1.

COSMOLOGY &
THE BIRTH OF THE EARTH
Dr. Cathleen Doherty
Dept. of Earth & Planetary Sciences
Lecture: M-Th 12:10-1:30 pm
ABE - 4400 (East Wing, College Ave)
 Learning Goals

1. Describe the differences between geocentric and heliocentric

models
2. Identify main components of our solar system and its planetary
classification
3. Discuss evidence indicating that distant galaxies are moving away
from each other
4. Describe theories explaining the formation of the Universe and
solar systems
5. Describe major processes during the formation of the Early Earth

Planet Earth
~ 1,000 BC: Days of Homer
(a Greek poet, not the
slouch of Springfield)

• Earth is flat
• Water at edges
• Land in middle
• Stars overhead in
celestial sphere

My world, how far we have

progressed….
 Ptolemy’s Idea

• ~100 AD
• Earth is the center of
the Universe
• All other planetary
bodies (moon, planets,
and Sun) revolve
around the Earth
 Ptolemy’s Geocentric
Model

• ~100 AD
• Earth is the center of
the Universe
• All other planetary
bodies (moon, planets,
and Sun) revolve
around the Earth
• Geocentric Model
 Copernicus’ revolution

• ~1500 AD
• Sun is the center of the
Universe
• Earth and other
planetary bodies
revolve around the Sun
 Copernicus’ revolution

• ~1500 AD
• Sun is the center of the
Universe
• Earth and other
planetary bodies
revolve around the Sun
• Heliocentric Model
 • 1600 -1700 AD
The roles of Kepler, Galileo, and Newton • Kepler described the
orbits of the planets
around the Sun
The roles of Kepler, Galileo, and Newton

• 1600 -1700 AD
• Kepler described the orbits of the
planets around the Sun
• Galileo observed moons orbiting
around Jupiter

Galileo’s sophisticated telescope

The roles of Kepler, Galileo, and Newton

• 1600 -1700 AD
• Kepler described the elliptical orbits of
the planets around the Sun
• Galileo observed moons orbiting
around Jupiter
• Newton formulated the laws of motion
and universal gravity
The structure of our solar system
• Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun
The structure of our solar system
• Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun
• Terrestrial vs Jovian planets, what are the differences?

Terrestrial
planets

Jovian planets
 Our solar system is only a single system in a galaxy called the Milky Way

• All of the stars visible at

night are from our local
area of the Milky way

One solar system

Our solar system is only a single star in a galaxy called the Milky Way
• All of the stars visible at
night are from our local
area of the Milky way One galaxy

• The Milky Way is only a

single galaxy among
billions of them in the
Universe

• Hubble Space Telescope

provides deep view,
showing some of the
billions of galaxies R Williams - NASA
Do galaxies move in relation to
each other?

R Williams - NASA
Yes, they do!

R Williams - NASA
 The expansion of the universe
As the Universe expands, the distance between galaxies
increases
 The expansion of the universe
As the Universe expands, the distance between galaxies
increases

How do we know that the

universe is expanding?
The Doppler effect: Sound waves
• Train whistle generates sound waves, measured based on their wavelength and
frequency
The Doppler effect: Sound waves
• Train whistle generates sound waves, measured based on their wavelength and
frequency
• When moving, the front soundwaves have shorter wavelength and higher frequency
than the waves at the back of the moving train
The Doppler effect: Sound waves
How do scientists
observe space
objects?
How do scientists
observe space
objects?
Using light waves
emitted by these
stars and
galaxies!
How do scientists
observe space
objects?
Using light waves
emitted by these
stars and
galaxies!
 How do scientists observe space objects?
Doppler effect can be applied to visible light
 How do scientists observe space objects?
Doppler effect can be applied to visible light
 The Doppler effect: Light waves
Blue shift when space objects move Red shift when space objects move
toward observer away from observer
• American astronomer Edwin Hubble in
1929
• All distant galaxies show RED-SHIFTED
light waves
• Wherever he looked, he only saw red
shift
• Conclusion: Each galaxy is moving away
from its neighbors. Therefore, the
Universe is expanding!
 The expansion of the universe
As the Universe expands, the distance between galaxies
increases
The expansion of the universe implies that the
universe originated from a single point

Goi
ng
bac
k in
tim
e
 The expansion of the universe implies that the
universe originated from a single point

The Big Bang!

(~13.7 Ga)
 Big Bang!
The Big Bang Theory:

• Subatomic / elementary
particles came into being
simultaneously

• Extremely rapid expansion

of the universe (within
minutes)

• Hydrogen (H) and Helium

(He)
H & He are the most primordial
elements in the Universe!
So, how did we
get the rest of
the elements?
 Stars = Element Factories

Through nuclear fusion

reactions in stars!
The process of creating new atoms is called
stellar nucleosynthesis

When fusion
reaction occurs, a
Star is born!
 Through series of nuclear reactions,
a star produces He to Fe.

When a star has used all elements

to make Iron (Fe) core:
• Nuclear reaction stops

https://www.hoyle.org.uk/Scientific-Work/Legacy/Nucleosythesis-in-Stars/
 Through series of nuclear reactions,
a star produces He to Fe.

When a star has used all elements

to make Iron (Fe) core:
• Nuclear reaction stops

• Gravitational collapse due to

extreme density

https://www.hoyle.org.uk/Scientific-Work/Legacy/Nucleosythesis-in-Stars/
 Through series of nuclear reactions,
a star produces He to Fe.

When a star has used all elements

to make Iron (Fe) core:
• Nuclear reaction stops

• Gravitational collapse due to

extreme density

• Increase of extreme pressure

https://www.hoyle.org.uk/Scientific-Work/Legacy/Nucleosythesis-in-Stars/
 Through series of nuclear reactions,
a star produces He to Fe.

When a star has used all elements

to make Iron (Fe) core:
• Nuclear reaction stops

• Gravitational collapse due to

extreme density

• Increase of extreme pressure

• EXPLODE! 🡺 SUPERNOVA

https://www.hoyle.org.uk/Scientific-Work/Legacy/Nucleosythesis-in-Stars/
Supernova Explosion

Marks the death of a star

Supernova Explosion

Marks the death of a star

 Nebular hypothesis
Formation of the Solar System
~4.5 Ga

Swirling galaxy
 Planetesimals 🡺 Proto-Earth

The center of the nebular disk glows with heat

and ignites into nuclear fusion. The dust in the
rings coalesces to form planetesimals.
 Moon Formation
Soon after the Earth formed, a protoplanet collided with Earth,
blasting debris around it, and the Moon formed from the ring of debris.
Moon Formation

Soon after the Earth

formed, a protoplanet
collided with Earth,
blasting debris around
it, and the Moon
formed from the ring of
debris.
 Differentiation of Earth’s interior
Uniform composition Heavy elements sink
Si + O + Fe + Ni Light elements stay on surface
 Formation of Earth’s Atmosphere
The atmosphere accumulated from volcanic outgassing. When the Earth was
cool enough for water vapor to condense, the oceans came into existence.
Not really! Let’s practice using Mentimeter!
 Homework:
Pre-Course Survey

Thanks!
& Syllabus Quiz
(due: Sept. 11 by 12:10 pm)

Opened Early:
PlayPosit HW 1
(due: Sept 15; ~30-45 min)
PlayPosit HW 2
ANY QUESTIONS? (due: Sept 18; ~15 min)

You can reach me at

⊷ cathleen.doherty @eps.rutgers.edu
⊷ Office Hours: before/after class (or
by appt)

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