3 k 1 5 k 2 ] j [
2 3 4 k 6 ]
A
A
3 4 k 6 ( 2 4 k 6)
2 4 k6
1 1
4 k6
RC RC 4 k 6
1
2 RC 4 k 6
A A
4k 6
k h fe k h fe k h fe
A
3k 1 (4k 6) [5 k] 3k 1 20k 30 4k 2 6k + 4k 2 23k 29
k h fe
A
2
4k 23k 29
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4k 2 23k 29
29
k
dh fe
dk
d 4 k 23 29 29 29
4 k 2
dk k 4
29
(2.6925)
k ,
R 2 57 k k
Ri
1 1 1 1
Ri
Ri 25 57 1.8
Ri R 3
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Ri
RC 20
R 7.1
1
2 RC 6 4 k
1
10 10 3
3
2 7.1 10 C 6 4 2.816
29
k
29
4 2.816 23
2.816
Vo
Op-amp used as an
Rf t
inverting amplifier
which introduces 180º
phase shift Feedback network
Ri
– +VCC
C C C
Op-amp
Vf + Vo
–VEE R R R
t
Feedback
voltage
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1
2 RC 6
1
29
1
VDD
RD
Output
Vo
Forward FET
path
gm rd
RS CS
C C C
RC
feedback
network
R R R
Feedback
path
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R D rd
R D rd
1
29
1
2 RC 6
40 k
1 1
5 10 3
2 RC 6 2 9. 7 10 3 C 6
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29 29
gm 5000 10 6
R D rd
R D rd
R D 40 10 3
6.8 10 3 R D 40 10 3
R D 40 10 3
40 10 3
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RC
R
1 1
2RC 6 4 k 2R 1000 10 12 6 4 k
RC 10 10 3
6 4k
R R
4 10 10 3 3
6 6 40 10
R R
[ 6R 40 10 3 ]
R
RC 10
R 10.082
29 29
k 0.9918
R C
+ +
1
Vin C R Vo
2 RC
1 2
– –
1 1
jC jC
1 1 1
jC jC jC
1 1
R sC
sC I 1 V in
1 2 I 2 0
R
sC sC
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1 1
R 1 2 1
sC sC R R 2 2
1 2 sC sC s C
R
sC sC
(1 sRC) (2 sRC) 1 2 3 sRC+ s 2 R 2 C 2 1 1 3 sRC+ s 2 R 2 C 2
s2C2 s2C2 s2C2 s2C2
1
R V in V in
sC
1 sC
0
sC
D2 V in s 2 C 2 V in sC
D sC[1 3 sRC+ s2 2
R C 2]
1 3 sRC+ s 2 R 2 C 2
V in sRC
1 3 sRC+ s 2 R 2 C 2
Vo sRC
V in 1 3 sRC+ s 2 R 2 C 2
jRC
1 2 R 2 C 2 + 3 j RC
jRC[(1 2 R 2 C 2 ) 3 j RC] 3 2 R 2 C 2 + jRC(1 2 R 2 C 2 )
(1 2 R 2 C 2 ) 2 + 9 2 R 2 C 2 (1 2 R 2 C 2 ) 2 + 9 2 R 2 C 2
1 1 1
2
R C 2 RC 2 RC
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1
3 R2 C 2
R2 C 2 3 1
1 2 2 9 3
0 9 R C
R2 C 2
1 1
A
| | 1
3
R R R
A1 A2 A3
Vo
C C C
R
+ A1 +
+
Vin Vin' Vo1
V in 1 C
V in –
1 j C
R – –
j C
A 1 V in
V in
1 jRC
V o1 1
V o1
1 j C
R
j C
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A 2 V o1 R
V o1 A2
1 jRC + +
+
A 1 A 2 V in Vo1 Vo1' C Vo2
–
(1 jRC) 2
– –
R
V o1 1 A3
V o2 +
1 j C
R
j C Vo2 '
Vo2 C Vo
A 3 V o2 –
V o2
1 jRC
A 1 A 2 A 3 V in
3
(1 jRC)
(1 jRC) 3
1 3 j 2 R 2 C 2 3 jRC+ j 3 R 3 C 3
[1 3 R 2 C 2 ] j [ 3 RC R 3 C 3 ]
3 3
3 R C 3 R 3 C 3 2
2
R C 2 RC
3
2RC
3
3 R2 C 2
R2 C2
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C R
Vi Vo
R C
C R
+ +
1
I1 R (I 1 I 2 ) Vi R C Vo
j C
I1 I2
1
(I 2 I 1 ) R I 2 R+ I 2
j C – –
j 1
I 1 R I R j
C 2 j
j 1
I 1 R I 2 2R j
C j
j
R R 1 3R
C R2 j
j C 2 2 C
R 2 R
C
j
R Vi
C
R 0
1 j D2
I2 I2
j C C D
j Vi R
C 1 3R
R2 j
2 C2 C
R
j
Vo C
Vi 2 1 3R
R j
2 C2 C
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R 2 1 3 R
R
j j
C 2 C 2 C
2 1 3 R 2 1 3 R
R 2 2 j C R 2 2 j C
C C
3 R2 jR 2 1
+ R
2 C2 C 2 C2
9 R2
2
1
R 2
2 C2 2 C2
1
R2
2 C2
1 1
2
R C 2 2 RC
1
2RC
+ 3 R2
1
C 2
2
R C 2
3 R4 1
1 9 R2 9 R4 3
R2
1 1
C2 C2
2 2
R C R C2
2
1
||
1
2RC
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1
2fC
+VCC
R3 RB1 RC1 RC2
CC
CC
Vo
C R
Q1
0.01 F Q2
t
R C
(7.957
RB2 R4 RE2 CE2 2 kHz
k )
output signal
Stage 1 Stage 2
Feedback 180º 180º
network
Total phase shift 360º
29
k
29
k
1
2 R C 6 4k
1
5 10 3
2 R 1000 10 12 6 4 0.23
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RC
R
Ri
Ri
Vz
Vo
t
+VCC
Forward RC
path Vo C C C
R1
R R
R2 R3
RE CE
hie + R3 = R
Feedback
path
R3 = 10 k , RC = 2.7 k
R = 12 k C = 1000 pF
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29 k
1 k – 0.001 F 0.001 F 0.001 F
Vo
+
10 k 10 k 10 k
+ VCC
RC 1.596 k
R1 Vo C C C
R R
Q
R3
R2
RE CE
k = 0.128
C = 1000 pF, R = 12.474 k
hie + R3 = R
R3 = 10.474 k, hie = 2 k
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1
R1
C1 R3
4 2 Amplifier
C2 Stage
R4
R2 3
Wien bridge
1
+
R1
z1
C1
4
Vin
z2 C R2 Vf
2
–
3,2
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1 1 j R1 C 1
j C 1 j C1
1
R2
1 j C 2 R2
j C 2 1 1 j R 2 C 2
R2
j C 2
+
1 s R 1 C1 Z1
s C1
Vin
R2
1 s R 2 C2 Z2 Vf
Vin –
Z1 Z 2
Vin Z 2
Z1 Z 2
Vf Z2
Vin Z1 Z 2
R2
1 sR C s C1 R 2
2 2
1 sR 1C1 R 2 (1 s R 1 C1 ) (1 s R 2 C 2 ) s C1 R 2
sC 1 sR C
1 2 2
s C1 R 1
1 s (R 1 C1 R 2 C 2 C1 R 2 ) s 2 R 1 R 2 C1C 2
jC1 R 2
(1 2 R 1 R 2 C1 C 2 ) j (R 1 C1 R 2 C 2 C1 R 2 )
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2 C1 R 2 (R 1C1 R 2 C 2 C1 R 2 ) j C1 R 2 (1 2 R 1 R 2 C1C 2 )
1 2 R 1R 2C1C 2
2
2 R 1C1 R 2 C 2 C1 R 2 2
1
R 1 R 2 C1C 2
1 1
R 1 R 2 C1C 2 2 R 1 R 2 C1C 2
1 1
2 R 2 C 2 2 R C
2 R C (3 R C) j R C 1 2 R 2 C 2
1 2 R 2 C 2 2 3 R C 2
1 1
2 R C RC
3 3
1 2 9
0 3RC
R2 C 2
1
3
A
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1 1
A
1 A
3
1
2 R 1R 2 C 1C 2
C1 R 2
(R 1C1 R 2 C 2 C1 R 2 )
A R 1C1 R 2 C 2 C1 R 2
C1 R 2
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Forward path includes two stages Vout
+VCC
t
R
RC1 RC2
R3 RB1 RB3
Vout
C
CC
Feedback
network Q1 Q2
R C CE2
RB2 R4 RB4 RE2
Stage 1 Stage 2
Feedback path
C a
R3 +VCC Vo
R
–
Vo
d
b Op-amp t
+
R
R4 –VEE
C c
Wien
bridge
Forward
path
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R3
R4
R3 R3
R4 R4
1
2 RC
R3
R4
–
Vo
+
C
R = 5.1 k
C = 0.001F
R3 = 6 k
R C R4 = 2 k
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R3 6
R4 2
1 1
2 RC . 10 0.001 10 6
2 51 3
Forward path [Includes two stages]
+VDD
Vo
RD RD
R R3 Vo
t
C
Feedback FET 1 FET 2
network
R Rg RS CS
C
R4 Rg
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1
2 R 1R 2 C 1C 2
1
10 3
2
2 10 10 3 R2 ( 0.001 10 6
1
10 3
10
2
2 10 3 R 2 ( 0.001 10 6
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180
180
1 1
2 RC 6 2 RC
|A| 29
|A| 3
100 k 0.001F
+
0.0015 Vo
150 k
F –
R3
1 R4
2 R 1 R 2 C 1 C 2
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1
2 100 10 3 150 10 3 0 . 001 10 6 0 . 0015 10 6
R 1C 1 R 2 C 2 C 1R 2
C 1R 2
R3
R4
R3 R 1C 1 R 2 C 2 C 1R 2 R3 R1 C2
R4 C 1R 2 R4 R2 C1
R3 R1 C2 R3 100 0.0015
R4 R2 C1 R4 150 0.001
1
2RC
1
2 100 10 3 50 10 12
1
2 100 10 3 500 10 12
R
1 1
2R C 2R 50 10 12
R
R Rx 100R x
R
R Rx 100 R x
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1
2 RC
1
2 50 10 3 C
1
2 50 10 3 100
1
2 50 10 3 C
1
2 50 10 3 10 10 3
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Charging
+ current
D.C. +++++
C L Source ___ __ C
Capacitor Magnetic field
starts built
discharging around L
+++++
C ___ __ L C L
current
Magnetic C gets
field starts oppositely
collapsing charged
__ _ _ __ _ _
C L C L
++++ ++++
current
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Capacitor
starts
discharging
__ _ _
C L
++++
current
Current
+Imax
Time
– Imax
1
2 LC
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a Amplifier stage Ro
– a Vo
Vi Vo –
+ AVVi
b + Z3
Z3
c Z2
Z2 Feedback
+ network I=0
I=0 Vf Z1
Feedback Vf Z1
voltage
(a) Basic circuit (b) Equivalent circuit
Ro
Vo
+ –
–
+
AV V i ZL
+ –
I
Z1 Z3 Z2
A V Vi
Ro ZL
A V V i ZL
Ro ZL
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Vo A V ZL
Vi Ro ZL
+
Z3
Z2 Vo
+
Z1 Z1
Vf
Z Z
1 3
–
Vf Z1
Vo Z1 Z 3
Z1
Z1 Z 3
A A
A V Z 1Z L
A
(R o Z L ) (Z 1 Z 3 )
Z 1 Z 3 ||Z 2
Z 2 (Z 1 Z 3 )
Z1 Z2 Z 3
Z (Z Z 3 )
A V Z1 2 1
A Z1 Z 2 Z 3
Z 2 (Z 1 Z 3 )
R o Z Z Z (Z 1 Z 3 )
1 2 3
(Z 1 Z 3 )
Z1 Z2 Z 3
A V Z1 Z 2
R o (Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 )
Z 2 (Z 1 Z 3 )
(Z 1 Z 3 )
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A V Z1 Z 2
R o (Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 ) Z 2 (Z 1 Z 3 )
1
C
A V (j X 1 ) (jX 2 )
A
R o (jX 1 jX 2 jX 3 ) jX 2 (jX 1 jX 3 )
A V X 1X 2
X 2 (X 1 X 3 ) jR o (X 1 X 2 X 3 )
A V X 1X 2
A
X 2 (X 1 X 3 )
A V X 1 X1
A
X2 X2
A
A
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Vo
Amplifier produces
180º phase shift t
+VCC
RFC
R1 CC1 Vo
CC2 Tank circuit
Q 1
L2
R2 C 3
CE Tank circuit
RE L1 adds further
2 180º phase shift
TM
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Input
to Ib
feedback C C B
Input
to
amplifier
hfeIb L2 L1 hie
L2 C Ib
I
Vo
_
+ L1 hie Vf
Vo
[ X L2 X C ] [ X L1 || h ie ]
1
j C
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j L 1 h ie
||
(j L 1 h ie )
h fe I b j L 2
1 j L 1 h ie
j L 2 j C ( j L h )
1 ie
X L1 jL 1
XL 1 h ie (j L 1 h ie )
h fe I b j L 2 j L 1
Ib
2 L 2 C 1 j L 1 h ie j L 1 h ie
j C j L 1 h ie
j 3 h fe C L 1 L 2
j 3 L 1 L 2 C 2 C h ie (L 1 L 2 ) j L 1 h ie
j 3 h fe C L 1 L 2
[h ie 2 C h ie (L 1 L 2 )] j L 1 (1 2 L 2 C)
4 h fe L21 L 2 C (1 2 L 2 C) j 3 h fe L 1 L 2 C [h ie 2 C h ie (L 1 L 2 )]
[h ie 2 C h ie (L 1 L 2 )] 2 2 L21 (1 2 L 2 C) 2
3 2
1 1
C (L 1 L 2 ) C (L 1 L 2 )
1
2 C ( L 1 L 2 )
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4 h fe L21 L 2 C (1 2 L 2 C ) 1
0 2 L21 (1 2 L2 C)2 C (L 1 L 2 )
2 h fe L 2 C 1
(1 2 L 2 C) C (L 1 L 2 )
h fe L 2
(L 1 L 2 ) h fe L 2 L1
L2 C L1 L2
1 C ( L L )
1 2
L1 M
L2 M
1
2 C L eq
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+VCC
RFC
R1
Tank circuit
Cc
Q
L2
C
R2
RE CE Vo CL
L1
20
1
2 C (L eq )
2 10 3 20 10 6
1
2050 10 3
2 C 0.00202
1
950 10 3
2 C 0.00202
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1
2 L eq C
1
168 10 3
2 L eq 50 10 12
17.95 10 3 15 10 3 L 2 5 10 6
L1 + M 15 10 3 5 10 6
h fe
L2 M 2.945 10 3 5 10 6
+VDD
t
RFC
R1 Vo
Tank circuit
CC2
CC1
FET
L2
C
R2
RS CS
L1
1
j C
1
2 C L eq
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1
2 2 LC
1
2 C L eq
Forward path
R2
Vo
R1 +VCC
–
t
Op-amp Vo
+
–VEE C
R3
L1 L2
C nductor mounted on
same core
L1 L2
Tank
circuit
Feedback path
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L1
L2
L1 M
L2 M
1 1
2 L eq C 2 0.25 10 3 100 10 12
1 1
f
2 L eq C . 10 3 100 10 12
2 015
f f 1 . 2994 1.00658
100 100
f 1.00658
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C Ct
C Ct
1 1
2 L eq C eq 2 0.25 10 3 50 10 12
1 1
f
2 L eq C eq 2 015
. 10 3 50 10 12
f f 1.83776 1.4235
100 100
f 1.4235
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Amplifier produces
180º phase shift
Vo
+VCC
RFC
CC1 Tank circuit
R1 Vo t
CC2
Q 1
C2
L 3
R2 Tank circuit
RE CE C1
provides further
2 180º phase shift
C B
L b
hfeb C2 C1 hie
C2 L b
Vo – C1 hie
+
1 j h feI b 1
j
j C 2 C2 j
Vo
[X C2 X L ] [X C1 || h ie ]
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1 j(1 2 LC 2 ) 1
j L j
j C 2 C2 j
1
h ie
j C1 j h ie 1
|| j
1 j C 1 h ie j
j C h ie
1
jhf feI b
C 2
j(1 2 L C 2 ) j h ie
C2 j C 1 h ie
1
I
X C1 j C1 jI
I
(X C1 h ie ) 1 j C 1 h ie
h ie
j C1
j h fe I b
C 2 1
Ib j j C h
j (1 2 L C ) j h 1 ie
2 ie
C2 j C 1 h ie
h fe
(1 2 L C 2 ) j h ie [C 1 C 2 2 L C 1 C 2 ]
h ie [C1 +C 2 2 L C1 C 2 ]
C1 +C 2 2 L C1 C 2
(C1 C 2 ) 1 1
L C1 C 2 C C C C
L 1 2 L 1 2
(C1 +C 2 ) (C1 +C 2 )
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C1 C 2
C1 +C 2
C1 C 2 1
C1 +C 2 L C eq
1
2 L C eq
C2
C1
Forward path
R2
Vo
R1 +VCC
–
Op-amp Vo t
+
–VEE
R3
L
C1 C2
Tank
circuit
Feedback path
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1 C1 C 2
2 L C eq C1 +C 2
Forward path
+VDD
t
RFC
R1 Cc1
Vo
Cc2
Tank circuit
FET
C2
1
f=
R2 L 2 L Ceq
RS CS C1 C1C2
Ceq =
C1 + C2
Feedback path
C1 C 2 150 10 12 1.5 10 9
C1 +C 2 [150 10 12 1.5 10 9 ]
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1 1
2 L C eq 2 50 10 6 136.363 10 12
1 1
2.5 10 6
2 L C eq 2 10 10 6 C eq
C1 C2
C1 C2
0.02 10 6 C 2
405.284 10 12 0.02 10 6 C 2
6
0.02 10 C2
2 10
1 1
2 L C eq 2 20 10 6 405.284 10 12
C 1C 2 0.001 10 6 0.01 10 6
C1 C2 0.001 10 6 0.01 10 6
1 1
2 L C eq 2 10 10 6 9.09 10 10
C2 0.01 10 6
C1 0.001 10 6
1 1
AV 10
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1
2 LC eq
C 1C 2 100 10 12 500 10 12
C eq 10 12
C 1 C 2 100 10 12 500 10 12
1
2 40 10 3 83.333 10 12
Vo
C2 500
C1 100
Vo 10
2V
Gain 5
C2 C2
h fe(min)
C1 C1
C2
C1
500 pF
C1
C1
C1 C2
50 10 12 500 10 12
C eq
50 10 12 500 10 12
1 1
2 L C eq 2 40 10 3 45.4545 10 12
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C1 100 pF
C 1C 2 100 10 –12 7500 10 –12
C eq 98.6842 pF
C1 C2 100 10 –12 7500 10 –12
1
2 LC eq
1 1
2 L 1 C eq 2 L 2 C eq
1 1
950 10 3 2050 10 3
–12
2 L 1 98.6842 10 2 L 2 98.6842 10 –12
284.41 H 61.07 H
61.07 H 284.41 H
F F
F F
C 1C 2
10 7
C1 C2
1 1
2 LC eq 2 L 6.667 10 7
C2
C1
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L C2
C3 C1
1 1 1 1
C eq C1 C 2 C 3
1
2 L C eq
1 1 1 1
C eq C1 C 2 C 3
4.545 10 11
1 1
2 L C eq 2 15 10 6 4.545 50 10 11
1 1
2 L C3 2 15 10 6
50 10 12
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1
2 L C3
+VCC Capacitor C3
decides the
RC frequency
R1 Cc1
Vo
Cc2
Q
C2
L
R2
RE CE C3 C1
C C3 B
L
hfeb C2 C1 hie
b
L
C2 C3
1
jC 2 _
+
Vo C1 hie
b
Vo
[X C2 X C3 X L ] [X C1|| h ie ]
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1
h ie
1 1 jC 1
jL ||
jC 2 jC 3 1
h ie
jC 1
1
h feI b
j C 2
1 h
1 1 j C 1 ie
j L
j C 2 j C 3 1 h
ie
j C 1
1
h fe I b
s C2
h ie
1 1 s C1
sL
s C2 s C 3 1 h
s C 1 ie
h fe I b ... Multiplying by sC 2
C s C 2 h ie to denominator
1 2 s2 L C2
C3 (1+ s C 1 h ie )
h fe I b C 3
s C 2 C 3 h ie
C 3 + C2 s2 L C2 C 3
(1+ s C 1 h ie )
h fe I b C 3 (1 s C 1 h ie )
C 3 sC 1 C 3 h ie C 2 sC 1 C 2 h ie s 2 L C 2 C 3 s 3 L C 1 C 2 C 3 h ie s C 2 C 3 h ie
h fe I b C 3 (1 s C 1 h ie )
s L C 1 C 2 C 3 h ie s 2 L C 2 C 3
3
+ s h ie [C 2 C 3 C 1 C 2 + C 1 C 3 ]+ C 2 + C 3
1 1
I I
X C1 j C1 sC 1
I
X C1 h ie 1 1
h ie h ie
j C1 sC 1
I
(1 s C 1 h ie )
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h fe I b C 3 (1 s C 1 h ie ) 1
s 3 2
L C 1 C 2 C 3 h ie s L C 2 C 3 (1 s C 1 h ie )
s h ie [C 2 C 3 C 1 C 2 C 1 C 3 ] C 2 C 3
h fe C 3
3
s L C 1 C 2 C 3 h ie s 2 L C 2 C 3
s h ie [C 1 C 2 C 2 C 3 C 3 C 1 ] C 2 C 3
2 2 3
h fe C 3
j L C 1 C 2 C 3 h ie – 2 L C 2 C 3
3
j h ie [C 1 C 2 C 2 C 3 C 3 C 1 ] C 2 C 3
h fe C 3
2
C 2 +C 3 L C 2 C 3 + j h ie {[C 1 C 2 C 2 C 3 C 3 C 1 ] 2 L C 1 C 2 C 3 }
2
C1 C2 C2 C 3 C 3 C1
2
L C1 C2 C 3
1 1 1 1
C eq
C1 C2 C 3 1
2
L L L C eq
1
L C eq
1 1 1 1 1
2 L C eq C eq C1 C2 C 3
1
2 L C3
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+VCC = 20 V
R1 RFC
= 10 k Cc1
Cc2
0.001F
R2 5 H
= 5 k RE 0.001F
CE
H
1
5 10 6
2 L C eq
C1C 2
C1 C 2
0.001 10 6 0.001 10 6
5 10 10
0.001 10 6 0.001 10 6
1
2 5 10 6 5 10 10
1
2 10 10 6 5 10 10
2 3183
.
