Performance Optimization of Electric Vehicle

and its Regenerative System

By

Muhammad Ameer Hamza

CUI/FA19-EPE-062/ATD
Muhammad Yar Khan
CUI/FA19-EPE-084/ATD
Najeeb Ahmad
CUI/FA19-EPE-087/ATD
BS Thesis
In

Electrical (Power) Engineering

COMSATS University Islamabad

Abbottabad Campus - Pakistan

Spring 2023

i
COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus

Performance Optimization of Electric Vehicle and its

Regenerative System

A Thesis Report Presented to

COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus

In partial fulfilment
Of the requirement for the degree of

BS Electrical (Power) Engineering

By

Muhammad Ameer Hamza

CUI/FA19-EPE-062/ATD
Muhammad Yar Khan
CUI/FA19-EPE-084/ATD
Najeeb Ahmad
CUI/FA19-EPE-087/ATD

Spring 2023

ii
 Performance Optimization of Electric Vehicle and its
Regenerative System
An Undergraduate Thesis submitted to Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

as partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Science in

Electrical (Power) Engineering.

Name Registration Number

Muhammad Ameer Hamza CUI/FA19-EPE-062/ATD

Muhammad Yar Khan CUI/FA19-EPE-084/ATD

Najeeb Ahmad CUI/FA19-EPE-087/ATD

Supervisor

Dr. Uzair Khan

Associate Professor, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
COMSATS University Islamabad (CUI)
Abbottabad Campus
August 2023

iii
 Final Approval

This thesis titled

Performance Optimization of Electric Vehicle and its

Regenerative System

By

Muhammad Ameer Hamza

CUI/FA19-EPE-062/ATD
Muhammad Yar Khan
CUI/FA19-EPE-084/ATD
Najeeb Ahmad
CUI/FA19-EPE-087/ATD

Has been approved

For the COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus

Supervisor: ______________________________________________
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, CUI, Abbottabad Campus

HOD: ______________________________________________
Dr. Owais, Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, CUI, Abbottabad Campus

iv
 Declaration

I Muhammad Ameer Hamza (FA19-EPE-062), Muhammad Yar Khan (FA19-EPE-084) and

Najeeb Ahmad (FA19-EPE-087). Hereby declare that I have produced the work presented in this
thesis, during the scheduled period of study. I also declare that I have not taken any material from
any source except referred to wherever due that amount of plagiarism is within acceptable range.
If a violation of HEC rules on research has occurred in this thesis, I shall be liable to punishable
action under the plagiarism rules of the HEC.

Date: _______________

Signature of the Students:

_______________________
Muhammad Ameer Hamza
CUI/FA19-EPE-062/ATD

_______________________
Muhammad Yar Khan
CUI/FA19-EPE-084/ATD

_______________________
Najeeb Ahmad
CUI/FA19-EPE-087/ATD

v
 Certificate
It is certified that Muhammad Ameer Hamza (FA19-EPE-062), Muhammad Yar Khan (FA19-
EPE-084), and Najeeb Ahmad (FA19-EPE-087). has carried out all the work related to this report
under my supervision at the Department of Electrical and Computer engineering, COMSATS
University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus and the work fulfills the requirement for award of BS
degree.

Dated: __________________

Supervisor:

________________________

Dr. Uzair Khan

Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Head of Department:

_________________

Dr. Owais
Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

vi
 DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my parents, who have provided me with so much financial and moral
support in order to meet all of my needs while I was developing my system, to my most honorable
faculty, particularly our supervisor "Dr. Uzair Khan," who has supported me at every stage, as
well as to my subordinates and all those who believe in the fertility of education. This degree is
dedicated to my parents, family, friends, and respected faculty members who have supported me
throughout my life.

And lastly, we dedicate this study to the Almighty God, thank you for the guidance, strength,
power of mind, protection and skills and for giving us a healthy life. All of these, we offer to you.

vii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express out special thanks of gratitude to our Project Supervisor Dr. Uzair Khan
who gave us the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic Performance
Optimization of Electric Vehicle and its Regenerative System which also helped us in doing a
lot of research and we came to know about so many new things, which will be beneficial for our
career. As well as we would like to thank our Project Committee for guiding throughout
presentations.