1
6.366 10 6
2 L 5 10 10
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1
2 L C3
1
2 5 10 6 63 10 12
C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 6
C eq C1 C2 C 3 . 10
01 1 10 100 10 12
C eq
1 1
2 L C eq 2 470 10 6 99.89 10 12
C 1 01
. F C 2 1 F C 3 100 F
C 1 0.1 F C 2 1 F C 3 100 F
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 11.01 10 6
C eq C1 C2 C 3 6 6 6
0.1 10 1 10 100 10
C eq 9.0826 10 8 F
1 1
734.5 10 3
2 LC eq 2 L 9.0826 10 8
H
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r
º
T Tr
r
T
d
d
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VDD
Inv2 Inv3 PMOS
Vout OUT
IN
C1 C2 C3
NMOS
Inv1
Inverter circuit
180
n
d
1
2n d
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Holding plate
Crystal slab
CM
L
1 Q2
2 LC 1 Q2
L
R
Q2
1 Q2
1
2 LC
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1
t
1
2 LC
C MC
CM C
1
2 L C eq
|Z|
f
fs fp
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X
Reactance
(Inductive)
p
O
s
j 2 2s Capacitive
C M 2 2
p
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+VCC
RFC (Radio Frequency Choke)
R1
Cc1
Cc2
Crystal C2
R2
RE CE C1
+VDD +VCC
Cc1 RFC RFC
Cc1
R1
Vo Vo
Crystal Crystal
Rg R2
Rs Cs CE
RE
(a) Using FET (b) Using Transistor
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+ VCC
R1 RFC
Vo
C1
Crystal
R1 , R2
Cs R2 RE C2
C 1 and C 2
+VDD
Cgd L C
Vo
Rg
Crystal RFC Rs Cs
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R 5 k .
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1 1
fs
2 LC 2 0.4 0.0 85 10 12
CC M 0 . 085 1
C CM 0 . 085 1
1 1
2 LC eq 2 0.4 0.0783 10 12
899.074 863138
.
100
863138
.
s L 2 fs L . 10 3 0.4
2 863138
R R 5 10 3
1 1
2 LC 2 0.01 10 12
C MC 2 10 12 0.01 10 12
9.95 10 15
CM C 2 10 12 0.01 10 12
1 1
2 L C eq 2 9.95 10 15
C1 C2 0.02 12 10 12 10 12
C1 C2 [ 0.02 12] 10 12
1 1
2 L C1 2 50 10 3 0.02 10 12
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1 1
2 L C eq 2 50 10 3 0.01996 10 12
C2
C 1 C2 R
Ceq
C 1 C2
L C2 Cx
1
fp
2 L Ceq G
C2
C 1 C2
Ceq
C 1 C2
1
fp
2 L Ceq
fp fp (5.03588 5.035716) 10 6
Cm
fs fp
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R4
R1
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Rf
R3 R4
Amplitude
stabilization D1 D2
circuit +VCC
–
D3 D4
R1 2
+ Vo
–VEE
C C C
R R R
Rf
R5 R6
R3
R4
D1 D2
D3 D4
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R 3 = R6 + R5
a
R6
–
R5
D1
D2
+
b
D3 R4
D4
R
A 1 3
R4
a
R3 –
b +
R4 replaced
by tungsten filament
lamp
R3
A 1
R4
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a
C
R3 –
R
d
b +
R R6
R4 C3
C FET D1
c Q
VGS C4 R5
0º º 2
1
2 C ( L 1 L 2 )
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Oscillators
Based on Based on Based on Based on
output circuit range of type of
waveform component frequency feedback
Triangular Rectangular R and C Crystal R-C L-C UJT relaxation
Sinusoidal Low High oscillator in
C and L
frequency frequency which feedback
20 Hz-200 kHz more than is not used
300 kHz
1 C1 C 2
C eq
2 L C eq C1 C 2
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1
2 C ( L 1 L 2 )
d
d
d
d
d
d
1
2 LC
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CM C
C eq
CM C
1
2 L C eq
1 1
10 10 3
2 RC 2 100 10 3 C
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R1 R 2 R 3 200 k C1 C 2 C 3 100 pF
1
7.957 kHz
2RC
L1 1 L2 2
1 1
290.575 kHz
2 C(L 1 L 2 ) 2 0.1 10 9 (1 10 3 2 10 3 )
C1 C2 pF
C1 C2
C 1C 2 200 10 12 50 10 12
C eq 40 pF
C1 C2 (200 50) 10 12
1 1
1 10 6
2 LC eq 2 L 40 10 12
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1 1
2 LC 2 0.5 0.05 10 12
C CM
C CM
1 1
2 L C eq 2 0.5 0.0487 10 12
k
1 1
2RC 2 680 10 3 C
k
k
1 1
9 10 3
2RC 2 100 10 3 C
H
H
1
2 LC
1 1
400 10 3 1200 10 3
2 60 10 6 C1 2 60 10 6 C 2
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1
fp
2 LC eq
1
fp
2 150 10 6 100 10 12
L1 La
L eq L1 L2
1 1
2 CL eq 2 0.003 10 6 0.5 10 3
Vo
1 C2
2 LC eq L
C1
1
40 10 3
2 100 10 3 C eq Feedback
C eq
0º
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Output Growing
2 C1 R 2 (R1 C1 R 2 C2 C1 R 2 ) j C1 R 2 (1 2 R1 R 2 C1 C2 )
1 2 R1R 2 C1C2
2
2 R1 C1 R 2 C2 C1 R 2
2
2 RC(3RC) jRC(1 2 R 2 C 2 )
(1 2 R 2 C 2 ) 2 (3RC) 2
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CM Ls Cs
Ls Cs
1 1
2 L s Cs 2 3 0.05 10 12
Cs CM 0.05 10 12 1 10 12
Cs CM (0.05 1) 10 12
1 1
2 L s C eq 2 3 4.7619 10 14
C1 C2
C1 C2
C1C2 0.001 10 – 6 0.01 10 – 6
C eq 9.0909 10 – 10
C1 C2 (0.01+ 0.001) 10 – 6
1
2 L C eq
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s L 2 fs L
R R
1
fs
2 L eq C eq
2 467.295 10 3 4
500
L1 L2
1
L eq L1 L2
2 L eq C
1
100 10 3
2 8 10 –3 C
TM
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TM
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TM
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L
C
1 R
2
L
CR
Gain (dB)
Ideal
response
3 dB
B
30 dB Actual
response
0
0
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L R
Maximum energy stored per cycle
Energy dissipate per cycle
Series circuit Inductive impedance
Rs Ls Ls
––––
Rs
Parallel circuit Inductive admittance
Lp
Rp
––––
Lp
Rp
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1 Ls Rp
D Rs Lp
V m sin t
Ls
1 2
I L Vm sin t
2 m s
Rs
2
Im
Rs
2
2
Im
Rs T
2
2
Im 1 1
Rs T
2 f f
I 2m R s
2f
1 2
I L 2 f L s L s
2 2 m s
R Rs Rs
I 2m s
2f
Cs
Vm sin t
Rs
V m sin t
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1
C V2
2 s max
Im 1
R s
Cs C s
1 2 I 2m
CV max
2 2 2 C s
I 2m R s
2f
I 2m
2 2 C s I 2m 2f
2 2
I 2m R s 2 2 C s I 2m R s
2f
2 I 2m 2f 1 1
2 (2f) 2 C 2 2 f C s R s C s Rs
s I m Rs
V m sin t
Vm sin t Cp Rp
1
CV 2 max
2
2
V max 2 1 V max
2 Rp 2 Rp
2 2
V max V max 1
T T
2 Rp 2R p f f
1 2
C p V max
2 2 2f C p R p C p R p
2
V max
2R p f
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Maximum energy stored per cycle
2
Energy dissipated per cycle in tank circuit
Maximum energy stored per cycle
2
(Energy dissipated per cycle in tank circuit
Energy dissipated per cycle due to the presence of external load)
Rp
R EXT
RT RT
QL
XL Lp
RT R p||R EXT
fr
QL
Voltage
gain
3 dB Response
for low Q
Response
for high Q
Frequency
0 fL1 fL2 fr fH2 fH1
3 dB
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fr
fr 2 10 6
BW 50 10 3
fc
fr 650 kHz
BW 6 kHz
V Rp C L
–
1 1 1
R p 1 j C j L
1 1
j C
Rp L
1
0 C L C
0 L
1
f0
2 LC
2 2
Vm (Vm 2R p ) / f
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2 Rp
2 Vm C/2 C
0 CR p Rp
2
Vm 2R p f 0 L L
L C
1
Rp
Q
Q 0 L
0 C
+
+
C L Vo
Vi
– –
Q 0 L
1 1
2 LC 2 1 10 3 C
1 1
1650 10 3
2 LC 2 1 10 3 C
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1 1
f0
2 LC 2 150 10 6 100 10 12
1 1
f0
2 LC 2 100 10 6 100 10 12
2 L2 (2 1.59155 10 6 ) 2 (100 10 6 ) 2
Rp
Rs 5
L
C
1 Rs j L
Rs
Rs j L R 2s 2 L2
2 L2 R s2
R 2s
Rs 1 1 1
2
L 2 j L R j L
R R' L C
2 L2
R
Rs
2 L2
R
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R
0
R
20 L2
0 R 0
Rs
20 L C
L
Rs
L Q 2 1 MHz 250 10 6 300
L 2 10 6 250 10 6
Q 300
1 1
2 LC 2 100 10 6 120 10 12
0 2 f0 9. 128 10 6
0 L 9. 128 10 6 100 10 6
Rs 5
f0 1. 4528 10 6
Q 182. 57
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1 1
2 LC 2 1 10 3 1 10 9
2 L2 ( 2 159. 15 10 3 ) 2 (1 10 3 )
Rs 25
5 9.4
Rp
R s R p (R s R p )
QU 100 10 6
Rp
0 C 2(1 10 6)(
100 10 12 ) 2
R o|| R p Ro
20 K 159 K
(20 K 159 K)
R p Q 2U R coil
Rp 159 10 3
R coil
Q 2U (100) 2
QU 100
QL
1 Rp R 1 (159 K) / (17.76 K)
0 L
QU
R coil
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Q U R coil 100 15.9
0 2(1 10 6 )
f0 1 MHz
B WU
QU 100
f0 1 MHz
B WL
QL 100
Cp Ls Cs
1 1
fs
2 L s C s 2 3 0.05 10 –12
fp Cs
fs 1 C
p
Cs 0.05 10 –12
fp fs 1 C 0.41 10 6 1
p 1 10 –12
R0
1 1
0
LC 5 10 – 3 1 10 – 9
0 L 447.2 10 3 5 10 – 3
QU
rs 22
Rp 0 L Q U
447.2 10 3 5 10 – 3 101.64
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R 0||R p 10 K||227.267 K
QU 101.64
QL
1+ R p R 1+ (227.267 9.58)
+ VCC
RC
Vo
ri
L
+ RL
Vi C'
–
rs
nductor
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rbb
IL
i ri Rp L C Vb'e rb'e gmVb'e RL
C C be C bc
C
C bc
L
rs
Rp L
1 rs jL rs
rs jL rs2 2 L2
rs jL
rs2 2 2
L rs2 2 L2
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rs 1
2
L2 jL
1 1
Rp jL
rs 1 1 1
2 L 2 jL Rp jL
1 rs rs2 1
Rp 2 2 L rs 2 2 L rs Q 2s
Q 2c
rbe
g mR g mR
1 j (RC R / L) 1 j 0 RC( / 0 0 / )
1
20
LC
R
0
0 L
g mR
1 jQ i ( / 0 0 / )
0
TM
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|Ai|
|Ai(max) | = gmR
gmR
2
L o H
g mR
2
[( / 0 ) ( 0 / )] 2
2
0
Q 2i
0
2 H
0 1
Q i 2 RC
1
2 RC
C be
C bc
1
2 RC
1 1
2 BW 2 10 10 3
TM
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rbe
h fe 100
rbe
gm 0 . 04
Qc
0
0 C
Qc
0 C
1
2 10 10 3 R
1
Qc
2 10 10 3 4 10 3 ||2500||
3
2 500 10 C
1
1
2 10 10 3 1538 . 5||
2 5000 C
1
1
2 10 10 3
1 2 5000 C
1538 . 5
C + C be C bc
C C be C bc
C
1
20
LC
1 1
0 C (2 500 10 ) 0.02 10 6
3 2
TM
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rbe
A( w) A v max
+
D
ri
n 2 : n1 G
RL VL
+ S
Vi C' L'
–
–
n1
a=n
2
TM
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a2Cgd(1+gm[rds||RL])
G D
+
+
Vi Vg
ri
ri C' Rp L' a2Cgs gmVg rds RL VL
a
– –
0 C
1
20
L (C C i )
Rp
ri R p
1
2(ri||R p ) (C C i )
L = 3.183 H
C = 7.957 nF Vo
Vi RG
Rs= 0.16
( 10)
2 103
5 mA V
1
2 RC
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1 1
2 R BW 2 2 10 3 10 10 3
1
2 LC
1
1 10 6
2 L 7.957 10 9
Rp
1 1 1 1 1
Rp R rd 2 K 10 K
Rp
Rp 2.5 k
0 L 2 1 10 6 3.183 10 6
0 L 2 1 10 6 3.183 10 6
Q0 125
+VCC
C L
R1
Vo
To next stage
Rs CC CC
+
Vs
– R2
RE CE
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V b'e
rb'c
Rs rbb'
B B' C
cb'c
L
Vs Vi rb'e Vb'e gmVb'e gce C Vo Ri
cb'e
R
(Next stage)
E E
Ro
Rs rbb'
B B' C
gmVb'e
Vs Vi rb'e Ci Vb'e Ceq Lp Rp Vo Ri
1
Ro =
hoe
E E
C b'e C b'c (1 A )
A 1
C b'c C
A
V b'e
1 1
r ce Ro
TM
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L
Lp Rp
1
R j L
R j L R j L
R2 2 L2 2
R L 2 2
R 2 L2
2
R j 2 L 1 1
R2 2 2 L (R 2 2 2 )
L R p j L p
R2 2 L2
R
R2 2 L2
2 L
1
2 L p C eq
R 2 2 L2
2 L
A 1
C b'c C
A
r L
R
r
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R 2 2 L2 2 L2
R R
2 L2 2 L2
R R
R2 2 L2 R2
L
2 L 2 L
2r L2
R
r L
r Q r L
R
Rp
r L
where Rt = Ro || Rp || Ri
gmVb'e Ceq Lp = L Rt
Susceptance of inductance L or capacitance C
Conductance of shunt resistance R t
TM
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Rt
r
r L
rbe Rt
g m
rbb rbe 1 2jQ eff
R o||R p||R i
rbe
g m Rt
rbb rbe
Av 1
A v at resonance
1 2Q eff 2
1
f
2 R t C eq
r
r
2 Q eff
fr
r
Q eff
1 1
2 L C eq 2 1 H (15 pF 47 pF)
r 2 f r C eq (R o || R p || R i )
2r L2 ( 2 20.2 10 6 ) 2 (1 10 6 ) 2
R 2
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2 20.2 10 6 (15 pF 47 pF) (50 K || 8.054 K || 20 K)
fr 20.2 10 6
Q eff 40.52
Rt 20 k
fr 600 kHz
BW 15 kHz
r
Q eff 40
r R t 2 600 10 3 20 10 3
1
2 L C eq
1 1
2 f r C eq 2
(2 600 10 ) 530.5 10 12
3 2
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+VCC +VCC
C1 L1 L2 C2 C1 L1 L2 C2
R1 R1
Rs
Q1 Q2
+
Vs
– R2 R2
RE CE RE CE
TM
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2 L2 2 L2
R Rp
+VCC
L2 C2
L1
C1
(a)
R1 R2
+
gmV1 Ro C1 L1 L2 C2 Vo Ri
M –
(b)
+
R11 L1 – M L2 – M R22
C1
+
jgmV1
––––– Vi M C2 Vo
C1
–
I1 I2
–
(c)
20 L21
R1
R0
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20 L22
R2
Ri
r L
R
r L 1 r L 2
R 11 R 22
2r
j
I
r C 2 2
Zi – Zf Zo – Zf
2
1
+ I1 I2
V1 Zf V2 ZL
I2 I2 Ai –
V1 I 1 Z 11 Z 11 1
2
Zf
Z 2f Z i (Z o Z L )
V1 Z 2f
I1 Zo ZL
I2 Zf
I1 Zo ZL
r
TM
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1
L 1
C1
1
L 2
C2
j r M r L1 L2
r
R 11 r L 1 L 1 1
j r L 1
r L 1 L
r 1 C L
1 r 1
r L 1 r r L 1
j r L 1 r C
Q r R 11 r L
r L 1 r
j r L 1 2
Q r
r L 1
(1+ j 2 Q
Q
1
L 2
C2
r L 2
(1+ j 2 Q
Q
Zf 1
Z 2f Z i (Z o Z L ) Z f Z i (Z o Z L ) / Z f
1
r L 1 r L 2
Q (1 j 2 Q ) Q (1 j 2 Q )
j r k L 1 L 2
j r k L 1 L 2
kQ 2
r
L 1 L 2 4 Q j (1 k 2 Q 2 4 Q 2 2 )
TM
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j j g m Vi kQ 2
r C 2 r C 1 r
L1 L2 4 Q j (1 k 2 Q 2 4 Q 2 2 )
j g m V1
C 1
Vo kQ 2
2r
Vi r
L1 L2 4 Q j (1 k 2 Q 2 4 Q 2 2 )
1
r L
r C
g m r L 1 L 2 kQ 2
2 2 2 2
4 Q j (1 k Q 4 Q )
kQ
g m r L1 L2 Q
1 k 2 Q 2 4 Q 2 2 16 Q 2 2
kQ = 2.5
0.5
0.4 2.0
Magnitude
1.0
0.3
0.5
0.2 0.3
0.1
–2.0 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Q
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4 Q j 1 k 2 Q 2 4 Q 2 2 )
1
1 k 2 Q 2 1
2 Q
1
1 k 2 Q 2 1
2 Q
1
Q
Gain f1 f2
f '1 fc f '2 Peaks
Ap
Ad
dip
'
Frequency
g m o L 1 L 2 kQ
2
2 kQ
1 k2Q 2
Ap 1 k2Q 2
Ad 2 kQ
1
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2 (f2 f1 )
2
2
1 2 2 1
2 (f2 f1 )
1 1
2 fr 1 k 2 Q 2 1 fr 1 k 2 Q 2 1
2 Q 2 Q
f f 3.1 fr
2 r k 2 Q 2 1 2 r ( 2 . 414) 2 1
Q Q Q
TM
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Av 1
A v (at resonance) 1 ( 2 Q eff ) 2
n
Av
n
1 1
A v (at resonance) 1 (2 Q ) 2 n
eff 1 (2 Q eff ) 2 2
n
Av 1
A v (at resonance) 2
n
Av 1 1
A v (at resonance) n
1 (2 Q eff
)2 2
2
n 1
1 ( 2 Q eff ) 2 2 22
1 (2 Q eff ) 2
n
1
1 ( 2 Q eff ) 2 2n
1
2 Q eff 2 n 1
r f fr
r fr
1
f fr
2 n 1
fr
1
(f f r ) fr 2 n 1
1
fr
f fr 2n 1
2 Q eff
1
fr
2n 1
2 Q eff
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1
fr
2n 1
2 Q eff
1 1
fr fr 1 fr
2n 1 2 n 1 2n 1
2 Q eff 2 Q eff Q eff
1
2n 1
1 1
2n 1 20 10 3 2 3 1
1
20 10 3 2 4 1
1 1
2 n 1 310 10 3 2 2 1
H
1
2 n 1
BW 2 200 kHz
1 1
2 n 1 2 2 1
1
2 LC
1
2 3 10 6 C
TM
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1
2 RC
1
2 R 73.75 10 12
2
1
1 4
2 2 n 1
2
2
1 1
2 1/ n 1 4
2 1/ 3 1 4
TM
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BW1 ( 21/n 1) 1 4
BWn
( 2 1/ n 1) 1 4
BWn 20 10 3
( 2 1/ 3 1) 1 4 ( 2 1/ 3 1) 1 4
fo fo
1.0 1.0
Relative amplitude
Relative amplitude
0.707 1 0.707
2 1
1 1
2 2
(a) Response of individual stages (b) Overall response of staggered pair
TM
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2
2
fo
Relative voltage amplification
Single tuned stages
1.0
0.707 1
0.5 Staggered tuned pair
0.35 2 1
0 Frequency
Av 1 1
A v (at resonance) 1 2 j Q eff 1 j X
Av 1
Av (at resonance) 1 1 j ( X 1)
TM
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Av 1
Av (at resonance) 2 1 j ( X 1)
Av Av Av
A v (at resonance) cascaded A v (at resonance) 1 A v (at resonance) 2
1 1
1 j ( X 1) 1 j ( X 1)
1 1
2 2 j X X2 (2 X 2 ) (2 jX)
Av 1
A v (at resonance) (2 X2 ) 2 (2 X) 2
cascaded
1 1
4 4 X 2 X 4 4X 2 4 X4
Av 1 1
Av (at resonance) 4 ( 2 Q eff ) 4 4 16 Q 4eff 4
cascaded
1
2 1 4 Q 4eff 4
TM
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Gain Gain Gain
F F F
BW 21 n 1
TM
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IC
VCC
RL Load line
Collector current
flow < 180º
Imax
VCC
VCE
0
Q point
Vmin
TM
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+VCC
C L
180
c
Q1
RL
Vout
RB
A
Amax
f
fr
1
2 LC
1 1
2 LC 2 3 H 470 pF
Pout
Pin
TM
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Q1 V p (V CC V CE(sat) ) Q1
Vp (V CC V CE(sat) )
2 V CC V CE(sat)
2
Vrms (Vp 2) 2 VP 2
RL RL 2 RL
XL r L
R R
L
C RL C Lp Rp RL
RL
rc
r L
TM
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VCE IC
2VCC
IC (sat)
VCC
0
(a) Maximum output (b) Conduction angle
Idc
Vpp2(max) 0.318 IC (sat) 100 %
40 rc 78.5 %
180º 180º 180º
(c) Transistor power dissipation (d) Current drain (e) Efficiency
2
Vpp(max)
40r c
180
2
Vpp(max)
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Pout Pout
100 % 100 %
Pdc VCC I dc
Q1 Vp
Pout
Pout
I dc
Vp
I dc
T
Ip I dc
t Ip
Idc
() t
t T
360º
T
(Pout )
t
Pout (I p V p )
T
V / 2RL
Pout p2
100 % 100 %
Pdc V cc I dc
V / 2R L
p2
100 %
V cc Pout / V p
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V / 2R L
p2
100
V cc V
p2
2R L V p
Vp
100 %
V cc
VCC= + 10 V
C L
CC1
VCC Ip
VCE( sat )
RL= 1 K
VP V CC – V CE(sat)
V (9.7) 2
p2
Pout
2R L 2 1K
Pout T 47 mW 0.33 s
Ip Vp 25 mA 9.7 V
t 64 ns 360º
360º
T 0.33 s
Pout 47 mW
I dc
Vp 9.7 V
Pdc V CC I dc
TM
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Pout 47 mW
100 %
Pdc 48.5 mW
VP 9.7
100 %
V cc 10
fr
Q
QL
+15 V
470 pF 2 H
0.01 F
1 k
4.7 k
TM
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1 1
2 LC 2 2 H 470 pF
Q L r L || R L
Q L 2 f r L|| R L
100 2 519
. 10 6 2 H||1 k . k || 1 k
652
rc rc
r L 2 f r L
867
. 10 6 2 10 6
2 519
fr . 10 6
519
Q 13.29
2
Vpp 30 2
PD(max)
40 r c 40 867
+30 V
220 pF 1 H
0.1 F
10 k
Vin 10 k
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(Vout ) 2 (Vpp ) 2 50 2
8 RL 8RL 8 10 K
Vpp(max)
2
2 VCC 2 60 2
8RL 8RL 8 10 K
VCC I dc 30 0 . 5 mA
Pout
100
Pdc
Vpp
Vpp 2
30 2
8R L
8 10 K 100
100
VCC I dc 30 0.4 mA
fr
Q
1
2 LC
1
2 1 H 220 pF
1073
.
125
Vpp(max)
2
40 r c
TM
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125 2 1073
. 10 6 1 10 6 ||10 10 3
2 30 2
40 4573 . 27
Vpp max
2
2 VCC 2
40 r c 40 r c
2 VCC 2 2 20 2
40 PD max 40 20 mW
1 1 1 1 1
10 4
Rp rc R L 2K 6K
Q L r L Q L 2 f r L
Rp 3000
Q L 2 f r 80 2 5 10 6
1
2 LC
1 1
. 10 6 5 10 6
2
( 2 L f r2 2
2 119
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9.8 V
1 2
5
1 sin 1
9.8
2 1
2 1
1 Im 1.8
I dc I m sin d ( cos ) 2
2 2 1 2
Pdc V CC I dc
V CC 30
RL
I sat 1.8
1 2 1 1 1 2
I sin 2 d
2 m
I rms Im sin 2
2 2 2
1 1
1
Im {[2.606 ( 0.438)] [0.535 (0.438)]}
4
1
Im [3.044 0.097 ] 0.2345
4
Pac I 2rms R L 0.8716 2 16.67
Pac 12.6638
Pdc 14.78
PD Pdc Pac
TM
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+VDD
Vo
Vi
Rg
Rs Cs
rd
gm
.
500 10 6 50 10 3
Rt
r L
r
1 1 1
fr
2 LC 2 2 . 5 10 –3 200 10 –12 4 . 44 10 6
TM
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Rt 50 K
r L 2 225 10 3 2 . 5 10 3
fr 225 10 3
Q eff 14 . 147
h fe
.
L
C
Vi 500 pF 20 H RL
Vo
1.5 K
+VCC
1 1
fr
2 LC 2 20 10 –6 500 10 –12
1
0.159 107
2 10 –7
Rp
r L
Rp
r 2 1 . 59 10 6 20 10 6
Av
A I RL – h fe (R p || R L ) –50 (5994 ||1.5 K)
Av
Ri Ri 200
TM
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gm rd
D
G
L
Vi gmVi rd C
R
Zr
1
fr
2 LC
fr 10.7 MHz
3 dB (BW) 200 kHz
r L
R
Av gm RL
50
5 10 3
Rp
1 1 1
RL rd R p
1 1 1 1 1
Rp R L rd 10 K 100 K
Rp
Rp
r L
Rp . 10 3
1111
Q r r 53 . 5 2 10 . 7 10 6
TM
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1
fr
2 LC
1
( 2fr ) 2 L
1
( 2 10 . 7 10 6 ) 2 3 . 088 10 6
r L
R
r L 2 10 . 7 10 6 3 . 088 10 6
Qr 53 . 5
gm
400H
fr
1 1
2 LC 2 400 H 2500 pF
L
Rp
CR
400 H 10 6 80
10 6
2500 pF 5 2500
Av – gm RL Rp V 32 k
fr
Q
r L 2 0.159 10 6 400 10 6
R 5
fr 0.159 MHz
Q 79.92
TM
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rd
fr
r r
+
D
L
G Cpa CL
RL VL
Rse
S
–
–VDD
RL rd Rp
L
Rp
CR
1
fr
2 LC
1
fr2
4 2 LC
1 1
50 10 –12
4 2 fr2 LC 2 2 (1 . 59 10 6)2 200 10 –6
r L 2 fr L
R R
2 fr L 2 (1.59 10 6 ) 200 10 6
R 50
L 200 10 –6
Rp
CR 50 10 –12 40
rd R p 500 10 3 100 10 3
RL 83.33 10 3
rd R p (500 100) 10 3
Av – gm RL 5 10 –3 83.33 10 3
Av r
TM
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f r +10 kHz
Av 1
A v (at resonance) f
2
1
fr
|A v (at resonance) | 416.67
A v
2 2
f 1.6
1 1
fr 1.59
1 1
2 LC 2 100 H 1000 pF
L 100 H
Rp
CR 1000 pF 5
Rp
fr fr R r L
Q r L R
R 5
2 L 2 100 H
gm rd k
Av fr
gm rd k
fr fr 10.7 MHz
Q BW 200 kHz
r L 2 fr L
R R
TM
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L Q 53.5
795 10 9
R 2 fr 2 10.7 MHz
Av g m RL
30
RL (rd||R p )
5 mA V
|| R p
Rp
L 1
Rp 795 10 9
CR C
795 10 9 795 10 9
Rp 6383
1
fr
2 LC
1
10.7 10 6
2 L 124.5 pF
H
L
Rp
CR
L 1.777 H
CR p 124.5 pF 6383
H
TM
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Mixer Tuned
fs circuit
or
filter
fo
Oscillator
+VCC
R1 C fo–fs or fo+fs
fs
R2
RE CE
fo
Oscillator
TM
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fT
VCC
Cbc
C2 Vo
R1
Vi R2
C1
RE CE
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VCC
Cbc
R1
Vo
Vi R2
C1 CN
RE CE
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VCC
Cbc
C2 Vo
R1
Vi R2
C1 CN
RE CE
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VCC
Cbc
C2
R1 L
R2
C1 CN
RE CE
L
TM
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TM
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1 L
2 CR
TM
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1
2n 1
Maximum energy stored per cycle
2
Energy dissipated per cycle in tank circuit
Maximum energy stored per cycle
2
(Energy dissipated per cycle in tank circuit
Energy dissipated per cycle due to the presence of external load)
TM
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fr 455 kHz
45.5 kHz
Q 10
45.5 10 3 21 3 1 23.2 kHz
f0 600 10 3
Q 10
1
BW 2 3 1 60 10 3 0 . 509
rd 20 k
1 1
2 LC 2 1 10 3 1 10 9
2 L2 ( 2 159. 15 10 3 ) 2 (1 10 3 )
Rs 25
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5 9.4
Rp
fr
TM
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fr 2 10 6
BW 50 10 3
BW 21 n 1
TM
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fc
fr 650 kHz
108.33
BW 6 kHz
fr BW
fr 1600
BW 10
Maximum energy stored in the capacitor per cycle
2
Energy dissipated per cycle
1
Cs Rs
TM
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TM
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TM
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TM
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Input
vi (t)
0 Time
t=0
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t 0
vi (t) Input
0 t
t=0 t = tp
Pulse
width
vi(t)
A t = tp
0 t A
+ =
0 t 0 t
t=0 A t = tp
(a) Positive step at t = 0 (b) Negative step at t = tp (c) Pulse wave form
A
A
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Input vi (t)
A'
A Average value
A''
A'
Vdc
A''
T1 T2
0 t
t = T1 t = T1+T2
T
t=0
A A A A
A A
A
A
f 1/T
Input vi (t)
Slope =
t
t=0 T
TM
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q
+ –
C
vi (t) R vo (t)
i (t)
1
2 f C
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1
2
f
1 1
f
1
2 R C
e t/
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Lim Lim Lim e t/
t t t
v o (t) t 0
e t/
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e t/RC e t/
t/
Output vo (t)
nput vi (t)
A
0.9A
0.8A
0.7A
0.6A
0.5A Output
0.4A
0.3A
0.2A
0.1A
Vi = 0 x = t
x=0 1 2 3 4 5
TM
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t p
e t/RC
t p /RC
e
t p
t p
t p
t p /RC
t p e
t p e t p /RC
1
e t p /RC
1
e t/RC
TM
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e t p /RC
1 e ( t t p )/RC
vo (t) nput applied
e t/RC Drop A to Vp
( t t p )/RC A
e Tilt is called Tilt.
A
–tp\RC
Vp=Ae
0V t
A tp
vo1 (t) vo2 (t)
tp
t
tp tp p
t/ e t/
Vo1 (t) dt Ae dt 1
0 0
0
e
t p /
1
TM
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tp / ( t t p )/
v o2 (t) dt A (e 1) e dt
tp tp
( t t )/
e p
A (e
tp /
1) A (e
tp /
1) 0
1
1 1 /
tp
tp /
[e 1]
vo (t)
A Areas are equal (A1 = A2)
A1 A2
0V t
tp
tp 1
vo (t)
A nput Area A1 = Area A2
Area A1
Area A2
0V t
tp
–A
tp 1
t p 1
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C
VC
Vi R Vo
q
C
dVi 1 dq dVo dq
dt C dt dt dt
dVi i dVo
dt C dt
Vo
R
dVi Vo dVo
dt RC dt
Vo
dVi dt dVo
RC
T T T
1
d Vi RC o
V dt + d Vo
0 0 0
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T
1
Vi T0 V dt + Vo T0
RC o
0
T
1
RC o
V dt +Vo (T) Vo (0)
0
T
1
RC o
V dt
0
T
Vo dt
0
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Output
vo (t) A1
A1= A2 Average level zero
A
0V t
T1 A2 T2
Output voltage vo (t)
Input
0V t
T1 T2
T
V1
V1 e T1 /RC
V1
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V2 e T2 /RC
V2
Output
–t/RC
A 1e
A1
V1'
A A
0V
Time (t)
V'2
A2 –(t–T1 ) / RC
A 2e
T1 T2
T
V1 V2
A
T /2RC
1 e
A
V1
T /2RC
1 e
A 1 T
2 4 RC
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Output A1 to V1' is called Tilt.
A 1 T
V1 A1
2 4 RC
Input V1'
0V
t
T T A
2 2
V'2
A2
A
T1 V1
A1 V1
100
Input amplitude
A1 V1
100
A/2
V1
A A
T /2RC T /2RC
1+e 1+e
A
2
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1+e T /2RC 1 e T /2RC 2 100 1+e T /2RC 1 e T /2RC 200
1+e T /2RC 1+e T /2RC 1+e T /2RC 1+e T /2RC
e T /2RC e T /2RC 1 e T /2RC 1+e T /2RC
1 e T /2RC 1+e T /2RC 200
1 e T /2RC 1+e T /2RC
1 e T /2RC 200
1 e T /2RC
T
e T /2RC
2RC
T
1 1 T
2RC 200 2RC 200
T T
1 1 2
2RC 2RC
T
100 %
2RC
T
100 %
2
1
2RC
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1
2
T
100 %
1 f 1T 100 %
2
2 f 1
1
f
f 1
100 %
f
1
T
1
2 RC
q
Vo
C
q
Vo
C
1 dq dVo
C dt dt
dq
dt
Vo dq Vo
R dt R
Vo dVo
RC dt
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e t/RC
Input t
Signal
Deviation from linearity
Output
1 t
2 RC
t
0 T
Vi Vo
Vi t T
T
f 1 T
2R C
1
2 R C
Signal Input t
Output
e t/RC
RC
t
0 T
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T
f 1 T
2R C
f 1 T 100 f 1 2 10 3 100
0.5
2 10 3 100
1
sC
+ + – +
+
Vi(s) R Vo(s)
(s) –
1 – –
I s I s R V i s
sC
V i s
I s
R 1
sC
R V i s
V o s I s R
1
R
sC
V o s R 1
V i s 1 1
R 1
sC s RC
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j
V o j 1 1
2 f
V i j 1 j
1
j RC
V o j 1
V i j 1
1j
2 f RC
V o j 1
V i j 2
1
1
2 f RC
f
A1
1 / 2 f1
1 1
2 1
2
1
2 f1 RC
1 1
2 1
2
1
2 f1 RC
2
1
1
2 f1 RC
1
2 f1 RC f1
2 RC
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A
Gain
1
0–f1 = Cut-off zone
1 = 0.707
2 High frequencies
are passed
f2 =
0 f1
f
( 1
2RC (
f2 f1 f1
vi
–t/
vi = V(1 – e )
V
Exponential
increase
t
0
q
C
dv i t 1 dq dv o t dq
dt C dt dt dt
dv i t v o t dv o t
dt RC dt
dv i t dv o t
dt dt
initial initial
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V 1 – e–t
dv i t 1 V –t
V 0 – – e – t e
dt
V –t v o t dv o t
e
RC dt
t RC
V 1 1
V s sV o s
1 RC o
s
V 1 RC
1
s 1 sRC
V 1 1
V A B
s 1 s+ 1 s 1 s+ 1
RC RC
RC RC
– RC RC –
n – n – 1
–RC RC
– 1
n – 1
n
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V –RC RC
n – 1 s 1 n – 1 s 1
RC
V –RC – t RC – t RC
L–1 V o s e e
n – 1 n –1
t RC x t
n RC
V RC
{– e –x e – x n }
n – 1
Vn
{e – x n – e –x }
n – 1
V x e –x
vo
V Input
1.0
RC
0.8 n=
For n = 1, n = 100
RC = Time 0.6 n = 10
constant of
input, the
0.4 Near t = 0, the
peak is 37 %
of input pick output follows the input
0.2 n=1
n = 0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 t
x =
e –x
V n –x n
e V e–t RC
n –1
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dVC dVi
dt dt
dVi
dt
dVi
dt
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1
f
1 1
2 RC 2 5
A 2
T /2RC (0.1/2 0.0318)
1 e 1 e
A 2
V1
T /2RC (0.1/2 0.0318)
1 e 1 e
A1
1.6562 Input
V2 V1
V'1=
0.3437 V
0V
t
A=2 Output V'2=
– 0.3437 V
2 1.6562
A2= –1.6562
T/2 T/2
V
V
Slope V =
T
t
0 T
1 t
2 RC
e t/RC
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1 t
2 RC
V V 5V
T 0.2 RC RC
2
5Vt 1 t t t
RC 2 RC RC RC
Output
V T
Deviation = = 0.1
Input 2RC
0.8 V
0.9 V
0.6 V
0.4 V
Output
0.2 V
t
0 0.05 RC 0.1 RC 0.15 RC 0.2 RC
=T
V V 0.1 V
T 10 RC RC
e t/RC e t/RC
V
Input
0.8 V
0.6 V
0.4 V Output
0.2 V
RC = 0.1 V
t
0 2 RC 4 RC 6 RC 8 RC 10 RC
=T
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vi (t) Input
5V
tp
0 t
t=0 t = tp= 0.5 msec
Pulse
width
e t/RC
t p /RC
e
22 10 3 0.47 10 6
3 /0.01034
e 0.5 10
t p
t p
t p
tp
e t p /RC
1 e
( t t p )/RC
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e 0.5 10 3 /0.01034 1 e ( t 0.5 10 3 )/0.01034
3 )/0.01034
e ( t 0.5 10
vo (t)
Input
5V –t /RC
Vp = Ae p = 4.7639 V
0V t
5V tp
vo1 (t) vo2 (t)
A Vp 5 4.7639
100 100
A 5
f 1
100 f1
f
f 1 10 10 3 0.038
f1
10 10 3
1 1
f1
2 RC 2 R 0.47 10 -6
f 1
100 f1
f
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f min
f1
5
f min
5
f min
0.02
Output voltage Vo (t)
A1 = 10 V
Input
0V t
V1 = 0
A2 = – 10 V
T1 T2
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s
+ +
R
Output
nput vi (t) C vo (t)
i
– –
s'
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1
2
f
1
f2
1
2 R C
e t/
e t/
e t/
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e x
Output vo(t)
Input vi(t)
A
0.9 A
0.8 A
0.7 A
0.6 A
Output
0.5 A
0.4 A
0.3 A
0.2 A
0.1 A
t
Vi = 0 V x=
0 1 t 2 3 4 5
r
Rise time
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e t/RC e t/RC
e t/RC e t/RC
t
ln( 0.9)
RC
1 2.2 0.35
2 R C 2 f 2 f2
e t/RC
1 e t p /RC
( t t p )/RC
e
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A
Vp
vo1(t) –(t–tp)\RC
vo2(t) = Vpe
t
0 tp
Output voltage
Input
A
0.9 A
Output
1
tp 0.1 A
t
0 tp
tr = 0.35 tp
f2 1 / t p
1 1
tp 0.4 10 6
1
2 RC
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1
. 10 0.001 10 6
2 25 6
vi(t) A1
T Average voltage
A1 A
T1 T2
A2
Vdc Zero voltage
0V t level
(a) Square wave input
vo(t)
A1
Vdc
0.9 A
0.1 A
tr A2
0V t
(b) Output with smallest time constant
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e t/RC
e ( t T1 )/RC
V2 A1 V2
Vo1
Vdc
Vo2
V1 V1
V1 A2
T1 T2
0V t
V2 V2 Vdc
V1 V1 V1
0V t
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A e 2x 1
2 e 2x 1
A T
2 4RC
e t/RC
e t/RC e t/RC
e t/RC
e t/RC
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Signal RC
Input t
RC
t
0 T
Output
Vi Vo
Vi t T
e T /RC
T (T RC) RC e T /RC T T + RC RC e T /RC
T T
RC 1 e T /RC RC e T /RC
T T
RC
T
1 1
2 R C 2 f 2 T
Signal
Input
Output
t
0 T
t t2
1
RC 2 R 2 C 2
t2
2 RC
t2
2 RC
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1 1
100
2 f 2 T 2 f 2 2 10 3
1
100
. 2 10 3
2 05
1
2 R C
R
+ – +
+
+ 1
Vi(s) Vo(s)
– sC
I s (s)
I s R V i s
sC – –
V i s s C V i s
I s
1 1 s RC
R
sC
1 V i s
V o s I s
sC 1 s RC
V o s 1
V i s 1 s RC
j
V o j 1 1
V i j 1 j RC 1 j 2 f RC
V o j 1
V i j
1 2 f RC 2
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1 / 2
f2
1 1
2 1 2 f2 RC 2
1 1
2 1 2 f2 RC 2
1 2 f2 RC 2
A Lower frequencies
1 Gain upto f2 are passed
f2
2 RC 1
1 = 0.707
2
Cut-off zone
Bandwidth from f2 onwards
f
0 f2
f2
f2 f1 f2 0 f2
f2
vi(t)
–t/
vi(t) = V(1 – e )
Exponential
increase
t
v R t v C t 0
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dv o t R
C v C t
dt
dv o t vi(t) C vo(t)
v i t iR RC
dt i
V i s RCsV o s V o s V i s L {V(1 – e – t )}
1 1
V –
s 1
1 sRC V o s
s
1
1 1 RC
V o s V V
s s 1 1 sRC s s 1 s 1
RC
V A B C
V o s
RC s 1 1
s s
RC
– 2 RC R2 C 2
– RC – RC
t RC x t
n RC
–RC RC R2 C 2 – R2 C 2
– n n –1 1 – n n – 1
V RC RC RC
V o s –
RC s s 1 n – 1 s 1
n – 1 RC
V V V n
V o s –
s 1 1
n – 1 s n – 1 s RC
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V V n –t
v o t V e–t – e RC
n – 1 n – 1
V –x V n –x n
v o t V e – e
n –1 n –1
v o t V – V 1 x e –x
vo
V
n=0
1.0
n = 0.5
v o t 1 n 0.8
1 e –x – e–x n
n=1 RC
V n –1 n –1 n=
0.6
n = 10
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t
x=
Vi
R
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1
C
i dt
1
RC i
v (t) dt
K dt
t2
t 2
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V1 e T1 /RC V1
V2 e T2 /RC V2
V1 V2
V1
A A
V1
1 e T /2RC 1 e T /2RC
1 1
f 1 10 3
20 20
V1
0.5
1 e 1 e 0.5
V2 V1
A1 12.45 V
Input Scale
10 V1' = 1 cm = 4 V
7.55 V
A
0 = 20 V t
Output
–7.55 V
V2'
–12.45 V
A2
T/2 T/2
A e 2x 1 T
2 e 2x 1 4 RC
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1 10 3
4 1 10 3
20 e 0.5 1
2 e 0.5 1
Input Scale
3 cm = 10 V
V2
2.45 V
0V t
–2.45 V V1 Output
T/2
T/2
+10 V
0V
–10 V
0.3 ms 0.2 ms
Rs R
+ +
Vi C Vo
– –
. 10 6
(1 10 3 100) 01
1.1 10 4
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e t/RC
e ( t T1 )/RC
3 /1.1 10 4 )
e (0.2 10
3 /1.1 10 4 )
e (0.3 10
Input
10 V A1
V2 = 6.93 V
Output
1 ms
0V t
t=0 0.2 0.5 0.7
ms ms ms
V1 = –8.89 V
–10 V
A2
2.2
tr f2
2 f 2
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2.2 2.2
f2
2 t r 2 200 10 3
1 1
f2
2 RC 2 R 0.47 10 -6
V 1 e T1 / RC V 1 V 2 e T2 / RC V 2
V 1 V 2 V 1 V 2
V 2 V 1 V 2
V 1 V 2
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A1 = 3.434 V
+2
V1' = 2.46 V
0V T1 T2
V1 0V
V2 V2' = – 0.566 V
–2
0.1 0.3
sec sec A2 = –1.54 V
(a) RC integrating circuit (b) RC differentiating circuit
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R
+
vi (t) L vo (t)
i
L
R
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Signal Input vi (t)
A
Output
–t/
vo(t) =Ae
0 t
e t/
L
R
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e t/
L
R
tp /
e
Signal
Input vi (t)
A
A t tp –tp/
Vp=Ae
0V t
tp
A A
Output
vo1 (t) vo2 (t)
t t p
( t t p )/
e
e tp /
1 e ( t t p )/
( t t p )/
e t/ e
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nput
A
Area A1 = A2
Area
A1 tp
0V t
Area
A2