Secondly, we would like to thank our parents and friends who supported and helped us a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

Muhammad Ameer Hamza (FA19-EPE-062)

Muhammad Yar Khan (FA19-EPE-084)
Najeeb Ahmad (FA19-EPE-087)

viii
 ABSTRACT
Performance Optimization of Electric Vehicle and its Regenerative
System
"Performance Optimization of Electric Vehicle and its Regenerative System" focuses on
enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the regenerative braking mechanism in electric
vehicles. A dedicated workbench has been developed to conduct experiments and analyse various
scenarios to improve the system's performance.

One of the key areas of investigation involves calculating optimal gear ratios to reduce losses and
enhance the overall efficiency of the regenerative braking system. By optimizing the gear ratios,
we aim to maximize energy recapture during braking, thereby increasing the range and efficiency
of the electric vehicle.

The workbench incorporates a Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motor, which is coupled with
another Direct Current (DC) motor operating at higher RPM. This configuration enables detailed
analysis and evaluation of the regenerative braking system's behaviour under different conditions.
Through a series of experiments and data analysis, the project aims to identify the most effective
gear ratios for regenerative braking. By implementing these optimized ratios in electric vehicles,
we anticipate significant improvements in energy recapture, leading to extended range and
enhanced overall performance.

The outcomes of this project have the potential to revolutionize the regenerative braking systems
in electric vehicles, contributing to a more sustainable and energy-efficient transportation future.
The findings can serve as a valuable reference for researchers, engineers, and manufacturers in the
electric vehicle industry, driving further advancements in regenerative braking technology and its
integration into next-generation vehicles

ix
 Table of Contents
Chapter 1...................................................................................................................................1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Problem Statement.......................................................................................................2
1.1.1 Limited Range: ..........................................................................................................2
1.1.2 Energy Efficiency: .....................................................................................................2
1.1.3 Braking Performance: ................................................................................................2
1.1.4 Component Integration: .............................................................................................3
1.1.5 Environmental Impact: ..............................................................................................3
1.2 Motivation ...................................................................................................................3
1.3 Objectives ....................................................................................................................4
1.3.1 Design and Develop a Workbench ............................................................................4
1.3.2 Investigate Regenerative Braking System .................................................................5
1.3.3 Optimize Gear Ratio ..................................................................................................5
1.3.4 Integrate BLDC Motor ..............................................................................................5
1.3.5 Perform Experiments and Analysis ...........................................................................5
1.3.6 Sensor Comparison and Analysis ..............................................................................5
1.3.7 Power Efficiency Analysis ........................................................................................6
Chapter 2...................................................................................................................................7
Literature Review .................................................................................................................7
2.1 Gear Ratio Optimization..............................................................................................7
2.2 Sensor Analysis ...........................................................................................................7
2.3 Power Efficiency Analysis ..........................................................................................7
Chapter 3...................................................................................................................................8
Methodology ..........................................................................................................................8
3.1 Components .................................................................................................................8
3.1.1 BLDC Motor ..............................................................................................................8
3.1.2 Working Principle and Operation of BLDC Motor .................................................10
3.1.3 Battery......................................................................................................................11
3.2 Sensors .......................................................................................................................12
3.2.1 CT as Current Sensor ...............................................................................................12