–A
Input
Vdc
A A1 A
T1 A2 T
0V t
T1 T2
T
Output A
0V t
T1 T
–A
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di
dt
di dVo
dt dt
di
dt
Vo dVo
(L / R) dt
L
e t/(L/R)
R
L
R
Signal Input t
e t/ Output
L
R L
R
t
0 T
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L
vi (t) R vo (t)
i
2 f L
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Signal
Input
A
0.9 A
di
dt
Output
–t/ tr = 2.2
vo' (t) = A (1–e )
di
dt
0.1 A
t
0V tr
Rise time
e t/
e t/
L
R
e t/
tp /
A (1 e )
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L
R
t p
t p
t p
( t t p )/
e
Signal Input
vp
vo1(t) vo2(t)
t
0 tp
Signal Input
A Vp = A
0.9 A
Output
0.1 A
tr t
0 tp
tr = << tp
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Input
Vdc
A1 A
A2 Vdc
0V t
T1 T2
Output
A1
Vdc
A2
0V t
L
e t/(L/R)
R
L
e t/(L/R)
R
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L L t/(L/R) L L t/(L/R)
e t e
R R R R
L
R
e t/
Signal
Transmission error
Input t
Output
t
0 T
T
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R1
+ +
vi(t) R2 vo(t)
– –
R2
R1 R 2
R1
+ +
vi(t) R2 C2 vo(t)
– –
R
+ +
avi(t) C2 vo(t)
– –
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C1
+ +
R1
vi(t) R2 C2 vo(t)
– –
C1 R1
vi(t) X +
Y
C2 R2 vo(t)
– –
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0
i dt t0
0
q q
C1 C 2
C C2
q 1
C1 C 2
q
C2
AC1 C 2
(C1 C 2 ) C 2
AC1
C1 C 2
AR2
R1 R 2
C1 R2
C1 C 2 R1 R 2
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R1 R 2 C1 C 2
R2 C 2
C1 R1
R1 R2 C1 C2
C2 R2
R 1R 2
R1 R 2
R2
C2
R1
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Input A Input A
Output vo (t)
Perfect compensation
+
Vo (0 ) Perfect
compensation Vo () = aA + Output vo (t) Vo () = aA
Vo (0 )
0 0 t
t
t=0 t=0
Rs
R1 C1
+
X
vi(t) Y +
–
R2 C2 vo(t)
v i ( t)
(R 1 R 2 ) A
v i t
(R 1 R 2 R s )
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v ' i t
R1 R2
Rs
C1
+
vi'(t) X +
–
C2 vo(t)
C1 C 2
C1 C 2
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Hole for
adjustable capacitors
C1 Shielded
cable
To the
To C.R.O
signal to
input circuit
be displayed R1
Front C2 R2
panel of
nsulator C.R.O
Metal
shield
Cable
Input
signal To scope
4.7 M input
0.28 M
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C
4.7 M
Input 0.28 100 2 M 10
M pF pF
R1 = 4.7 M
Input R2 C2
0.28 2
0.28 2
R2
R1 R 2
0.2456 10 6
0.2456 10 6 4.7 10 6
R2
C2
R1
0.2456 10 6
110 10 12
4.7 10 6
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C1
+ +
1 M
vi(t) 1 M C2 100 pF vo(t)
– –
R2
R1
AC1 10 50
C1 C 2 (50 100)
R2 1
10
R1 R 2 1 1
R1 R 2
R1 R 2
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Input
10 V
Perfect compensation
5V
3.33 V Output vo(t) Vo () = 5 V
t
0
AC1 10 150
C1 C 2 (100 150)
R1 R 2
R1 R 2
1 cm = 2.5 V
Input
10 V
6V
5V
t
0
C1
+ +
1 M
vi(t) 1 M 50 pF vo(t)
– –
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R2 1
50
R1 1
R2 1
R1 R 2 2
1
20
2
1 cm = 5 V
Input
20 V
15 V
10 V
5V Vo () = 10 V
t
0V
AC1 20 75
C1 C 2 75 50
1
20
2
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1 cm = 5 V
Input
20 V
+
15 V
Vo(0 ) = 12 V Output
10 V
5V Perfect Vo () = 10 V
compensation
t
0V
AC1 20 25
C1 C 2 25 50
1 cm = 4 V
Input
20 V
16 V
12 V
+ 8V
Vo(0 ) = 6.67 V
Vo () = 10 V
4V
t
0V
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Ohmic
contacts
J Anode Cathode
p n
Electrode 1 Electrode 2 p type n type
(a) Two electrodes (b) Symbol of a diode
V
rf
Vf
V
I f rf
Vf V I f rf
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Io
rr
V VT
I 0 [e 1]
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T T T
1 1 11600
k 5
8.62 10
f (mA)
Forward
characteristics
Normal
operating region
Reverse breakdown
voltage Knee
V 0
BR
VR Vf
V
Knee 0 Cut in
voltage
Reverse
Breakdown saturation
region current
Reverse
characteristics
R(A)
TM
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Vf
V rf
f =0
Reverse Forward
+ – biased biased
rf Open
V circuit
Ideal V
diode V
(a) Forward biased (b) Reverse biased (c) V- characteristics
ID
Conducting
ID = 0 ID diode
VD
VD < 0 Diode
VD = 0 Reverse
biased
(a) Reverse biased (b) Forward biased (c) V - I characteristics
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V
ID
+ – VD
0 V
V Open circuit
rf = 0
(b) Forward biased (b) Reverse biased (c) V - I characteristics
V
rf rf rf
f
V =0 Finite rf
rf
rf + – slope = 1/rf
D V
V
(a) Forward biased (b) Reverse biased (c) V- characteristics
rf
ID
Vf V I f rf
If
+ –
VD
V rf 0 V
Ideal
diode
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ID Vf
rf = 0 , V = 0 0
ID
Vf V
rf 0 + –
V
VD
rf = 0 0 V
Vf V I f r f
If
rf V D slope = 1/rf
rf
+ –
Vf = V + Ifrf
V
V
V
V
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V
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+ –
nput D
Vi Load RL Vo
Vi Vo
Vm Vm
t t
0 2 0 2
Negative half is
clipped off
(a) Input voltage (b) Output voltage
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Vi Vi
nput nput
+Vm +Vm
t t
0 2 0 2
–Vm –Vm
Vo Vo
Output Output
+Vm +Vm
t t
0 2 0 2
Negative cycle Negative cycle
is clipped off is clipped off
VD VD
Voltage across Voltage across
ideal diode ideal diode
t t
0 2 0 2
–Vm –Vm
D D
ON ON
D D
OFF OFF
(a) Triangular input voltage (b) Square wave input
Vo Vi
Vo Vi Vi 0
Vo Vi 0
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Vo(V)
Diode D
ON
5V
Slope unity
Vo = Vi
Vi (V)
V 0 5V
Vi V Diode D
V OFF
Vi V
Vo 0 V
Vi V
Vo
Vm V
Vo Vi Vi >
Vo V i 0.7 V
Vin
+Vm nput
Vo(V)
Vo = Vi–0.7
V = 0.7 V
t Diode D
0 2 ON
Vo
Output Vi (V)
Vm–V
0 V
(0.7 V)
t
0 2 Diode D
OFF
(a) Input-output (b) Transfer characteristics
wave forms with non-ideal diode
V
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– +
D
nput Vi Load RL Vo Output
Vi 0 V
Vo 0 V
Vi 0
Vo
Vi Vi
nput nput
+Vm +Vm
t t
0 2 0 2
–Vm –Vm
Vo Vo
Positive is Positive is
clipped off Output clipped off Output
t t
0 2 0 2
–Vm –Vm
Voltage across Voltage across
VD ideal diode VD ideal diode
D D D D
OFF ON OFF ON
t t
0 2 0 2
–Vm –Vm
(a) Sinusoidal input (b) Triangular input
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Vo = 0 Vi >
Vo Vi Vi 0 V
Vo)V(
Diode D
Vi V OFF
–5 V 0
Vi (V)
–5 V
V
Slope unity
Vo = 0 Vi Vo = Vi
Diode D
Vo Vi V i 0.7 V ON
Vin
Vo(V) nput
0 2
t
–V –V – 0.7 V
– 0.7 V
Vi (V) –Vm
Vo
Diode D
OFF Output
Vo = Vi+0.7 0
t
Diode D 2
ON –Vm+V
(–Vm+0.7)
(a) Transfer characteristics (b) wave forms
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V
+ +
+V
D – R
Vi Vo
RL
– –
Additional
d.c. Voltage supply
D + D +
+ +
+ +
V V
– R – R
Vi < VR Vo = Vi Vi > VR Vo = VR
RL
– – – –
(a) Vi < VR (b) Vi > VR
Vi
nput
+VR
t
0 2
–Vm Part of positive
Vo half cycle for
which Vi>VR is
clipped off
VR
t
VR 0 2
VR
–Vm
Output
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Vo
D ON D OFF
VR Level of VR
Vi
o VR
Vi < VR Vi > VR
Transmitting Clipping region
region
D
+ +
+
V
– R
Vi Vo
RL
– –
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+ + + D +
+ +
V V
– R – R
Vi Vo = VR Vi Vo = Vi
RL RL
– – – –
(a) Vi < VR (b) Vi > VR
Vo
D ON
VR
D OFF
Vi
0 VR
Vi < VR Vi > VR
Clipping
Transmitting region
region
Vi Vo
+Vm Vm
VR VR
Portion below
VR is clipped off
0 t 0 t
–Vm
(a) Input (b) Output
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+ –
V
D
Vi RL Vo
Vi
Vi
Vm
V
t
0 2
Vo Vi V
Vi
Vm
Vm V
Vo
Vm – V
Vo 0 V t
0 2
Vo(V)
Vo = Vi–V
Vi (V)
0
V
Diode D Diode D
OFF ON
Clipping region Transmitting region
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– +
3V
D
Vi R Vo
Vi
Vo
V i ( V) Vo
Vi V Vo
Vi Vo
Vm Vi
t Vi
Vi Vi Vi
nput
+15 V
t1
0
t1 t2 t
–3 V 2
t2 Vi Vo
15+3 = 18 V
Output
t
3V
t
0 t1 t2 2
D D
ON OFF
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t1 t2
t1 t2
D Vo
V in
–
4V
V o V in + t
Vin Vo
V in RL –4V
The part
Vo 4 V blow – 4 V is
clipped off
V in
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R1 A
+ –
+
I
Vi nput D RL Vo
D
– and RL
in parallel
R1
+ –
Vin
D RL Vo = 0 V
ON
0
RL
Vo 0 V
R1
–
Vi – +
–
2 Vi RL Vo
D
+
+
Vi
nput
RL
t
0 2
V i RL
Vo –Vm
RL R1
Vo Vi Vo
D D
ON OFF
2
t
0
–VmRL
Vo Vi R1+RL
Positive half cycle of
input clipped off
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Vo(V)
D OFF D ON
0
Vi (V)
V i RL
R1 RL Vo = k Vi
RL
Where k =
R1+RL
R 1 R L Vo Vin
rf
Diode Vin
model
R1 A
+ +
0.7 V
0 t
V + RL
Vo = 0.7 V
– Vo
I Positive portion
Vin clipped
0.7 V
0 t
– – D ON
(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Input-ouput waveforms
V in R L
R1 RL
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R1 Vin
– A
–
I
0.7 V 2 t
D Vo = Vin
open RL
Vo
Vin
0.7 V 2
+ t
+
D OFF
(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Input-output waveforms
Vin
V
2 t
0
Vo
V
2 t
0
D D
ON OFF
Vo
Vin > V
V Vo = V
V V
Vin < V Vin
V
Vo = Vin
D ON
D OFF V
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Vin V
Vin V
R1 A
nput Vin D RL Vo Output
R1 Vin
+
+
Vin
0 t
Vo
RL
Vo
I
–
– 0 t
(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Input-output waveforms
RL
R R
1 L
V
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Vin
R1
– 0 t
–
– 0.7 V
Vin I
Vo
– Vo = 0.7 V
0.7 V RL
+
0 t
+ – 0.7 V
+
Negative
portion clipped
(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Input-output waveforms
Vin nput Vin nput
0 2 0
t t
–V
Vo D OFF D ON Vo D OFF D ON
Output Output
0 2 0
t t
–V
Negative half
cycle is clipped off
(a) Piecewise model (b) Ideal diode
Vo
Clipping Vin > –V
region Vo = Vin
V D ON
Vin
0
Vo = –V –V
Transmitting
Vin < –V region
–V
D OFF
V
V V
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Vin R1
+
10 V 100
0 D RL 2 k Vo
–10 V
–
RL 2 10 3
V in 10
R1 RL [ 2 10 3 100]
Vin
10 V
0 t
– 0.7 V
V i 0.7 V Vo
V 9.5238 V
0 t
– 0.7 V
Negative part of
input is clipped off
V
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R1 A
Vin +
VD D
–
+ R L Vo
VR
–
Vi
VR R1 A
Vi Vi
VR VR D
Vi OFF RL Vo = Vi
+
VR
–
RL
Vo Vi
R1 RL
R 1 R L
Vo Vi
Vi VR
Vi VR VA = VR
Vi A
VR VD = 0 D
Vi deal ON RL Vo = VR
+
VR
–
VR
Vo VR Vi VR
Vo VR Vo Vi
Vi VR
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V i RL Vi Input voltage
V o Vi
R1 RL
Vm
R 1 R L VR Reference
voltage level
2
t
0
–Vm
Vo Positive
clipping Output
voltage
VR
2
t
0
D
ON
–Vm
D
OFF
Vo(V)
VR Vo = VR
Vi VR
VR
Vi (V)
0
Vo = Vi
D D
OFF ON
VR
V
V A 0.7 V R
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Vin
R1 VA
+ VA
Vin +
0.7 V t
VA –
RL Vo = VA Vo Clipping
+
VR level
I VA
–
–
t
(a) Vin > VA (b) Waveforms
RL
R1 RL
Vin
VA = 0.7 + VR
VA
0 t
V Vo New
clipping
VA level
0 t
D
ON
D OFF
VA = 0.7 + VR
V
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Vo
D ON
Vin > VA
VA = 0.7+VR
Clipping
region
Vin
0
Vin < VA
Transmitting
region D OFF VA = 0.7+VR
R1 A
Vi
VR D
nput Vi RL Vo
+
VR
VR –
Vi 0 V VR R1 VA
D
Vi<VR ON RL Vo
VA V R
+
VR
–
V o VA V R
R1
Vi VR A
Vi Vi
D
VR Vi > VR
OFF RL Vo Vi
VR
+
VR
–
D off, Vi > VR
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Vi
Vm
nput
V i RL voltage Reference
Vo Vi R 1 R L VR voltage level
R 1 R L 2
t
0
Vi
VR
Vo Vm
Output
VR voltage
t
Vo VR 0 2
Negative half
cycle is clipped
D D
ON OFF
Vo(V)
Vo = Vi
Vo = VR
VR
VR
Vi(V)
O VR
VR VR
D
D OFF
ON
R1 = 75 A
Vi
D
RL
t Vo
VR 3 V Vi = 8 sin 314 t V
– 2 k
VR = 3V
+
B
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Vi R1 A
VR
Vm = 8 V
D OFF
– RL Vo
+VR = 3 V
I
Vo
RL
Vo I RL
Vi
R1 RL
RL
Vo Vi
R1 RL
2000
Vo Vi Vi
2000 75
V o (max) V m 0.9638
R 1 VA = V R
Vi
Vi
D VD = 0
VR ON –
–3 V RL Vo = VR
VR 3V = –3V
+
Vi
B
VA VR
Vo VA
Vi VR Vi
VR VR V i 3V
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Vi
Vm Input
8V voltage
Vo(V)
2
0V t
–3V Vi R L
VR = Vo =
R1+RL
–3V
– 3V Vi(V)
Vo 7.71 V Output Vo = VR o
voltage VR = – 3V
0V t D D
o 2 ON OFF
VR =
–3V D
ON
Negative
clipping
D OFF
(a) Waveforms (b) Transfer characteristics
VR
R1 = 50
Vi
5V RL
D Vo
5 k
Vi 5 V
R1
Vo IR L Vi
Vi
5V D
R1 RL OFF
I RL Vo
t
0
V i RL
Vo
R1 RL
5000
Vo Vi
5000 50
Vi Vi
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R1 VA = 0 V
Vi I
VD = 0 V D RL Vo = 0 V
RL t
ON
–5 V
Vo
Vo Vi Vi 0 V
Vo Vi 0 V
Vi
nput
voltage Vo(V)
5V
Vo = Vi
t
0 2
3V
vo
Vi(V)
Vo = 0 V 0V 3V
Output
Vo 5 V voltage
D D
ON OFF
t Clipping Transmitting
0
D D region region
OFF ON
(c) Waveforms (d) Transfer characteristic
RL
VD 0.7 V
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R1 A
Vin
+
VD = 0.7 V
D
– – RL Vo (R1<<RL)
VA +VR
VA VR V in V A
V in V in
Vin
t1 t2
t
0
VA = –VR+0.7 Clipping level
Vo
Portion
above VA
t is clipped off
0
VA = –VR+0.7
Vo = VA
Vo = Vin
Transmitting
as Vin < VA
region
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Transmitting Vo
region
VA = –VR + 0.7
Vin
0
VA = –VR + 0.7
Vin > VA
D OFF
D ON
VR
Vin < VA Clipping region
Vo = Vin
VR
D1 D2
Vin Vo
–
V1 + + V2
–
V in V m sin t
D1 D2
V in
V1 D1 D2 V o V in
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V in V1 D1 D2
R R1
D1
ON
Vin< V1 D1 OFF D2 OFF Vo=Vin Vin > V1 D2 OFF Vo= V1
V1 V1 I
– –
V1 + + V2 V1 + + V2
– –
(a) Vin < V1 (b) Vin > V1
V in V 1 D 1 D2 V o V in
V in V 1 D 1 D2 Vo V1
V in
V2 D2 D1
V o V in
R R
Vi –
Vi
0 D1 OFF D2
Vin>V2 D1 OFF D2 OFF Vo=Vin 0 Vin<V2 Vo=V2
V2 ON
V2
– –
V1 + + V2 V1 + + V2
– –
+
(a) Vin>V2 (b) Vin<V2
V in V2 D2
D1 Vo V2
Vo V2 V1
V o V in ... for V in V 1
Positive half cycle
Vo V1 ... for V in V 1
V o V in ... for V in V 1
Negative half cycle
Vo V2 ... for V in V 2
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Vin
Input
V1
0 t
2
V2
V0
Output
Positive
clipping
V1
2
0 t
0
V2
D1 ON Negative clipping
D2 ON
D1 and
D2 OFF
Vo = (V)
Vo = Vin
V1 Vo = V1
Vin (V)
V2 o V1
Vo = V2
V2
D2 D1
Both D1
ON ON
and D2 OFF
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R1 A B
Vin
+18 V D1 D2
Vo
+ –
9V 7V
–18 V – +
R1 R1
A B A B
+ –
0.7 V D2 Vin < VB 0.7 V
– +
+ – Vo = VA = 9.7 V + – Vo = VB = –7.7 V
Vin > VA 9V 7V 9V 7V
– + – +
Vin
+18 V
+9.7 V
t
0
–7.7 V
–18 V
Vo
+9.7 V
t
0
–7.7 V
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Vo
R1
+6 V
Vin + t
–
sine 5.3 V 2.3 V –3V
wave – +
V
D
+ –
+ + + +
R R
Vin Vo Vin Vo
+ +
VR VR
– – – –
– –
(a) Diode comparator (b) Equivalent circuit
V
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V
V Vin
Vin = t
Vin Linear ramp
VR + V
t
0 t1 t
Vo
Vo
Vo
VR
t
t1 t2
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C
+ +
Vi D RL Vo
– –
Vm
+ + – +
Vi D RL Vo
– –
VC Vm + –
Vm
Vi D OFF R Vo = Vi –Vm
VC Vi
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Vi Vm
Vi
+Vm Input
Vm
0V T
t 2Vm = Total swing
0 T T
4 2
–Vm
–Vm
Vo
0V
– Vm t
0
D.C. Level
of
–Vm –Vm
added 2Vm = Total swing
–Vm T
T
Output
2
–2Vm
–2Vm
Steady state
Initial D OFF
charging of C
D ON
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Vi
Vm
2Vm
0 t
T T
2 Input
–Vm
Vo
– Vm T
2 T
D.C. 0 t
level
added 2Vm Output
Vm
–2Vm
C
+ +
Vi D RL Vo
– –
Vi C
– – + +
t Vm
Vi I D RL Vo
ON
–Vm
+ –
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C
+
Vi +
– +
–Vm Vm
t Vi RL Vo
D OFF
– –
Vi
+Vm
Vm
T/2 T
t
0
2Vm Input
–Vm
–Vm
Vo
2Vm
2Vm
+ Vm
D.C.
level Vm 2Vm Output
added
t
0 T 0V T
2
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C
D
Vi RL Vo
–
V+
Vi C
Vi –
VC = Vm–V
– +
VC D
o Vi I ON
–
–Vm V
Vm V +
+
C +
+
VC Vm V – +
Vm–V D
Vi OFF R Vo
–
V
+
– –
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VC Vo Vi
Vo Vi VC
V i (V m V)
Vm V
Vo 2V m V Vi Vm
Vo Vm V Vi 0
Vo V Vi Vm
Vi
+Vm +Vm
Vm Input
t
0 2
2Vm
–Vm
Vo
2Vm–V D.C.
Output shift of Vm–V
added
2Vm
Vm–V
t
0 2
–V
–V
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Restored white
Synchronous level
pulses Restored black
Reference level
black level
Blanking
level Inverting
amplifier
D.C.
restorer Picture tube
0 (clamper)
Reference
white level
Video
signal
C
Vin
12 V
D RL Vo
0
–12 V
VC = 11.3 V
+ –
Vin
+12 +
0.7 V RL Vo
–
0
I
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Vo
+ 0.7 V
–11.3 Total swing
24 V
Same as that
of input
–23.3 V
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+VCC
Ry Ry
I1 I2
R1 R1
X1 X2
A1 A2
Y1 Y2
Z1 R2 R2 Z2 A1 + A2
Active devices
–VBB
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+VCC
RC RC
R1 R1
Vo Vo
VC1 Q1 Q2 VC2
+ +
R2 R2 VB2
– VB1 –
Pulse Set –VBB Reset
Pulse
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VC1
Q1 OFF Q1 ON
VCC
Q2 ON Q2 OFF
VCE (sat)
0 VC2 t
Q1 ON
VCC Q1 OFF Q2 OFF
Q2 ON
VCE (sat)
0 t
Input
Set
pulse
t
Input
Reset
pulse
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VCC = +12 V
I1 RC = 2.2 k
I2
VC2 0 V
R1 = 10 K
IC1 = 0
ICBO = 0 IC2
Q1 OFF VB1 Q2 ON
R2 = 50 k
VBB = –8 V
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R1 10
R1 R 2 10 +50
VCC 12
RC 2.2 10 3
VBB 8
I2
R1 R 2 ( 10 50)
I C2 5.316
(h fe ) min 30
VCC = +12 V
RC = 2.2 k I3
I3
VC1
R1 = 10 K
IC1 = 0 A IB2
VB2 0 V Q2 ON
Q1 OFF R2 = 50 K
I4
VBB = –8 V
VCC
R C R1
12
2.2 10
VB2 VBB 0 ( 8)
R2 50
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R1 R2
R1 R 2 VC2 0 R1 R 2 VBB 0
10 50
8 ( 0.2)
10 50 10 50
VCC VC2 12 0.2
RC 2. 2
VC2 VBB 0.2 8
R1 R 2 (10 50)
I C2 5.223
(h fe )min 30
VCC VB2 12 0.7
R C R1 (2.2 10)
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VB2 VBB 0.7 ( 8)
R2 50
+VCC
RC
I1
R1
VC1 I2
IL
VB2
RL Q2 ON
(IB2)min
R2
I4
Q1 OFF
–VBB
VB2 VBB
R2
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VC1 VB2
R1
VC1
IL
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VCC VCE (sat)
RC
VCC V2
I C2
+VCC
RC
I C2 I1
10
VC2
R1 I2
IC2
VB1
VB2 ( VBB ) Q1 OFF Q2 ON
R2 R2
VB2 VBB –VBB
I4
+VCC
RC
I3
I3
VC1
R1
IC1 = 0 IB2
VCC VB 2 Q1 OFF VB2 Q2 ON
R1 RC R2
I4
–VBB
VCC VB 2
I3
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+VCC = +12 V
RC RC
1 k 1 k
R1 R1
+ +
5 k 5 k
Q1 Q2
VC1 + + V = VCE(sat)
OFF ON C2
VB1 R2 R2 VB2
– 10 k 10 k –
– –
–VBB = – 3 V
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VCC
+12 V
RC
I1 1 k
I2
VC2 = VCE(sat) = 0.3 V
IC1 = 0 R1 = 5 k IC2
ICBO = 0
Q1 OFF VB1 Q2 ON
R2
10 k
–3 V
R1 R2
R1 R 2 VC2 0 R1 R 2 VBB 0
5 10
3 0.3
15 15
VCC VC2 12 0.3
RC 1
VC2 VBB 0.3 3
R1 R 2 5 10
I C2 11.48
I B2 min
fe min
h 20
VCC VB2 12 0 . 7
R C R1 1 5
VB2 VBB 0 .7 ( 3)
R2 10
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VCC = 12 V
RC
1 k
I3 R1
IC1 = 0 5 k
IB2
Q1 OFF VB2 Q2 ON
R2 VB2 = VBE(sat)
I4 10 k
= 0.7 V
–VBB = –3 V
VCC = 12 V
RC 1 k I1
IL VC1 R1 = 5 k
I2
VB2 = 0.7 V
RL
Q2 ON
(IB2)min
Q1 OFF R2
I4
10 k
–VBB = –3 V
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VB2 VBB . ( 3)
070
R2 10
VC1 VB2
R1
VC1 0.7
5
VC1 5.42
IL 5.636 10 3
VCC = 12 V
RC = 1 k
R1
VC2 = 0.3 V
5 k
ICBO VB1
A
R2 = 10 k
RTH
–VBB = –3 V
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
||
ICBO VB1
6 10
( 6 10)
RTH = 3.75 k
ICBO –
– 0.8 V
+
VB1 VTH 0 ( 0.8)
R TH . 10 3
375
R1 R2
R1 R 2 R1 R 2
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC = 12 V
RC RC
2 k 2 k
R1 R1
+ +
10 k 10 k
Q1 Q2 VC2 = VCE(sat)
VC1 + +
OFF ON = 0.1 V
VB1 VB2
– R2 47 k 47 k R2 –
– –
VB2 = VBE(sat) = 0.7 V
–VBB = –12 V
VCC VC2
RC
VC2 VBB
R 1 R2
I C2
(h fe )min
VCC VB2
R C R1
VB 2 VBB
R2
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC = 12 V
RC 2 k
VC1 I1 I2
IL
R1 I2
RL
10 k
Q1 OFF VB2 = 0.7 V
VB 2 VBB Q2 ON
(IB2)min
R2 R2
47 k
. ( 12)
07 I4
47 –VBB = –12 V
VC1 VB2 VC1 0.7
R1 10
12 5.314
2
VC1
VC in volts
(I L )max
5.314 10.1168 V
2.8816
5.314 V
IL in mA
0 (IL) max.
2.8816 mA
TM
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+ 12 V
2.2 k
2.2 k
+ 15 k
+
IC1
15 k IC2
VC1 IB1 IB2
Q1 Q2
+ +
VC2
VB1 100 k 100 k VB2
– – –
–
– 12 V
VCC = 12 V
RC I1
IC2 = 0
R1
VC1 ICBO = 0 R1 = 15 k
IC1 I2 Q2 OFF R2 = 100 k
VB2
RC = 2.2 k
Q1
ON R2
VBB
– 12 V
V BB R 1 V C1 R 2 –12 15 01
. 100
R1 R2 R1 R2 115 115
V CC V C1 12 – 0.1
RC 2.2 10 3
TM
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V C1 V B2 0.1 – (–1.47)
R1 15 10 3
I C1
h fe (min)
VCC = 12 V
I3
V CC V B1 12 0.7
RC = 2.2 k
RC R1 (2.2 15) 10 3 R1
VC2
VB1 15 k
Q1 I3
V B1 ( V BB ) 0.7 (–12) IC2 = 0 A
ON
IB1
R2 100 10 3 Q2
R2 I4 OFF
100 k
VBB = – 12 V
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
+VCC
RC RC
R1 R1
Q1 Q2
R2 R2
Set RE Reset
IE
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC = 12 V
RC = 4 k
R1
+ +
Q1 OFF 30 k
IC2 VCE2
IB2
+ + Q2 ON –
VBE1 VCN2
+
–
+ R2 RE
VBN1 IB2
10 k 0.5 k VEN
+ IC2
VEN
– – – –
N
+VCC = 12 V
RC
4 k
R1
+
30 K
IB2
+ Q2 ON
Q1 OFF +
VCN1 + VBE2
– +
+ VBN2 R2 RE = 0.5 k
VEN 10 k VEN
–
– – –
N
VCC
(R R 2 )
( R1 R 2 R C ) 1
VCC = 12 V
12 40
( 30 10 4)
RC = 4 k
I
IB1 = 0 R1
||R C C2
30 k
40 4
R2
40 4 I
VOC
10 k RTH
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC = 12 V
RC
I
4 k R1 B2
30 k
I
R2 VOC RTH
VCC I
R 10 k
(R C R 1 R 2 ) 2
12 10 N
( 4 30 10)
|| 3.636 k
10 34 IC2
44 IB2 + +
VCE2 10.9 V
+ –
7.727 k
VBE2 – – Q2 ON
+
2.73 V
– (IC2 + IB2) RE
0.5 k
I C2 2526
.
I B2 0.0847
TM
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R2 10
.
1705
R1 R 2 40
VCC R 1 VBN2 R C
(R C R 1 ) R C R1
12 30 2105
. 4
34 34
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC = +20 V
RC = 4.7 k
R1
Q1 OFF
(VBE1 = 0 V) + +
5 k IC2
given
VCE2 = 0.4 V
+ + IB2 –
VBE1 VCN2
+
– R2 RE
VBN1
15 k 0.39 k VEN
VEN
– – –
N
VCC = +12 V
RC
4.7 k
R1
+
30 k
IB2
Q2 ON
+ +
VCN1 VBE2
Q1 OFF +
VBN2 – RE
R2
+ VEN
15 k 0.39 k
– VEN
– – –
N
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC = +20 V VCC = +20 V
RC = 4.7 k
RC
I
I 4 k
IB1 = 0 R1 = 30 k R1 = 30 k B2
I C2
I
R2 VOC R2
RTH VOC
I 15 k RTH I 15 k
N N
(a) (b)
VCC 20 45
(R 1 R 2 R C ) 497.
45 4 . 7
||
45 4 . 7
VCC 4.255 k IC2
(R 1 R 2 R C )
10.473 k +
20 15 VCE2 = 0.4 V
+
( 30 15 4.7)
+ – 18.108 V
IB2 VBE2
+ –
= 0.8 V –
– 6.036 V RE
0.39 k
|| (IB2 + IC2)
15 34 . 7 N
( 15 34.7)
TM
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R2 15
R1 R 2 45
VCC R 1 VBN 2 R C
(R C R 1 ) (R C R 1 )
20 30 2.41 4.7
( 4.7 30) ( 4.7 30)
I C2 3783
.
I B2 0.346
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC = 20 V
RC = 4.7 k
R1
30 k
VB1
A
|| RE R2 = 15 k
RTH
34 . 7 15
||
34 . 7 15
ICBO
VB1
A
E
RTH 10.472 k
VEN = 1.61 V 0.39 k ICBO +
RE VTH = 0.67 V
–
VB1 VTH 1.61 0.67
R TH 10.472 10 3
TM
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+VCC = 18 V
I1 I3 I2
RC RC
R1 I1 R1
+ + +
IC1 = 0 IC2
IB1 = 0 IB2
Q1 I3 Q2
+ + VCE2 = 0 V
R2 I3 I4 R2
VCN1 VCN2
–
+ +
VBN1 VBN2
VEN RE VEN
IE2
– – – – – –
N
VCN2
R1 R 2
VCN2
2R 1
VCN2
2R 1
VCN 2
2
TM
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VEN
2
VEN
VEN
2
20 10 3
2
20 10 3
VCC VCN2
RC
18 2
20
I C2 20
(h fe )min 20
1
VBN2
R2
2
R
VCC VBN2
R C R1
18 2
0.8 R
16 2 2 2R
0.8 R R R
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
12.4 (12.4) 2 4 2 1.6
2 2
TM
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+VCC
C1 Speed-up C1
RC capacitors RC
R1 R1
Q1 Q2
R2 R2
Set RE CE Reset
1
Resolving time
1 (R 1 + R 2 )
2 C1 (R 1 || R 2 ) 2C1 R 1 R 2
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
Q1
Q1 Q2 Q1
Q2
VCC
C1 C1
RC RC
R1 R1
A1 A2
Y1 X1 X2 Y2
Pulse Pulse
R2 R2
Q1 Z1 Z2 Q2
– VBB
TM
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A1 A2 A1
A1 C1 A1
A2
X2
Y2 X1 A1
A1
M1
M1
Leading Trailing
edge edge
M1 M1
M1
Leading Trailing
edge edge
TM
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+VCC
C1 C1
RC RC
A RS C C RS B
Y1 R1 R1 Y2
X1 X2
Q1 Q2
R2 R2
Trigger
input
Negative pulse is applied
to the two collectors through
resistor and capacitor in series
–VBB
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
–VCC
C1 C1
RC RC
RS C C RS
Y1 R1 R1 Y2
X1 X2
Q1 Q2
R2 R2
Positive pulse
Trigger input
Positive pulse is
required for p-n-p
+VBB transistors
+VCC
C1 C1
R RC RC R
C D D C
(S) Q
P R1 R1 Reset pulse
Set
pulse (R)
Q1 Q2
OFF ON
R2 R2
Pulses are applied through
the diodes, to the two collectors.
–VBB
TM
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+VCC
C1 C1
D3 RC RC D4
C C
Set Reset
D1 R1 R1 D2
Q1 Q2
R2 R2
–VBB
TM
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VCC
C1 C1
RC RC
R1 R1
D C
C D
Reset
Set
Q1 Q2 R
R
OFF ON
R2 R2
–VBB
–VCC
Amplified Amplifying the trigger
positive pulse signal using amplifier Q3
to base of Q2
RC C1
C R1
S Q3
Q2 ON
R Q1 OFF
R2
+VBB
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
Forward
biased D1
R1
VCC
To base
C1 of Q2
Path of pulse applied
D3 RC
RC
C
T
D1 D2
P R
Q
R1 R1
Trigger
input C1 C1
Q1 Q2 ON
OFF
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
+VCC
C1 C1
RC RC
R1 R1
Q1 Q2
C OFF D1 D2 ON
T
D3
R2 R2
Trigger
input
D3 connected to
–VBB ground
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC
C1 C1
RC = 4Re RC = 4Re
R1 = 3R2 R1 = 3R2
Q1 Q2
OFF ON
R2 R2
Positive C
step E
Re
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
+VCC
Q1 OFF Q2 ON
normal stable state
1
C1
RC R R RC
1 C1
+ –
C1 VA R1 C2
+ +
B1
Q1 Q2
+ + B2
VC1 VC2
E1 VB1 VB2
C2 R2 E2
– – – –
nput –VBB
trigger
pulse
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
V
V
V
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VCC
VB2
Saturation V
Cut in V
t
0V 0 T
I1RC
t = 0 at which
V pulse is applied
e t/
V e t/
V
V I R V
ln CC 1 C
VCC V
V
V VCC VCE (sat) VBE (sat)
ln CC
VCC V
V
2 VCC VCE (sat) VBE (sat)
ln
VCC V
VCE (sat) VBE (sat)
2 VCC 2
ln
VCC V
TM
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VCE (sat) VBE (sat)
VCC 2
ln (2) + ln
VCC V
V
ln ln
ln
V
V
TM
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VBB R 1 VC2 R 2
R1 R 2 VC2 0
R1 R 2 VBB 0
V
VCC R 1 V R C
R1 R C VB 0
R1 R C VCC 0
+VCC
3 RC
R1
V Q1 ON VC2
B1
VB1 = V Q2 OFF
R2
I4
–VBB
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
RC R>>RC
+
VCC
– B2
C1
r'bb
V'BE
I'B +
V
–
E2
r bb
V
I B
VBE I B r bb V
I B
VBE V
I B r bb V V
I B
I B r bb V V I B
TM
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I B r bb V V
VCC VCE (sat) V V
I B
R C r bb
V
r bb
Stable Quasi-stable Stable
Q1 OFF Q1 ON Q1 OFF
Q2 ON Q2 OFF Q2 ON
t=0 t=T
VB2 V’BE I’B r’bb Base of Q2
V V
0V
V t
VCC–VCE (sat) = RC
VC1 Collector of Q1
VCC ’
IB’RC
VCE (sat) ’ =
t
0
VC2 Collector of Q2
VCE (sat) VCE (sat)
t
0 T
VB1 Base of Q1
V
0V
t
VF VF
VCC
I B
RC
TM
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V V
r bb
VCC VCE (sat)
RC
V
V
6 0.3
RC
I C (sat) 6
(h fe ) min 20
VCC VBE (sat) 6 0.7
R R
10 6 17.67 10 3
TM
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+VCC = 6 V
RC
VCC V 6 0.7 5.3 I3
R1
R1 R1 R1 Q1 ON VC2
IB1 VB1 = V
V VBB 0.7 ( 1.5) Q2 OFF
R2 R2
R2
2.2 I4
R2
–VBB = – 1.5 V
2.2
0.3
5.3
0.6
1 10 6
8.833 10 3
VCC VCE (sat) V V 6 0.3 0.7 0.5
I B
R C r bb 950 150
I B r bb V V
5 10 3 150 0.7 0.5
TM
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+6V
1 k 10 k 1 k
IR
C1
+
+
10 k
Q1
Q2
VC1 + +
VC2
VB1 20 k VB2
– –
– –1.5 V –
rbb
V CC V CE (sat) 6 – 0.3
RC 1 10 3
V CC V BE (sat) 6 – 0.7
V
R 10 10 3
I C2 5.7
h fe 50
–V BB R 1 V C2 R 2
R1 R2 VC2 0
R1 R2 VBB 0
TM
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Q1 OFF Q1 ON Q1 OFF
Q2 ON Q2 OFF Q2 ON
VB2
V V
t
VC2
VC1
0 T t
VB1
–1.5 10 0.3 20
10 20 10 20
TM
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5.7 +VCC
RC
3
RC
R1
Q1 ON VC2
V CC V 6 – 0.7
R1 RC B1
11 10 3
VB1 = V Q2 OFF
0 – (V BB ) V –(–1.5) + 0.7
R2 20 10 3 R2
I4
–VBB
11
10 10 3
I C1 6.8
h fe 50
V CC R 1 V RC
R1 RC VB 0
R1 RC VCC 0
6 10 0.7 1
11 11
V CC V CE (sat) V V 6 – 0.3 – 0.7 0.5
IB
R C rbb 1000 200
IB rbb
V V
TM
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+VCC
I2
RC R RC
C R1
VC2 = VCE(sat) = 0 V
I3 IC2
Q1 Q2
OFF VBE(sat) ON
VBE IB2
R2 =0V
(cut-off)
–VBB
+VCC = 6 V
RC = 3 k
VBE(sat) R1
=0V
I3
IB1 IC2 = 0 as Q2 OFF
Q1 ON
R2
I4
–VBB
TM
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VCC VC2 VCC VC2
I2 I 3 I C2
60 6
I C2 2
IC 2
(h fe ) min 20
VCC VBE (sat) 6
R R
10 6 40 10 3
VC2 ( V BB ) VBB
R1 R 2 R1 R 2
VC2 V BE (cut off) 0 ( 1)
R1 R1
VBB 1 VBB 1
R1 R 2 R1 2 R1 R1
VCC V BE (sat) 6
R1 RC R1 3
V BE (sat) ( V BB ) 0 ( 2) 2
R2 R2 R2
6 2
R1 3 R2
6 2
R
3 R R
R R R
R R 2 R R R 2 R
3.55 (3 . 55) 2 4 0.15 6
R
2 0.15
TM
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R
3V 3V
VC1
0.6 V
0.1 V
V V
rbb
IB rbb
V V IB
IB
IB 10 3
3 0.1 0.5
1.5 10 3
Stable Quasi-stable
t=0 t=T
VB2
V = 0.3 V = 0.5 V V = 0.3 V
t
V = 0.1 V
VCC – VCE (sat)
= 2.9 V
TM
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+VCC
I2
RC R RC
C R1
VC2 = VCE(sat) = 0.3 V
I3 IC2
Q1 Q2
OFF VBE(sat) ON
VBE IB2
R2 = 0.7 V
(cut-off)
– 0.5 V
–VBB
V CC V C2 V CC V C2
I2 I C2 I 3
10 0.3
1 10 3
IC 1 10 3
10 A
h fe (min) 100
V CC V BE (sat) 10 0.7 9.3
R R 15 10 6
TM
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V C2 ( V BB ) V CE (sat) V BB
R1 R2 R1 R2
V C2 V BE (cut -off) V CE (sat) V BE (cut - off)
R1 R1
0.3 6 0.3 ( 0.5)
R1 R2 R1
+VCC = 6 V
RC = 3 k
VBE(sat) R1
=0V
V CC V BE (sat) I3
R1 RC IB1 IC2 = 0 as Q2 OFF
10 0 . 7 Q1 ON
R1 RC R2
I4
9.3
R 1 9.7 10 3 –VBB
V BE (sat) ( V BB ) 0.7 6 6.7
R2 R2 R2
9.3 6.7 9.3 6.7
R 1 9.7 10 3 R2 R 1 9.7 10 3 R2
R 22
R 22
TM
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8 . 1803 ( 8 1803) 2 4 64990 2 . 181 10 6
2 2 . 181 10 6
Q2 Q1
V CC V CE (sat) 6 0.3
I C2 I C (sat) I C2
RC RC
6 0.3
RC
6 10 3
IC 6 10 3
I B2 (min) 3 10 4
h fe (min) 20
I B1 (sat) 3 10 4
V CC V BE (sat) 6 0.7
I B2
R 3 10 4
+VCC = 6 V
Q1 Q2
RC
I3
140 10 6 10 3 R1
Q1 ON VC2
IB1 VB1 = V
Q2 OFF
R2
Q2 V C2 V CC I4
V CC V 6 0.7 5.3
I3
R1 R1 R1 –VBB = – 1.5 V
V V 0.7 ( 1.5) 2.2
I4
R2 R2 R2
TM
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I4 I B1 (sat) 3 10 4
2.2
3 10 4 R2
R2
5.3
I3 I B1 I 4 6 10 4 R1
6 10 4
R 1C 1
1 10 6
C1
8.833 10 3
Q1 OFF Q2 ON +VCC
normal stable state
1
R
RC 1 R = 17.67k C1 = 113.21 pF
C1 = 113.21 pF RC
+ –
C1 VA R1 C2
+ +
B1
Q1 Q2
+ + B2
VC1 VC2
E1 VB1 VB2
C2 R2 = 7.33 k E2
– – – –
nput –VBB
trigger
pulse
r bb
r bb
TM
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+ VCC
RC1 I1 R RC2
R1 VA I2
+ – C2
C1 +
Ci C
B1 B2
Q1 Q2
+ +
Positive Rb
trigger E
+
VCN2
V
VBN2
VEN Re
R2
– – –
–
N
C2 B1
Re
TM
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C2
B1
I1
I1 I1
Re I1
Q2 Q1
I1
Q1 Q2
Q1 Q2 Q2
V CC V EN2
Re Q1
Q1
Q1 V B1
V EN2 Q1 Q1
I 1 RC 1 Q2 Q2
V CC Q1 Q1
V EN1 Re Q1
Q2
B2 Q2
V BN2 V EN1 V Q2
Q2 Q1
Q1 Q2
TM
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VCN2
Q1 OFF Q1 Active Q1 OFF
Q2 ON Q2 OFF Q2 ON
VCC
I2' RC2
Trigger I2 RC2
is applied
at t = 0
t
VCN1 t=0 t=T
VCC ' RC1
IB2
I1 RC1
t
VEN2 + V V'EN2 + V + I'B2 r'bb
VBN2
VBN2(0– )
I1 RC1
VEN1 + V
t
VEN
V'EN2
VEN2
VEN1 = V – VBE1
t
t=0 t=T
TM
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Q1 V max
Q1
Q1 I C 1 RC 1 Q2
V min
Vmax Vmin
Q1 V EN2 V 1
V max V EN2 V 1
I1 Q2 V min
V min V EN1 min V BE1
V min V BE1
V BN2 0 V 2 R C 1 / R V CC V 2
R RC 1
1 C 1 h FE / 1 h FE
R Re
VC Vf Vi Vf e t/
V BN2
V BN2 0
V BN2 0 I 1 R C 1
Q2 V BN2 V CC
v BN2 B2
v BN2
V CC V CC V BN2 0 I 1 R C 1 e t /
C R R C 1
T
v BN2 V EN1 V 2
TM
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V EN1 V 2
V CC V CC V BN2 0 I 1 R C 1 e t /
ln
V CC V BN2 0 I 1 R C 1
V V V
CC EN1 2
+VCC
C1'
R3 RC R RC
Ci D C1
T
P Q
R1
Q1 Q2
OFF ON
R2
–VBB
TM
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+VCC
RC R2 R1 RC
I C2 C1 I
VC1 VC2
Q1 Q2
B1 B2
TM
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VCC
VCC
R1
VCC
RC C2
– +
VCC C1
B2 B1
C1 + –
Q2 ON Q2 ON
C2
(a) (b)
V
V
VCC
VCC
R2
RC
VCC
VCC + –
– + C1
C2
C1 B2
B1 Q1 ON
Q1 ON
(a) (b)
TM
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V
Q2 ON Q1 ON Q2 ON
V = VBE (sat)
Q1 OFF Q2 OFF Q1 OFF
VB2
V V
V cut in
0V
t
C2 discharge Base of Q2
–VCC 2 = R2C2
T2 T1
VC1
VCC
T Square
wave
Collector of Q1
VCE (sat)
0V t
VB1
V Base of Q1
V
t
C1 discharge
–VCC 1 = R1C1
Square
wave
VC2
Collector of Q2
VCE (sat)
t
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
I B
VB2
VCC
VBE (sat) = V V V cut in
0V t
C2 discharge
–VCC
T2 T1
TM
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V
e t/
e t / R 2 C2
e t / R 2 C2
e t / R 2 C2
V
V e T2 / R 2 C2
V
e T2 / R 2 C2
e T2 / R 2 C2 e T2 / R 2 C2
T2
ln (e T2 / R 2 C2 ) ln
R 2 C2
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
VC
[VC1,VC2]
Rounding
t
+VCC
RC R3 R2 R1 R3 RC
C2 C1
C1 C2
D1 D2
Q1 Q2
OFF ON
VC1
VCC Rounding eliminated
VCE (sat)
t
0.69 10 10 3 100 10 12
TM
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2 0.69
1 1
T 1.38
1 10 3 01. 10 6 5 10 3 0.03 10 6
1 1
T .