x
 3.2.2 Voltage Sensor .........................................................................................................12
3.2.3 Rpm Sensors ............................................................................................................13
3.2.4 Proximity Sensor .....................................................................................................13
3.2.5 F to V Converter ......................................................................................................14
3.2.6 Solar Panel ...............................................................................................................14
3.2.7 Software ...................................................................................................................15
3.3 Block Diagram...........................................................................................................15
Chapter 4.................................................................................................................................16
Simulation and Results.......................................................................................................16
4.1 Working Principle. ....................................................................................................16
4.1.1 Results......................................................................................................................17
4.2 Hardware Modeling ...................................................................................................20
4.2.1 Gear Ratio Calculation ............................................................................................20
4.2.2 Charging time of Battery through Regenerative Braking System ...........................21
Chapter 5.................................................................................................................................22
Hardware Results ...............................................................................................................22
5.1 Electric Vehicle Prototype:........................................................................................22
5.2 Coupled Motors: ........................................................................................................23
5.3 Work Bench: ..............................................................................................................23
Chapter 6.................................................................................................................................25
Discussion and Conclusion.................................................................................................25
6.1 Discussion..................................................................................................................25
6.2 Conclusion .................................................................................................................26
References ............................................................................................................................27
Appendix ..............................................................................................................................28

xi
 List of Figures
Figure 3.1: Construction of BLDC motor................................................................................... 9
Figure 3.2: BLDC motor internal windings ............................................................................. 10
Figure 3.3: Lithium-ion Battery ................................................................................................ 12
Figure 3.4: CT ............................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 3.5: DC Voltage Sensor .................................................................................................. 13
Figure 3.6 : IR (RPM) Sensor .................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3.7: Proximity Sensor ..................................................................................................... 14
Figure 3.8: Frequency to Voltage Converter ............................................................................ 14
Figure 3.9: Solar Panel ............................................................................................................... 15
Figure 3.10: Block Diagram ....................................................................................................... 15

Figure 4. 1;Voltage Graph ......................................................................................................... 17

Figure 4. 2: Current with Load Graph ..................................................................................... 18
Figure 4. 3: Current without Load Graph ............................................................................... 19
Figure 4. 4: Graph of RPM ........................................................................................................ 19

Figure 5. 1 : EV Prototype ......................................................................................................... 22

Figure 5. 2: Coupled Motors ...................................................................................................... 23
Figure 5. 3: Work bench ............................................................................................................. 24

xii
 List of Tables
Table 4. 1: Tyre dimensions ....................................................................................................... 21

xiii
List of Abbreviations

IR Infrared
IDE Integrated development environment
RPM Revolution per minute
IM Induction motor
BLDC Brushless Direct Current Motor

xiv
Chapter 1

Introduction

Electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a promising solution to combat the environmental impact
and dependency on fossil fuels associated with traditional combustion engine vehicles. To further
enhance the efficiency and performance of EVs, researchers and engineers have been diligently
working on optimizing various aspects of their design, including the regenerative braking system.

Regenerative braking is a critical feature in electric vehicles that allows the recovery of kinetic
energy during braking. This energy is then converted into electrical energy and stored in the
battery, resulting in increased overall efficiency and extended driving range. However, to
maximize the effectiveness of the regenerative braking system, it is necessary to analyze and
optimize its components and configurations. [1]

In this project, the focus lies on the performance optimization of the regenerative braking system,
with particular attention given to the implementation and analysis of a Brushless Direct Current
(BLDC) motor. The BLDC motor offers numerous advantages, such as higher efficiency, better
control, and improved power density compared to traditional DC motors. By integrating a BLDC
motor into the regenerative braking system, the project aims to achieve superior energy recapture
and overall system performance. [2] To facilitate experimentation and analysis, a dedicated
workbench has been developed. This workbench allows for the evaluation of different scenarios
and configurations to identify optimal gear ratios that minimize losses and enhance energy
recovery during braking. Additionally, the workbench incorporates another DC motor operating
at higher RPM to enable comprehensive analysis and comparison of the regenerative braking
system's performance.

Through rigorous experimentation and data analysis, this project seeks to determine the most
effective gear ratios for the regenerative braking system. The findings will contribute to enhancing
the energy efficiency and range of electric vehicles, making them even more viable and sustainable
alternatives to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. Furthermore, the outcomes of this
project have the potential to significantly impact the electric vehicle industry. The knowledge
gained can serve as a valuable reference for researchers, engineers, and manufacturers, guiding

1
future advancements in regenerative braking technology and facilitating its widespread integration
into next-generation electric vehicles. Ultimately, these efforts will contribute to a greener, more
energy-efficient transportation ecosystem.