01725 10 3
1 1
f 75 10 3
10 10 3 C 1
10 6 10 10 3
R1 R2
C1 C2
TM
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. 10 6
10 10 3 01
. 10 6
5 10 3 01
1 1
T 1.035 10 3
T2 0.345
T1 T2 0.69 0.345
V CC
I C (on) h fe (min)
1 1
2 10 – 4
f 5 10 3
T
T1 T2 +VCC
2
1 10 – 4
RC I1 R2 R1 I2 RC
C2 C1
IC2
Q2 Q1 C1 VC1 VC2 C2
VB1 B2
Q1 Q2
OFF B1 VB2 ON
IB2
V CE (sat) V C2
V BE (sat) V B2
TM
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V CC – V C2
I2 I2 I C2 (on)
RC
C1
10 – 0.3
2 10 – 3 RC
RC
I C2 (on) 1.5 2 10 – 3
I B2 I B2 (min) 1.5
h fe (min) 70
V CC – V B2 10 – 0.7
I B2 42.857 10 – 6
R2 R2
R2
C1 C2
T1 R 1C 1 R2 C 2 T2 1 10 – 4
C2 C1
1 10 – 4
R1
0.69 0.667 10 – 9
R1 R2
+VCC
RC I1 R2 R1 I2 RC
C2 C1
IC2
C1 VC1 VC2 C2
VB1 B2
Q1 Q2
OFF B1 VB2 ON
IB2
V CC V C2
RC
TM
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10 0.3
1 10 3
RC
I C2 (on) 1 10 3
h fe (min) 100
V CC V B2 10 0.7
R2 R2
+VCC
RC R3 R2 R1 R3 RC
C2 C1
C1 C2
D1 D2
Q1 Q2
OFF ON
VCC VC1 12 0.2
R 3 || R C 2 2.2
(2 2.2)
TM
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VCC
VCC VB1 12 07
.
R1 33 10 3
RC R3
R1
VC1
IC1
I C1 11.263 VB1
(h fe ) min 40 IB1
T1 ON
0.69 33 10 3 0.01 10 6
1 1
T 0.455 10 3
VCC VC2
RC
15 0
5 10 3
RC
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VCC VB 2
R2
(I C2 ) 5
1.5
(h fe ) min 20
15 0.3
0.375 10 3
R2
0.4 10 3 39.2 10 3 C
10 3 0.0148 10 6
r bb
V
rbb
IB rbb
V
VCC VCE (sat) V V 6 0.3 0.7 0.5
IB
R C r bb 560 200
7.23 10 3 200 07
. 05
.
TM
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Q2 ON Q1 ON Q2 ON
V = VBE (sat)
Q1 OFF Q2 OFF Q1 OFF
VB2
V V
V cut in
0V
t
C2 discharge Base of Q2
–VCC 2 = R2C2
T2 T1
VC1
VCC
T Square
wave
Collector of Q1
VCE (sat)
0V t
VB1
V Base of Q1
V
t
C1 discharge
–VCC 1 = R1C1
Square
wave
VC2
Collector of Q2
VCE (sat)
t
VCC h fe I C sat
T2 T2 T2
T T1 T2 T1 T2
T2 T1 T1 T2
TM
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1
5 10 – 5 T1 T2
f
1.5T2 T2 5 10 –5 T2
T1 T2
Q2 Q1
+VCC
V CE (sat) V C2
V BE (sat) V B2
RC I1 R2 R1 I2 RC
C2 C1
I C (sat)
IC2
C1 VC1 VC2 C2
h fe V CC VB1 B2
Q1 Q2
V CC – V C2 OFF B1 VB2 ON
I2 IB2
RC
C1
I2 I C2
–3 10 – 0.3
2 10
RC
RC
I C2 1.5 2
I B2 I B2 (min) 1.5
h fe 220
V CC – V B2 10 – 0.7
I B2 0.0136 10 –3
R2 R2
R2
C1 C2
T1 R 1C 1 T2 R2 C 2
20 10 –6
T2 R2 C
0.69 683.823 10 3
30 10 – 6
T1 R 1C R1
0.69 42.38 10 –12
TM
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Q 1 and Q 2
V BB , V CC1 and V CC2
Q1 Q2
Q 1 and Q 2 R e1 and R e2
Q 1 and Q 2
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VBB VCC1 VCC2
RC1 RC2
C1
C2
+ +
B1 B2
Q1 Q2
+ +
C
VCN1 E2 VCN2
+ E1 +
VBN1 VBN2
VEN1 Re1 Re2 VEN2
– – – N – – –
Q1
Q2
Q1 Q2
t t1
t t 1
V CN2 (t 1 ) V CC2 Q2
VBB VCC1
+
V EN1 (t 1 ) V BB V BE sat Q1
V BB V RC1
V C1
C 1 and B 2 B1
Q1
V CN1 (t 1 ) V BN2 (t 1 )
+
C
V E2
– E1
V EN1 V CE sat
Re2
VBB –V
V CN1 t 1 V BB V V CE sat N
t t1
E1 t t1
V BB V R e2
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V EN2
V EN2
t t 1 V EN2 Q2
V EN2 t 1 V BN2 V
V V BE
V EN2 t 1 V CN1 V V BN2 V CN1
V EN2 t 1 V BB V V CE sat V
t t1 Q2
E2 B2 Q2
R e2 V EN2
VC
t t1
E1 + – E2
V EN2 +
V EN2 V EN1 VEN1 VEN2 Re2
–
Q1 Q1
Q1
V CN1 V CN1 V BN2 V BN2
Q2 Q2
Q1 Q2 Q2
V BE2 Q2
I B2 Q2
I C2 Q2
t t 1
V CN2 t 1 V CC2 I C2 R C2
V CN1 t 1 V CC1 I B2 R C1
V BN2 t 1
Q2 Q1
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V EN2 t 1
V BN2 t 1 V BE2 t 1
V EN2 t 1 V CC1 I B2 R C1 V BE2 V EN1 t 1
t t1 V EN2 VD
V EN1
Q1ON Q1OFF Q1ON
Q2OFF Q2ACTIVE Q2OFF
VEN1
T1 T2
Re1C
V1
VD = V–Vr
VBB–V
VBB–V
VCN1,VBN2
VCC1–IB2RC1
VBB–V+VCE(sat)
VEN2
VCC1–IB2RC1–VBE2
VD
Re2C
VBB–V+VCE(sat)–V
VCN2
VCC2
VCC2–IC2RC2
t=t1 t=t2 Time
TM
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VD
V EN1 t 1 V EN1 t 1 V EN2 t 1 V EN2 t 1
V EN1 t 1 V EN2 t 1 V EN2 t 1 V EN1 t 1
V EN1 t 1 V CC1 I B2 R C1 V BE2 V BB V V CE sat V V BB V
V EN1 t 1 V CC1 I B2 R C1 V BE2 V CE sat V V 1
V1
Q2
I C2 h FE I B2
I C2
I B2 R C1 I B2
V CC1
V EN1 t 1
V EN2 t 1 V CC1
t t 1 R e1
I e1
V EN1 t 1 V CC1
VCC1 VCC2
R e1 R e1
RC1 RC2
IC2
R e2
I e2
V EN2 t 1 V CC1
Q1
IB2
R e2 R e2 OFF
+ IE2
C at t = t1
t t 1 Q1
I e1 and I e2 Q2 Ie2
Re1 Re2
Ie1
t t 1
R e1 and R e2
1 1
I C2 I E2 I e1 I e2 V CC1
R e1 R e2
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V CC1
I C2 R e R e1 || R e2
Re
V CC1
I B2
h FE R e
T1 t t2 t = t2 , Q 1
Q2 Q1
Q1 Q1
V EN1 t 2 V BB V
Q1 V EN1
Q1 V EN1 t t2
V EN2 t t2
t t2 T2
t t1
t t1 V EN1 V EN1
V1 R e1
R e1 C V BB V
Q1 T1
VC V f V f V i e t /T
VC V BB V , t T1 , V f 0, Vi V1
V BB V 0 0 V 1 e T1 / R e1 C
V BB V
e T1 /R e1 C
V1
T1 V BB V
ln
R e1 C V1
T1 V1
ln
R e1 C V BB V
TM
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V1
T1 R e1 C ln
V BB V
I B2 R C1 I B2 R C1 V CC1
V
T1 R e1 C ln CC1
V
BB
T2
V CC1
T2 R e2 C ln
V BB
V
T1 T2 R e1 R e2 C ln CC1
V
BB
1 1
T V
R e1 R e2 C ln VCC1
BB
V CC1 and V BB
V CC
V BB R 1 and R 2
Q1
V CC
V BB R2
R1 R2
C V BB C
TM
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VCC
R1 R' Rc2
R"
Q1 Q2
+
VBB
R2 C'
Re1 Re2
V CC2 V CC
R R
R C1
R R
V CC R V R
V CC1 BB
R R R R
Q2 Q2
Q2
Q1
TM
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C 1 and C 2
T1 and T2
Q 1 and Q 2
Q1 Q2
R e1 and R e2
T1 and T2
VCC 30 V R 2 2 R 1 R
RC 2 0.22 k R R 11
. k R e 1 R e 2 3.3 k
h FE 30
V V BE2 V V CE sat
V CC2 V CC
R 2 V CC 2
V BB 30
R1 R2 3
R R 1 1
V CC1 V V 30 20
R R CC R R BB 2 2
R R
R C1 550
R R
Q1 Q2
V CC1
I C2 R e R e1 || R e2 1.65 k
Re
TM
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25
I C2
1.65 10 3
I C2 15.15
I B2
h FE 30
I B2 R C1 0.505 0.55 0.277
I C2 R C2 . 0.22 3.33
1515
V EN1 V1
V1 V CC1 I B2 R C1 V BE2 V CE sat V
25 0.277 0.6 0.3 0.5
V EN1
V EN1 (t 1 ) V BB V 20 0.7 19.3
V CN1 ( t 1 ) V BB V V CE sat 20 07
. 0.3 19.6
V CN1 ( t 1 ) V CC1 I B2 R C1 25 0.277 24.723 V
V CN1 V BN2
V EN2 ( t 1 ) V BN2 ( t 1 ) V 19.6 0.5 19.1 V
V EN2 ( t 1 ) V CC1 I B2 R C1 V BE2 25 0.277 0.6 24.123 V
VD V EN2 ( t 1 ) V EN2 ( t 1 ) 5.023 V
1 1
T T1 T2
V1 24.323
T1 R e1 C ln 3.3 10 3 0.1 10 6 ln
V BB V 0.5
20
T2 T1 R e1 R e2
1
2 T1
T
TM
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+VCC
Use of
complementary
RC R1 transistors
C2
Q1
(n-p-n) Q2
C1 (p-n-p)
R2 RC
+VCC
RC R
C1
Q2
(p-n-p)
R1
Q1
(n-p-n)
C2 R2 RC
C1
Input –VBB
trigger
TM
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+VCC
RC
R1
Q1 R1
Q2
(npn)
(pnp)
R2 R2
RC
set –VBB Reset Vo
Q2
RE
RE
R C1 R C2
VCC
RC1 C1 RC2
iC1 iC2
+
R1
Q1 Q2
Vo Output
Input
Vi
iE RE R2
N
–
TM
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Vi Q2
Vi 0 Q1
+VCC
+
RC1 RC2 C2 RC2
R1 C2 –
+ + Vo
Q1
OFF B + 2 B2 –
VB2
VCE2(sat)
Vi VBE2
–
+
VE RE R2
2
E2–
Vo VCC IC 2 R 2
Q1 i C1 R C1 Q2
VE Q1 Q1
Q2
V CC
TM
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V CC i C2 R C2 to V CC
Vi
V CC
+VCC
RC1 RC2
R1
C1
Q1
2
Vo
VBE1 VC1
Vi
VB2
RE V ' R2
E
E1
V E
V E V i V BE1
RE RE
V CC to V CC i C2 R C2
Vi
Vi
TM
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Vi (Input)
UTP VBE1 + VE
LTP '
VBE1 + V E
t
VE > V 'E
Vo (output)
VCC
VCC – iC2RC2
t
0
Vo
Hysteresis loop
VCC
VCC – IC2RC2
Vi
LTP UTP
TM
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R C1 and R C2
RE
I B2 I C2 V EN2 .