1.1 Problem Statement

The transition to electric vehicles (EVs) is a critical step towards reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and mitigating the environmental impacts of the transportation sector. While
electric vehicles have made significant advancements in recent years, there remains a
pressing need to optimize their performance, particularly concerning the regenerative
braking system. The regenerative braking system holds the promise of enhancing energy
efficiency and range, but its full potential has yet to be realized.

Despite substantial progress in EV technology, several challenges persist

1.1.1 Limited Range:

One of the primary concerns for EV owners is the limited driving range on a single charge.
To encourage broader adoption, it is imperative to enhance the efficiency of EVs to extend
their range and alleviate "range anxiety."

1.1.2 Energy Efficiency:

Maximizing the energy efficiency of EVs is essential to reduce electricity consumption and
ensure sustainable mobility. The regenerative braking system has the potential to recover
energy during deceleration and braking, but its effectiveness varies across different
scenarios and driving conditions.

1.1.3 Braking Performance:

While regenerative braking offers energy recovery benefits, it must not compromise the
safety and effectiveness of the braking system. Balancing the regenerative aspect with
traditional friction-based braking is a complex challenge that requires optimization.

2
1.1.4 Component Integration:

EVs are complex systems comprising numerous components, each of which affects overall
performance. Efficiently integrating the regenerative braking system with other vehicle
components, such as the battery, motor, and control systems, is critical for achieving
optimal performance.

1.1.5 Environmental Impact:

Electric vehicles aim to reduce environmental impacts, but the manufacturing and disposal
of their components can still have ecological consequences. Optimizing performance can
contribute to extending the lifespan of EVs and reducing their overall environmental
footprint.

In light of these challenges, this thesis aims to comprehensively address the performance
optimization of electric vehicles with a specific focus on the regenerative braking system.
By conducting a detailed investigation into the integration, control algorithms, and
operational strategies, this research seeks to unlock the full potential of regenerative
braking to enhance energy efficiency, extend range, and minimize environmental impact,
while ensuring the safety and effectiveness of the braking system.

1.2 Motivation
The increasing global concerns about climate change and the urgent need to transition
towards sustainable transportation solutions. Electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a
promising alternative to conventional vehicles powered by fossil fuels. They offer numerous
advantages, including reduced emissions and improved energy efficiency. However, to
accelerate the widespread adoption of EVs, it is crucial to address challenges related to their
range, efficiency, and overall performance.

One key area that requires attention is the regenerative braking system in electric vehicles.
While regenerative braking technology is already employed in EVs to recapture and store
energy during deceleration, there is still room for improvement. Enhancing the efficiency
and effectiveness of the regenerative braking system can significantly contribute to

3
 extending the driving range of EVs and reducing their reliance on external charging. The
motivation for this thesis project lies in the potential for optimizing the regenerative braking
system and its integration with a Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motor. BLDC motors
offer several advantages over traditional DC motors, including higher efficiency, better
control, and improved power density. By incorporating a BLDC motor into the regenerative
braking system, the project aims to exploit these benefits and maximize energy recapture
during braking.

Furthermore, the project aims to investigate the impact of gear ratios on the performance of
the regenerative braking system. Gear ratios play a crucial role in transferring power and
torque between the motor and the wheels. By calculating and optimizing the gear ratios, it is
possible to minimize losses and improve the overall efficiency of the regenerative braking
system.

The ultimate motivation behind this thesis project is to contribute to the development of
more sustainable and efficient electric vehicles. By optimizing the regenerative braking
system and leveraging the advantages of BLDC motors, this research aims to enhance the
energy efficiency and range of EVs, making them more attractive to consumers and
accelerating the transition to a greener transportation future. Additionally, the outcomes of
this project have the potential to benefit not only the electric vehicle industry but also the
broader research and engineering community. The findings can serve as a valuable reference
for further advancements in regenerative braking technology, gear ratio optimization, and
the integration of BLDC motors in electric vehicles. Ultimately, this research contributes to
the collective efforts in mitigating climate change and fostering a more sustainable
transportation ecosystem.