V EN2 V 1
V1
V EN2 V 1
VCC
RC2
IC2
Rs RTH
Q1 Q2 – +
+ OFF ON +
V1 VBE2 IB2
– –
+
UTP + VTH
RE (IC2 + IB2) –
VEN2
– = (1 +hFE)IB2
V CC R 2 R 2 R 1 R C1
V TH R TH
R C1 R 1 R 2 R C1 R 1 R 2
TM
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–V BE2 – 1 h FE I B2 R E V TH – I B2 R TH
V TH – V BE2
I B2
R TH 1 h FE R E
V TH – V BE2 1 h FE R E
V EN2 1 h FE I B2 R E R TH 1 h FE R E
V EN2 V 1
V EN1 V 2
Vt VCC
IC1 = hFEIB1
R
0A
C1
Rs
Q1 ON Q2 OFF
+ + +
IB1 VBE1 V 2
– –
LTP +
(IC1 + IB1)
RE aVCN1
= (1 + hFE)IB1
– –
V CC R 1 R 2 R C1 R 1 R 2 C1 R1
R C1 R 1 R 2 R C1 R 1 R 2
B2
VCN1
R2
VBN2
N
R2
V BN2 V
R 1 R 2 CN1
TM
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V BN2 a V CN1
R2
R1 R2
–a V CN1 + 1 h FE I B1 R E V 2
V CN1 V t – I C1 R V t – h FE I B1 R
–a V t – h FE I B1 R 1 h FE I B1 R E V 2
–a V t I B1 a R h FE 1 h FE R E V 2
a Vt – V2
I B1
a R h FE 1 h FE R E
a Vt – V2 1
I C1 h FEI B1
a R h FE 1 h FE R E 1
h FE
a Vt – V2
I C1
1
a R 1 R E
h FE
R2 V R R 2
aV t CC 1
R 1 R 2 R C1 R 1 R 2
1
1 R E RE
h FE
V TH – V 2
I C1
a R + RE
– I B1 R s – V BE1 – 1 h FE I B1 R E LTP
I C1
V BE1 + I B1 R s 1 h FE R E
h FE
I C1
V BE1 +
h FE
R s 1 h FE R E
TM
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Rs
V TH – V 2 h RE
V BE1 + FE
a R RE
Arbitrary
input
UTP
LTP
Output
VCC
Squared waveform
t
0
TM
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VE
I E2
V CC V E V CE2 (sat)
I C2 (on)
I E2
10
V B2
I2
I C2
h fe (min)
V CC V B2
R C1 R 1
V CC V B2
I 2 I B2
TM
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+VCC
RC1 C1+1
C1
+ R1
Vi = VB1
RE R2 VB2 = VB1
E1 1
V B2
R2
V B1 V BE1
RE
V CC I 1 [R 1 R C1 R 2 ]
I C1
I C1 I B1 R e1
TM
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VCC
C1
RC1 RC2
+
Vo
R1 –
Q2
Q1 OFF
Re1
ON
Vin
RE
R2
(IC1 + IB1)
VCC
C1
RC1 RC2
+
R1 Vo
Q2 –
Q1
Re2
OFF
Vin
RE R2
(IC2 + IB2)
VCC
RC2 IC2
RTH
Q2
ON + – +
Q1 Re2 IB2
– VBE2
OFF +
– + VTH
+
–
VEN2 RE (IC2 + IB2)
–
TM
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V TH – V BE2 R TH R E 1 h FE R e2 1 h FE I B2
V TH – V BE2
I B2
R TH 1 h FE R E R e2
V EN2 1 h FE I B2 R E
V TH – V BE2 1 h FE R E
V EN2
R TH 1 h FE R E R e2
V EN2 V 1
IC 2
Vi V B2 Q2
VE V i V BE1 V B2 V BE2
I C2 I E2
VE 4.3
RE
I E2 1 10 3
I C2 R C2 V CC V E V CE2 (sat) V CE2 (sat)
1 10 3 R C2
R C2
TM
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1
I2 I C2 1 10 3 1 10 4
10
V B2 5
R2
I2 1 10 4
I C2 1 10 3
I B2
h fe (min) 100
V CC V B2
I 2 I B2
R C1 R 1
12 5
R C1 R 1 10 3
4
1 10 10 10 6
V B2 V B1
V B2 3
I1
R2 50 10 3
V B1 V BE1 3 0.7
I C1 I E1 5.348 10 4
RE 4.3 10 3
V CC R C1 [I C1 I 1 ] I 1 (R 1 R 2 )
V CC I C1 R C1 I 1 (R C R 1 ) + I 1 R 2
5.348 10 4 R C1 60 10 6 63.6363 10 3 60 10 6 50 10 3
R C1
R1 63.6363 10 3 9.6892 10 3
Vo V CC I C2(on) R C2 12 1 10 3 7.5 10 3
Vo V CC
TM
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VCC
RC1 = 9.68 k
C1
IC1 RC2 =7.5 k
IC2
+
R1 = 53.94 k
Q1 Q2
Vo Output
Input
Vi
IE RE = 43 k R2 = 50 k
N
–
Vin
UTP 5V
LTP 3V
VPP = 12 V t
0
Vo
Vsat
0 t
TM
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4.3 k 15.5 k 0.1I C2
50 k 16.48 k
C1
TM
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R B1 R B2
B2 B1
R B1 R B2
VD
B2
B2
RB2
D
E p E A
n VD
RB1
B1
B1
(a) Structure (b) Equivalent circuit
B1 B2 R BB
R BB R B1 R B2
V BB
IE 0
R BB R B1 R B2
R B1
R B1 V BB
V RB1 V BB IE 0
R B1 R B2
TM
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R B1
R B1 R B2 I 0
E
R B1
R BB I 0
E
B2
+
RB2
VD
E RBB
+ VBB = RB1 + RB2
IE when IE = 0
VE
RB1
– –
B1
V RB1
V RB1
B2
V BB B2 B1
n
VE
RB2
E p A +
VBB
VE
–
RB1
VE VA
V BB
V E VA
VE VA B1
IE
TM
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VE VP
VD
VP V A V D V BB V D
VE VP
IE
V BB V BB
VE Negative
Cut-off resistance Saturation
region region region
VP
Peak
point
VBE=10 V
Valley point
VE(sat)
VV
IE(mA)
0 IP IV 50
IEO (A)
VE VP
I E0
VE VP
IE
R B1
IE IV
VV
TM
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R B1
V BB VP
VBB
R R2
VE
E
vo
vC +
C R1
–
V BB
VP
VP V BB + V D
VD
vC VP
R 1 R B1 R B1
R B1 R1
R1
R1 VV v C VE V V
TM
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CR 1
Charging Discharging
vC
VP
VV
t
0 T
vo UJT ON
t
0
UJT OFF
R2 R1
v C(t)
V V V BB 1 e t / RC
v C(t) VP
VP
V V V BB 1 e T / RC
VP
V BB + V D
V V V BB 1 e T / RC
V D and V V
1 e T / RC
1
Tc RC ln
1
1 1
fo
T 1
RC ln
1
fo
R 100 k C 0.01F
TM
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1
RC ln
1
100 10 3 0.01 10 6 ln
1
1 0.8
1.6 10 3
1 1
fo
T 1.6 10 3
IE IP
V BB V P IPR
V BB V P
R
IP
IE IV
R IVR
V BB V V IVR
V BB V V
R
IV
R
V BB V P V BB V V
IP IV
0 .1 VBB 20 V
V V , VD
VP V BB + V D = 0.6 20 + 0.7
VP
V V V BB 1 e T / RC
VV R 10 10 3 , C = 0.1 F
1.5 20 1 e
T/ 10 10 3 0.1 106
1 e T / 0.001
TM
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e T / 0.001
T
ln ( 0.44)
0.001
8.209 10 4 sec
1 1
fo 1.218 kHz
T 8.209 10 4
VYY VBB
R R2
vo
vC
C R1
Ts
RC
V YY
ln
V
YY V BB Ts
8RC
Ts
2RC
dv s t
e t/ RC
dt RC
TM
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k F
1 1 1
fo
T 1 1
RC ln 100 10 3 0.4 10 6 ln
1 1 0.57
1 1 1
T 1 1
RC ln 100 10 3 0.01 10 6 ln
1 1 0.5
1 1
ln [5 10 3 0.05 10 6 ] ln
1 0.62
1
1 1
T 0.2419 10 3
1
50
1
ln
1 0.62
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
1
10 6 ln
1 0.62
VP
V BB
V BB V D
VP
V BB
1 1
ln 100 10 3 0.4 10 6 ln
1 1 0.57
1
T
1
R 0.5 10 6 ln
1 0.57
VBB VP
VV IP IV
V BB V P 20 2.9
R R 10.688 k
IP 1.6 10 3
V BB V V 20 1.118
R R 5.395 k
IV 3.5 10 3
5.395 k R 10.688 k
1
f0
1
RC ln
1
TM
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1 1 1
f0 R ln 500 10 10 3 ln 4.58 10 6
RC 1 1 0.6
2.1834 10 – 7 0.22 F
R1 R2
R1
Vo 5V
R1 22.7 22
I 220 10 3
V R2 V BB V R1 5 V 20 5 5 10 V
V R2 10 V 10 V
R2 45 51
I I 220 10 3
TM
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R
Vin Vo
+ –
3 V– 2V
+
TM
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Vo
Input
+ 10 V
3V
Output
0 t
–2V
– 10 V
TM
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C
+ +
Vi D RL Vo
– –
1 1
f 75 10 3
10 10 3 C 1
10 6 10 10 3
TM
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Rr
Rf
(1 e T /2RC )
200
(1 e T /2RC )
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TM
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Output
Rounding
0.35 0.35
tr
BW 35 10 9
TM
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5 s.
1
50 s
f
50 s
TON 5 s
TON 5 10 –6
100 100
T 50 10 –6
tr 2.2 1.5 10 3 0.2 10 6
TM
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Vo
Hysteresis
loop
Vin
LTP UPT
R B1
R B1 R B2 I 0
E
R B1
R BB I 0
E
0.22 F
TM
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1 1
1 1
R e C e ln 10.7 10 3 0.22 10 6 ln
1 1 0.56
k
1 1
fo
T 1
RC ln
1
1
fo
1
100 10 3 0.4 10 6 ln
1 0.57
s
Ts
RC
Ts 20 s
es 0.2
1 10 4
1 10 3
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
Voltage amplifiers
Power amplifier
Microphone Loudspeaker
(Human speaker)
Number of stages
TM
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TM
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TM
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VCC
RC IC
IC IE
VCE
+
RB
VCE
VCC – I C R C – VCE + –
– +
VCC I C R C VCE VBB VCC
RC
1 VCC
IC – R C VCE RC
IC VCE
1 VCC
RC RC
VCE VCC IC
VCC
VCE IC
RC
C
1
VCC Load line, slope = –
RC
RC B = 50 A
B = 40 A
IB Q point B = 30 A (BQ)
CQ
B = 20 A
B = 10 A
VCE
0 VCEQ VCC
TM
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I CQ V CEQ
(V CEQ , I CQ ) I BQ
I BQ
I CQ
V CEQ IC VCE
IB IC VCE
IBQ ICQ VCEQ
t t t
(a) (b) (c)
IB IC VCE
IC VCE IB
C
BQ
B = 50 A
Input B = 40 A
CQ Q B = 30 A (BQ)
B = 20 A
Collector
B = 10 A
current
swing VCEQ Load line
VCE
0
Collector voltage swing
I B IC VCE
TM
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180º
360º
360º
B
BQ 1 cycle 360º
Bmax
C BQ t
0
VCC Load line B4
RC C
max B3
1 cycle 360º
Bmin
Q B2 = BQ
CQ CQ t
B1 0
min
VCE
Collector VCE
current flow 0 VCC
for 360º Vmin
VCEQ t
0
Vmax
VCEQ 1 cycle 360º
TM
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180º
180º
B
C
VCC BQ
Load line t
RL 0
1 cycle 360º
Collector current
flow for 180º C Cmax
Cmax
CQ t
Q point (VCC,0 ) 0
VCE 1\2 cycle
0 180º
Vmin VCE
VCEQ t
0
VCC = VCEQ
VCEmin
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B 1 cycle 360º
C
VCC BQ t
Load line
RL
Less than
180º
Collector current C
flow for < 180º
max
CQ t
VCC
VCE
0
Q point
VCE
Vmin
VCEQ t
Conduction
for < 180º
Less than
180º
180º
+VCC
Parallel
resonant C L
circuit CC
Vin Q
RFC RL Vo
(radio
frequency
choke)
–VBB
TM
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180º
360º
B 1 cycle 360º
C
VCC BQ
Load line t
RC
max
C Greater than
180º
CQ Q point CQ t
VCE
0 VCC
Collector current
flow is > 180º VCE
but < 360º Vmin
VCEQ t
VCEQ
Greater than
180º
TM
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360º Less than
180º 180º Greater than 180º
TM
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+VCC
RL
RB IB IC
Q VCE
+
RB
Vin VBE
–
TM
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C
VCC
max RL
) BQ
m CQ Q (V CEQ, CQ
t
min
VCE
0 VCEQ VCC
Vm
Vmin
Vmax
t
VCC I C R L VCE
IC R L VCE VCC
1 VCC
IC – R L VCE RL
1 VCC
–
RL RL
RC RL
VCC RB
I BQ
VCC – 0 . 7
I BQ
RB
I CQ I BQ
TM
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V CEQ V CC – I CQ R L
V CEQ I CQ
I CQ
PDC VCC I CQ
Vmin
Vmax
Vpp
Vpp Vmax – Vmin
Vm
Vpp Vmax – Vmin
Vm
2 2
TM
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I min
I max
I pp
I pp I max – I min
Im
I pp I max – I min
Im
2 2
Vm
Vrms
2
Im
I rms
2
Vrms I rms R L
Vm Im R L
Pac Vrms I rms
Pac I 2rms R L
2
Vrms
Pac
RL
Vm Im
Pac V rms I rms
2 2
Vm I m
Pac
2
I 2m R L
Pac
2
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2
Vm
Pac
2RL
V pp I pp
Vm I m 2 2
Pac
2 2
Vpp I pp
Pac
8
I 2pp R L
Pac
8
2
Vpp
Pac
8RL
Vpp Vmax – Vmin I pp I max – I min
(Vmax – Vmin ) (I max I min )
Pac
8
Pac
100
Pdc
Pac Pdc
(Vmax – Vmin ) (I max I min )
100
8 V CC I CQ
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VCC
I CQ
C
VCC
max=2CQ RL
2CQ Q (VCEQ, CQ)
CQ
VCC
VCE
min= 0 0
Vmin= 0
Vmax= VCC
V max V CC and V min 0
for maximum swing
I max 2 I CQ and I min 0
( V CC 0) ( 2 I CQ 0) 2 V CC I CQ
max 100 100
8 V CC I CQ 8 V CC I CQ
Pdc Pac
TM
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Pd
Pd PDC – Pac
V CC I CQ
(Pd )max V CC I CQ
I CQ
VCEQ
PDC
Pac
VBE
TM
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20 V
16
1.5 k
Vo
Q
Vin CC
V CC V BE 20 0.7
I CQ I BQ
RB 1.5 10 3
I CQ I BQ 50 12.87
V CEQ V CC I CQ R L V CEQ
V CEQ V CC I CQ R L 20 643.50 10 3 16
PDC PDC V CC I CQ 20 643.5 10 3
Pac ib
ic ib 50 9
i c (peak) 450
i c(rms) I rms
2 2
Pac I 2rms R L (318.19 10 –3 ) 2 16
Pac 1.619
100 100
PDC 12.87
TM
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+VCC= 30 V
RL = 20
1 k
Q, = 30
Vin
TM
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R'L
I1 I2
RL +
V1 N1 N2 V2 RL= Load
resistance
–
N2
N1
N2 N1
N1 N2
V2 N2
V1 N1
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
I2 N1 1
I1 N2 n
RL
RL
R 'L
V2 V1
R 'L
I2 I1
N1 N2
I
N2 N1 2
N1
V2 2
N2 N1 V2 RL RL
R 'L
N2 N2 I2 2
n2
I N2
N1 2
N1
2
RL N1
R 'L RL
n2 N2
R 'L
R 'L
RL
R 'L RL
TM
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RL N1 N2
N2 20
N1 200
RL 4
R 'L
n 2
( 0 . 1) 2
N2 N1 R 'L RL
. .
RL R 'L
RL
R 'L
n2
RL 8
R 'L 648
N2
N1
N1
N2
N1
N2
N2 N 1
N1 N2
N2 1
N1 10
RL
TM
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+VCC
N1 N2
V1
V2 Loudspeaker
RB
RL
C
Q
Vin
N2 N1
.
VCC – VCE
V CC V CE
V CEQ
V CEQ VCC
V CEQ V CC
I CQ
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
I CQ
PDC VCC I CQ
RL
R 'L
1
R'
L
C A.C.
load line D.C. load line
–1 (VCEQ=VCC) B3
Slope=
max RL '
)
CQ Q (V CEQ, CQ B2 = BQ
B1
min VCC
VCE
0
Vmin
Vmax
I CQ
V CEQ V CC
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
R 'L
RL
I 21rms RL
2
V1rms
R L
V 1 m I 1 m V1m I 1m
2 2 2
2
I 1m R L
2
2
V1m
2 R L
I 2rms
2
V2rms
Pac V2rms I 2rms I 22rms R L
RL
V2m I 2m I 22m R L 2
V2m
Pac
2 2 2RL
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
1 I 1m
R L V1m
(Vmax – Vmin ) (I max – I min )
Pac
8
Pac (Vmax – Vmin ) (I max – I min )
100 100
Pdc 8 V CC I CQ
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
C
max D.C. load line
2CQ Q (VCC, CQ)
CQ
A.C. load line
VCE
min= 0 0 Vm VCC 2VCC
Vmin= 0
Vmax= 2VCC
V min 0 and V max 2 V CC
for maximum swing
I min 0 and I max 2I CQ
(2V CC – 0) (2I CQ – 0)
max 100
8 V CC I CQ
4 V CC I CQ
100
8 V CC I CQ
V min V max V CC
V1m
TM
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V max – Vmin
V CC
2
V1m VCC
I 1m I CQ
V1m V CC
R L
I 1m I CQ
2
1 V CC
2 RL
Pd PDC – Pac
(Pd ) max V CC I CQ
TM
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RL I CQ V CC Pac
N1
N2
N1 N2 1
N2 N1 3
RL 8
R L
n 2
( 0 . 333) 2
Pac
2 2
V1rms V1rms
Pac
R L 72
TM
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2
V1rms V1rms
V 2rms
(V1 ) rms N1 3
(V2 ) rms N2 1
(V1 ) rms 5.8787
(V2 ) rms
3 3
(V1 ) rms
(V1 ) rms
I 22rms R L
I 22rms 8 I 22rms
I 2 rms
RL
R L
(I 1 ) rms N2
(I 2 ) rms N1
(I 1 ) rms (I 2 ) rms n 0. 2449 0 . 333
PDC V CC I CQ 10 140 10 –3
Pac 0.48
100 100
Pdc 1. 4
Pd PDC Pac
TM
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2
V CC (20) 2
2 RL 2 RL
RL
RL 4
RL
2 n2
n
N2
N1
N1
N2
I 21m RL I 21m 40
2 2
Pac 5
100 100
Pdc 10
VCC I CQ 5 A
n2 / n1
V CC I CQ n2 : n1 RL
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
n2
n1
RL 40
RL 4
n 2 (3.16) 2
PDC V CC I CQ 20 5
2
1 V CC
Pac
2 RL
1 ( 20) 2
2 4
Pac 50
% 100 100
PDC 100
VCC
4.7 k R1 RL = 5.6
R2 Re
3.7 k Ce
1 k
+ VCC
R1 +
V CC V CE IC Rpri
– 4.7 k –
R pri R e R pri R e
+
VCE
–
R2 Re
V CC 13 3.7 k 1 k IE
R pri R e 40 1 10 3
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
RL
RL Ns 14
RL
n 2 Np 74
5.6
RL 156.4574
0.189189 2
For a.c.
VCC is
R1 RL'
ic grounded
+
Vce
–
R2 Re bypassed
by Ce
RL
–V ce
R -L
V CE Q V CE
–
RL RL
V CEQ
RL
RL
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
1
–
RL
1
156.4574
IC
(mA)
18 A.C. load line
Slope – — 1
16
RL'
14
12.5 mA
12
10
8
ICQ Q D.C. load
6
line
4
2
VCE
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
VCEQ 13 V = VCC
VCEQ + ICQRL'
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
ic ib
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
2 nd 3 rd
sin t sin 2t sin 3t
t t t t
nd rd
(a) Fundamental (b) 2 Harmonic (c) 3 Harmonic (d) Distorted waveform
B1 n th
Bn
th
n
Bn
n th Dn 100
B1
B2 B3
D2 D3
B1 B1
D 22 D 23 D 24 ... 100
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
IC
Linear
Nonlinear
0 IB
ib I Bm cos t
ib ic
ic G1 i b G 2 i 2b
G 1 I Bm cos t G 2 I 2Bm cos 2 t
1 cos 2 t
cos 2 t
2
1 cos 2 t
ic G 1 I Bm cos t G 2 I 2Bm
2
1 G2 2
ic G 1 I Bm cos t G I2 I t
2 2 Bm 2 Bm
ic B0 B1 cos t B2 cos 2 t
I CQ
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
ic
Imax
1
ICQ D.C. bias
2 value
Imin 3
t
/2
ic I CQ B0 B1 cos t B2 cos 2 t
I CQ B0
B1
B2
t
ic I CQ B0 B1 B2
t
2
ic I CQ B0 – B2
t
ic I CQ B0 – B1 B2
t ic I max
t i I CQ
2 c
ic I min
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
I max I CQ B0 B1 B2
I CQ I CQ B0 – B2
I min I CQ B0 – B1 B2
B0 B2
I max I min B1
I max – I min
B1
2
I max I min I CQ 2B0 2B2
I CQ 2B2 2B2 B0 B2
I CQ B2
I max I min – 2 I CQ
B2
4
B2
D2 100
B1
I 2m R L
Pac
2
Im
I pp I max – I min
2 2
I max – I min
B1
2
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
Im B1
1 2
Pac B R
2 1 L
(Pac ) D
1 2 1 1
B R B2 R B2 R
2 1 L 2 2 L 2 3 L
1 2 B2 B2
(Pac ) D B1 R L 1 2 3
2 B12 B12
1 2
(Pac ) D B R L (1 D 22 D 23 )
2 1
(Pac ) D Pac [1 D 2 ] D22 D23
ic G1 i b G 2 i 2b G 3 i 3b G 4 i 4b
ib I Bm cos t
ic G1 I Bm cos t G 2 I Bm cos 2 t G 3 I Bm cos 3 t G 4 I Bm cos 4 t
cos 2 t cos 3 t cos 4 t
ic B0 B1 cos t B2 cos 2 t B3 cos 3 t B4 cos 4 t
4 th
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
ic
Imax
1
I1/2 2
ICQ 3
D.C. bias
value
4
I–1/2
5
Imin
t
2
3 2 3
ic I CQ B0 B1 cos t B2 cos 2t B3 cos 3t B4 cos 4t
I CQ B0
B1 B2 B 3 B4
t ic I max
I max I CQ B0 B1 B2 B3 B4
t ic I 1/ 2
I 1/ 2 I CQ B0 B1 B2 B3 B4
t ic I CQ
2
I CQ I CQ B0 B2 B4
2
t ic I – 1
3 2
I– 1 I CQ B0 B1 B2 B3 B4
2
t ic I min
I min I CQ B0 B1 B2 B3 B4
B0 B1 B2 B 3 B4
TM
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1
B0 [I 2 I 1 2 I 1 I min ]
6 max 2 2
1
B1 [I I –I – I min ]
3 max 1 2 –1
2
1
B2 [I – 2 I CQ I min ]
4 max
1
B3 [I – 2 I 1 2 I – 1 – I min ]
6 max 2 2
1
B4 [I – 4 I 1 6 I CQ – 4 I – 1 I min ]
12 max 2 2
Bn
Dn
B1
1 2
Pac B R
2 1 L
1 2 1 1 1
(Pac ) D B R B2 R B2 R ... B2n R L
2 1 L 2 2 L 2 3 L 2
1 2 B2 B2 B2
B1 R L 1 2 3 ... n
2 B12 B12 B12
(Pac ) D Pac [1 D 22 D 23 D 2n ]
D2 D 22 D 23 ... D 2n
(Pac ) D Pac D2
(Pac ) D Pac (0.15) 2 Pac
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
RL I CQ
I CQ B0
B0
B0 B2
(Pac ) D
1 2 1 2
(Pac ) D B R B R
2 1 L 2 2 L
1
R L [ B12 B22 ]
2
1
6 10 3 [ B12 (5 10 –3 ) 2 ]
2
B 21 9 . 75 10 –4
B1
B2 5 10 –3
D2 10 –3
B1 31 . 225
B0 1.5 mA B 3 4 mA B 1 mA B 4 2 mA
B2 mA B5 1 mA
TM
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B2 10
D2
B1 120
B3 4
D3
B1 120
B4 2
D4
B1 120
B5 1
D5
B1 120
D 22 D 23 D 24 D 52 100
0.0833 2 0.0333 2 0.01667 2 0.00833 2 100
D 3 and D 5
D 23 D 52 100 0.033 2 0.00833 2 100
t t t t
Bn
B1
B2 1 .5
B1 15
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
B3 1.2
B1 15
B4 0.5
B1 15
[1+ D 22 D 23 D 24 ...+D 2n ]
D 22 D 23 D 24
(Pac ) D Pac
100
Pac
1. 0175Pac Pac
100
Pac
2 100t
i 2b
t
t I 2Bm t
1 cos 2 t
t I 2Bm
2
1 1
I 2Bm t I 2Bm t
2 2
t t
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
1 1
I 2Bm 1000 (10 10 3 ) 2
2 2
50 10 10 3
|B 2| 0 . 05
|B 1| 0 .5
0 . 1 100
Q1 Q2
Q1 Q2
VCC
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
+VCC
1
A ib1 L
Q1
+VCC
N1
N2 Load
Vi RL
N1
Q2
B ib2
Driver Output
transformer 2 transformer
Push-pull circuit
VCC
Q1 Q2
+ VCC
ic1
+
A
Q1 ib1
Q2 Q1
conducts –
i b1 i b2
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
i c1
+ VCC
–
i c2
B
ib2
+
Q2
ic2
conducts
is
Q2
t
Q1
ib1
i b2
i b1
t
ib2
i c2
t
i c1 ic1
t
ic2
t
iL
t
N1
N2
N1 N1 N2
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
V CEQ V CC
I CEQ
VCC
Im
Im
Im Im 2 Im
I dc
2I m
Pdc VCC I dc V CC
Q1 Q2
Q1
N1
Q2
N1
RL N2
R L
n 2 N1
2N 1 : N 2 n = N2 / N1
R L
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
IC
A.C. load line D.C. load line
slope –1/RL'
Imax
Im Q(VCC,0)
0 IBEQ=0 VCE
Vm
VCC
Vmin
Vm
Im
1 Im Vm
R L
RL Vm Im
Im
Im Vm
Vm Im
Vrms I rms
2 2
2
Vrms
Pac Vrms I rms I 2rms R 'L
R 'L
Vm I m I 2m RL Vm2
Pac
2 2 2 R L
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
Vm I m
Pac
100 2 100
PDC 2
V I
CC m
Vm
100
4 VCC
IC
Vm
Vm
VCC
VCE
0 VCC
Vm V CC Vm = VCC
Maximum output
VCC voltage swing
max 100
4 VCC
V CE min
Vm V CE min
V m V CC V CE min
TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
2 V I
Pd Pdc – Pac V I – m m
CC m 2
2 V V2
Pd VCC m – m
R L 2R L
Vm
Vm
dPd 2 VCC 2Vm 2 VCC Vm
–
dVm R L 2R L R L R L
2
Vm V
CC
2
VCC 2
VCC 2
VCC
2 2 VCC 4 4 2
(Pd ) max V
CC R L 2 2 R L 2 R L 2 R L
2
VCC
2
(Pd ) max
2 R L
Vm2
Pac Vm V CC
2 R L
2
VCC
(Pac ) max
2 R L
4 V CC
2
2VCC 2
4
(Pd ) max (Pac ) max
2
R L 2 2 R L
2
(Pd ) max / 2
TM
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4
( Pac ) max 2
2 ( Pac ) max
(Pd ) max 2
2
i b1 I Bm i b2 I Bm
i c1 I CQ B0 B1 cos t B2 cos 2 t B3 cos 3 t ...
i b2 I Bm I Bm (t )
t i c1
i c2 I CQ B0 B1 cos (t ) B2 cos 2 (t ) .. .
I CQ B0 – B1 cos t +B2 cos 2 t – B3 cos 3 t .. .
iL i c1 i c2
(I CQ B0 B1 cos t B2 cos 2 t B3 cos 3 t ... )
I CQ B0 – B1 cos t B2 cos 2 t – B3 cos 3 t ...
iL 2 B1 cos t 2 B3 cos 3 t ...
2 nd 4 th 6 th
B3 B5
D3 100 D5 100
B1 B1
D 23 D 25 D 27 ... 100
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12.
N2 1
R 12 trans
L N1 3
RL
RL 108
(n) 2
Pmax V m V CC
1 (V CC ) 2 1 ( 20 ) 2
( Pac ) max
2 RL 2 108
trans
PL trans ( Pac ) max 0.785 1.8518
2
( Pd ) max Vm V
CC
2
2 V CC 2 ( 20 ) 2
( Pd ) max
2 RL 2 108
0.7505
( Pd ) max
2
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Vm Im Vm Im
( Pac ) max Vm V CC
2 2 2
20 I m
1.8518 Im ( i c ) max
2
(i c ) max 0.1851
( i b ) max
h fe 25
RL VCC
N1 N2 N1
N2 50
N1 100
RL 16
R L
n 2 . )2
( 05
Vm VCC
2 2
1 VCC 1 ( 25)
(Pac ) max
2 R' 2 64
L
2
Pdc V I
CC m
Vm
R L Vm VCC
Im
VCC 25
Im
R L 64
2
PDC 25 0 . 3906
Pac 4.8828
100 100
PDC 6.2169
2 2
(Pd ) max (Pac ) max
2
2
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N2 40
N1 80
RL 8
RL
2 (0.5) 2
n
2
1 V CC
2 RL
2
1 V CC
2 32
2
V CC 2 32
Vm
Im
Vm 20
RL 16
2 2
V I 25 1. 25
CC m
V mI m 20 1. 25
2 2
Pac 12 . 5
% 100 100
PDC 19 . 8943
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1 th
5
N1
N2
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+VCC
Q1
+
IL
Vin RL
Vo
Q2
–
–VCC
VCC Q1
Q2
Q1
Q2
RL
+VCC
Q1 Conducts
Positive
half cycle
+
Vin RL
– Load
voltage
Q2 OFF –VCC
Q2
Q1 Q2
RL
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+VCC
Load
Q1 OFF voltage
t
+
Vin RL
– Load
voltage
Q1 ON Q1 OFF
Q2 ON Q2 OFF Q2 ON
–VCC
(a) Negative half cycle operation (b) Load voltage waveform
RL
R L
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2 2
1 VCC 1 VCC
( Pac ) max
2 RL 2 RL
VCC
+VCC = +15 V
Q1
Vin
RL= 4
Q2
–VCC = –15 V
VCC RL
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R L RL
2
1 VCC 1 (15) 2
(Pac ) max
2 RL 2 4
Vm VCC
Vm
RL
Im
Vm VCC 15
Im
RL RL 4
2 2
PDC V I 15 3 . 75
CC m
Pd PDC Pac
Pac 28 . 125
100
PDC 35 . 809
2 2
Vm V 15
CC
Vm 9.5492
Im
RL 4
2 2
PDC V I 15 2.3873
CC m
1 Vm2 1 ( 9 . 5492) 2
Pac
2 RL 2 4
(Pd ) max PDC Pac
11.39
(Pd ) max
2
2
(Pd ) max (Pac ) max
2
2
28 . 125
2
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(Pd ) max
Pac under (Pd ) max 11.398
100 100
Pdc under (Pd ) max 22.797
RL 8 ,
PD
RL 8 V CC 12 V
2
1 V CC 1 ( 1 2 )2
( Pac ) max
2 RL 2 8
Im
PDC V CC I DC I DC 2
I
V CC 2 m
Vm Vm
RL Im Vm V CC
Im RL
V CC 1 ( 1 2 )2 2
PDC V CC 2
RL 8
PD PDC Pac
2 . 4591
PD
2
Pac 9
% 100 100
PDC 11.4591
VCC 10 V RL 5 .
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V CC RL 5
2
1 V CC ( 1 0 )2
( Pac ) max
2 RL 2 5
( PD ) max
2
( PD ) max V m V
CC
Vm Vm 6.3662
RL Im
Im RL 5
2I m 2I m
PDC V CC I DC V CC I DC
10 2 1.2732
V mI m 6.3662 1.2732
Pac
2 2
( PD ) max PDC Pac
( PD ) max
PD
2
( Pac ) max Vm V CC
Vm 10
Im
RL 5
2I m 10 2 2
PDC V CC
PDC
Pac RL 8
Pac
2 2
1 V CC 1 V CC
Pac max 2 RL 2
8
2
V CC V CC
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Vm 17.888
RL
Im Im
Im
2 2
PDC V I
CC m
Pac 20
% 100
PDC 25.464
2 2
Vm V
CC
Vm 11.3878
Im
RL 8
2 2
PDC V I
CC m
2
2
1 Vm 1 11.3878
Pac
2 RL 2 8
Pd max PDC Pac
Pd max
2
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180
V
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Input
signal
+V
t
–V
Output
signal
t
Both
transistors
OFF
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+VCC
Q1
Vin +VD RL
Q2
+ Transistors are
VD biased to conduction
D
– to eliminate distortion
C
Q
Slight shift
in Q point
VCE
0
Q1
Q2
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+VCC
R1
Q1
+
0.7 V – Coupling
CC condenser
1.4 V R2
0.7 V +
Vin RL
– Q2
R3
–VCC
R2
+ VCC
R1
Q1
2 VBE = 2 VD +
+ VBE –
VD D1 CC
–
+
VD D2 VBE +
–
Vin RL
– Q2
R2
– VCC
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+VCC
Parallel
resonant C L
circuit CC
Vin Q
RFC RL Vo
(radio
frequency
choke)
–VBB
IC
VCC
RL Load line
Collector current
flow < 180º
Imax
VCC
VCE
0
Q point
Vmin
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RL
1
fr
2 LC
Gain Av Gain drops
on both
Av(max) sides of fr
f
fr
RS +VCC
RS RS
Series
resistance
of L
RS
RB
RS
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IC
VCC A.C.
load line
rc D.C.
load line
(vertical)
V CE 0
(V CC / rc )
Q
VCE
VCC
L
RL L C Rp RL
RB C
RS
RS
XL L
QL r
RS RS
QL
XL
RS
RS Rp
Rp Q L r L Q L X L
XL XC Rp RL
rc R p || R L
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rc r
c
r L XL
Input Only for this
Vin capacitor portion emitter
diode turns on
+Vp
Emitter 0 t
RB diode –Vp
0 t
–2Vp
–Vp Negatively
clamped voltage
IC
Vp Current
pulses
Less than 180º
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Collector voltage is
pure sine wave
2VCC
rc VCC
L C
VCE(sat)
O
Av
Av(max)
0.707 Av(max)
fr BW
Q
f
f1 f2
W
T
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W
360º
T
= Conduction angle
360
2
V rms
Pout
RL
V pp 2 V m 2 2 V rms
V pp / 2 2
2 2
V pp
Pout
RL 8 RL
I C sat
I C (sat)
I C (sat) 180
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VCE
IC
Current
2VCC pulses
IC(sat)
VCC
(a) Maximum output (b) Collector current
PD
PD(max)
Power
180 dissipation
decreases
as
180 decreases
0º 90º 180º
180
V2
pp max
PD max
40 rc
V pp max 2 V CC
PD max
180 PD
PD max
180
I C sat
I dc 0.318 I C sat 180
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180 I dc Idc
I dc
0.318 IC(sat)
Idc decreases
as
decreases
0º 90º 180º
PDC V CC I dc
Pout Pout
% 100 100
PDC V CC I dc
For small ,
% is almost 100 %
100 %
78.5 %
180º
0º 90º 180º
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+15 V
470 pF 2 H
0.01 F
1 k
4.7 k
2
Vpp 30 2
PD(max)
40 r c 40 867
+30 V
220 pF 1 H
0.1 F
10 k
Vin 10 k
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(Vout ) 2 (Vpp ) 2 50 2
8 RL 8R L 8 10 10 3
Vpp(max)
2
2 VCC 2
8R L 8R L
60 2
8 10 10 3
VCC I dc 30 0 . 5 10 3
Pout
100
PDC
0.4 10 3 Vpp
Vpp 2
30 2
8R L
8 10 10 3
100 100
VCC I dc 30 0.4 10 3
fr
Q
1 1
2 LC 2 1 H 220 pF
10 73
125
Vpp(max)
2
40 r c
TM
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125 2 10 73 10 6 1 10 6 ||10 10 3
2 30 2
40 4573 . 27
1 W
iD n C ox (v GS V t )
2
2 L
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Source
Gate
SiO2
n+ Source n+
p+ p+ Body
L
Substrate n– n+
Current flow
Drain
v GS
Vt
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iD
Velocity
saturation
region
Linear
Square law
Vi vGS
Exponential
(Subthreshold)
V GS
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iD (A)
5.0
4.0 Negative
temperature
VDS = +15 V coefficient of ID
3.0
Zero-temperature
Positive coefficient point
2.0 temperature
coefficient of ID
1.0 +125 °C
–55 °C
iD
+25 °C
vGS (V)
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
v OV
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R R
1 3 V BE6 1 1 V BE5 4V BE
R4 R 2
V GG R V BE6
1 3
T R4 T
V GG / T (V tN |V tP|) / T
+VCC
IBIAS
Q1 +VDD
R1
Q2
Q5
RG
R2 Darlington pair QN
R vo
Thermal RL
R3
coupling
QP
RG
Q6
R4 Q3
vi Q4
–VDD
Darlington pair
–VCC
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VBE / T
V GG / T (V tN |V tP|) / T
V GG R V BE6
1 3
T R4 T
Q1
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Error
amplifier Pulse
– waveform Vin
–
+ Q1
+ L1
A
Vo
Comparator
D1 C1 R1
Feedback
Oscillator network
R2
Potential
Voltage divider
Feedback
reference voltage
R2 R1 R2
Q1
Q1 VCE (sat) Q1
L1
Q1 L1
D1
C1
t on
T
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L1 C1
Q1
L
+ Vin + Vout
Unregulated
d.c.
– D1 C RL
R1 R2
Variable
pulse width
oscillator Potential
Error signal
– divider
R3
+ Output
feedback
+ Vref
VZ Error
D2 amplifier
–
Zener diode
for reference
TM
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Q1
L Vout
+ +
Vin
– D1 C RL
Switch –
control
Q1 ON + L –
+
Vin D1 + +
OFF C RL
– (a)
I – –
Q1 OFF
L
Vout
+
Vin + +
D1 C RL (b)
– –
ON I –
t on
t on t off
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V in
t on t on
t on t off T
VC
ton toff ton toff ton
Vout
(a) ton > toff
VC
ton toff ton toff ton toff
Vout
(b) ton < toff
TM
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Input
Vin
Unregulated
d.c.
t
Vout
Vav
t
ton toff
Iout
Load
current
Iav
Diode
current
t
Diode Diode
off on
TM
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L D1
+ Vin + Vout
Unregulated
d.c.
– C RL
Q1
Variable
R1 pulse width VCE R2
oscillator
Potential
divider
Error signal
Error amplifier R3
+ –
+
Vref
VZ Output feedback
D2
–
Zener diode
for reference
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Vin – VCE(sat)
OFF
D1 + Vout
+ Vin + –
L
– Q1 ON C RL
Variable
R1 pulse width VCE(sat) R2
oscillator
R3
+ –
+
VZ
D2
–
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ON
VL D1
+ – + + – +
Vin Vin–VCE(sat) Vout
L +
– VL C (Vin+VL) RL
–
R1 0 R2
VL reversed
Q1 OFF
Variable
pulse width
oscillator R3
+ –
+
VZ D2
–
TM
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V in
V out
1
t on
T
Input
Vin
Vout
Vin+VL
Vav
Capacitor
discharges
t
ton toff
Iout
Iav
Diode
current
t
Diode Diode
off on
TM
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TM
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Q1 D1 Vout
+
–
Vin
– L C RL
+
R1
Variable
pulse width R2
oscillator
Error amplifier
–
+ R3
+
VZ D2
–
VCE(sat)
+ –
Q1ON D1
+ Vin Vout
+ –
Vin – VCE(sat) –
– VL L C RL
+
– +
R1
Variable 0
pulse width R2
oscillator
–
+ R3
D2
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Q1 OFF
D1
+
Vin –
– –
– VL L VL C Vout
+
+ +
R1 0
Variable
pulse width VL reversed R2
oscillator
–
+ R3
D2
TM
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360º
Pa.c.
Pd.c.
Vmax VCC and Vmin 0
for maximum swing
I max 2 I CQ and I min 0
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RL N1 N2
N2 20 RL 4
R 'L
N1 200 n 2
( 0 . 1) 2
N2 N1 R 'L RL
D 22 D 23 D 24 ... 100
TM
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Distorted output
Fundamental component
Output
nd
2 harmonic
rd
3 harmonic
Pac out
100
Pdc input
Vmax I max a.c.output
100
Pdc input
TM
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(Pac ) D Pac [1 D 2 ] D22 D23
(Pac ) D
Vm VCC
2
Vm V
CC
2
2 VCC RL
(Pd ) max
2 R L
TM
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Output
Cross-over
distortion
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VCC
2
VCC
360 180
180
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|B 2|
100
|B 1|
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VNL VFL
VFL
SR
100
Vnom
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TM
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Semester - IV (ECE) - Regulation 2013
s
TM
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H
+ VCC
RC1 RC2
R E 60
+
Rs
Q1 Q2
Vs Vo
RF
RE
VDD VDD
RD I
Vout
Iref R
+
ID
D Vx ID
D
G
+
G
S Iin
S
Vin RS
(a) (b)
TM
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5 * 105
f f j
1 j 6 1 j 7 1 j 8
10 10 10
F F
Ic
2
TM
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+ 12 V
2.2 k
2.2 k
+ 15 k
+
IC1
15 k IC2
VC1 IB1 IB2
Q1 Q2
+ +
VC2
VB1 100 k 100 k VB2
– – –
–
– 12 V
+6V
1 k 10 k 1 k
C1
+
+
10 k
Q1
Q2
VC1 + +
VC2
VB1 20 k VB2
– –
– –1.5 V –
TM
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Q1 OFF Q1 ON Q1 OFF
Q2 ON Q2 OFF Q2 ON
VB2
V V
t
VC2
VC1
0 T t
VB1
TM
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Semester - IV (ECE) - [27192] Regulation 2013
BW f 250 kHz
D 4
Phase f1 f2 f3
0 f
Ai dB
– 90º
– 20 dB/decade
– 40 dB/decade – 180º
– 60 dB/decade
– 270º
f
f1 f2 f3
(a) Magnitude plot (b) Phase plot
CM Ls Cs
3 H 50 .
RL
f0 3 H, Rs 50 RL
TM
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0 L 2f0 L 2 1050 10 3 3 10 –6
Rs Rs 50
Rs RL
50 5000
Rp Rs RL 49.5
50 + 5000
Rp 49.5
XL 2 1050 10 3 3 10 –6
0.22 F
+V
Rc
RL
Rs Vin
Re
–V
h ie1 h i e2 h ef 1 h ef 2
TM
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Rc2 = 6.8 K
Rc1
5.6 K Vo
Q2
Vin Q1
540
1K Re
Re1 = 100
Re2 = 2.2 K
(100) (1 jf 105 ) 3
(100) f
– 3 tan –1
3
2 105
f
1+
105
f180
f
–3 tan –1 180
5
10
f180 1.73 105 Hz
(0.20)(100)
|T(f180 )|
8
(0.020)(100)
|T(f180 )|
8
TM
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A(w ) Av max
TM
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Semester - IV (ECE) - [57284] Regulation 2013
VS
A 120
Af
1 A 1 + (120 0.05)
Vs A f
1.5 k 0.2 F
TM
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TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge
Semester - IV (ECE) - [80336] Regulation 2013
TM
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Rs 600 h ie h fe RL RB AV
Rif AVf R of R of
RB
Cc
Q RL
Cc
Rs Vo
VCC
Vs
Vo V o RL Io Ic Ib
RM RL
Is Is Ic Ib Is
RB R
– hfe RL
RB RL R h ie
R s||R B 600||40 K
40 K 591.13
– 80 2K
40 K 2 K 591.13 5 K
Ib Ic Io
+
hfeIb
Is Rs RB hie R' RL Vo
Ri R R'i Ro
TM
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If –1 1
– – 2.5 10 –5
Vo RB 40 K
R MF A vf R if R of Rof
RM 1 (–2.5 10 –5 )(–16.11 10 3 )
RM – 16.11 K
R MF
D 1.4
Vo Vo R Mf –11.5 K
A VF
Vs I s Rs Rs 600
591.13 5000
Ri R||h ie
591.13 5000
Ri 528.63
R if
D 1.4
Ro RB
R of
1 RM 1 RM
I o RB Io Ic Ib
RM RB
IS Ic Ib Is
591.13
–1 80 40 10 3
591.13 5K
40k
R of
1 (–2 . 5 10 )(–338.324 10 3 )
–5
Rof R of||R L 4.23 K||2 K
TM
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h fe I CBO O , I C (ON ) 1 mA ,
VCE (sat)
R C 11 . 7 k R 2 753.33 k C 1 C 2 19.238 pF R 1 M
TM
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Semester - IV (ECE) - [71728] Regulation 2013
L1 L2
Rs Rp
TM
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Rif
C1 C2
Rs Rp
TM
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f0
gm
r d 10 k
VCC h fe I C sat
TM
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Semester - IV (ECE) - [50437] Regulation 2013
BW 2 BW 2 2 2 – 1 200 10 3 2 1 2 – 1
TM
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RC 1 RC 2
RE RS RF h fe h ie h re h oe
(Avf ) (Aif )
+ VCC
RC1 RC2
Rs
Q1 Q2
Vs Vo
RF
RE
–
5 105
f f f
1 j 6 1 j 7 1 j 8
10 10 10
C1 C2
TM
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VB2 VC 2
VC 1 VB1 0–
h fe V
V
+6V
1 k 10 k 1 k
+
+
10 k
VC1 + +
VC2
VB1 20 k VB2
– –
– –1.5 V –
TM
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Q1 OFF Q1 ON Q1 OFF
Q2 ON Q2 OFF Q2 ON
VB2
V V
t
VC2
VCE(sat)= 0.3
VC1
0 T t
VB1
TM
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R0
Av Avf
TM
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Semester - IV (ECE) - [40955] Regulation 2013
Av
Avf
Av A v
A 1000
100
A
A
A
A A 0.001
0.1
1 1
S 0.01
100 – 1 99
Av 1000
A
( 000 0.099)
TM
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C1
C2
Rif R of Av Avf
Av Avf
CM
TM
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L1 L2
L eq L1 L2
1 1
100 10 3
2 C L eq 2 C 8 10 3
TM
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