1.3 Objectives

1.3.1 Design and Develop a Workbench

Construct a dedicated workbench that simulates the regenerative braking system of an

electric vehicle. The workbench should allow for the analysis of various scenarios and
configurations to evaluate the performance of the system accurately.

4
1.3.2 Investigate Regenerative Braking System

Conduct a comprehensive analysis of the regenerative braking system in electric vehicles.

Explore its components, functionality, and limitations to identify areas for improvement.

1.3.3 Optimize Gear Ratio

Calculate and optimize the gear ratios within the regenerative braking system to minimize
losses and maximize energy recapture during braking. Determine the most efficient gear
ratios for different driving conditions and scenarios.

1.3.4 Integrate BLDC Motor

Couple a Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motor with the regenerative braking system.
Investigate the advantages of BLDC motors, such as higher efficiency, improved control,
and enhanced power density, and assess their impact on the performance of the
regenerative braking system.

1.3.5 Perform Experiments and Analysis

Conduct a series of experiments on the workbench, simulating various driving conditions

and scenarios. Gather data on energy recapture, efficiency, and other relevant parameters
to analyze the performance of the regenerative braking system.

1.3.6 Sensor Comparison and Analysis

Perform experiments to compare and analyze the data obtained from the sensors installed
on the workbench with the analog values measured using a multi meter and tachometer.
The sensors used include voltage sensors, proximity sensors, and current sensors. Assess
the accuracy, reliability, and consistency of the sensor readings during the analysis of the
regenerative braking system. By comparing the sensor readings with the analog
measurements, the objective is to ensure the validity and effectiveness of the sensor setup
on the workbench. This analysis will provide insights into the performance and limitations
of the sensors used and contribute to the overall reliability of the experimental data
gathered during the regenerative braking system analysis.

5
1.3.7 Power Efficiency Analysis

Utilize the experimental workbench of the regenerative braking system to analyze power
efficiency by measuring and comparing the power before and after the controller. This
analysis aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the controller in managing and optimizing
power flow during regenerative braking. By measuring the power input and output at
different stages of the system, including before and after the controller, the objective is to
assess the efficiency of power conversion and utilization. This analysis will provide
insights into the performance of the controller in maximizing energy recapture and
minimizing power losses during regenerative braking.

The power efficiency analysis will contribute to understanding the overall effectiveness of
the regenerative braking system in terms of energy utilization and system performance.
The findings will aid in identifying potential areas for improvement and optimizing the
power management strategies in future iterations of the regenerative braking system.

6
Chapter 2

Literature Review
In this paper [1] author have explained the working of brushless DC motor (BLDC) in the
following modes

2.1 Gear Ratio Optimization

Optimizing gear ratios is essential to improve the efficiency of the regenerative braking
system. Several studies have explored gear ratio optimization techniques, including
mathematical modeling, simulation, and experimental analyses. These studies have
demonstrated the significant impact of gear ratios on energy recapture and overall system
performance. However, further investigation is required to determine the optimal gear
ratios for different driving conditions and to assess the trade-offs between energy
recapture and other performance metrics.

2.2 Sensor Analysis

Sensor technology plays a crucial role in accurately capturing and monitoring the relevant
parameters in regenerative braking systems. Previous studies have utilized various sensors,
such as voltage sensors, proximity sensors, and current sensors, to measure and analyze the
system's performance. However, there is limited research comparing the accuracy and
reliability of different sensor types and their impact on the overall analysis of regenerative
braking systems. Further investigation is necessary to assess the performance and
consistency of sensor readings in different experimental scenarios.

2.3 Power Efficiency Analysis

Assessing the power efficiency of regenerative braking systems is crucial to evaluate their
effectiveness in energy recapture. Research has focused on analyzing power flow,
conversion losses, and power management strategies to maximize energy utilization during
regenerative braking. However, more comprehensive studies are needed to investigate the
power efficiency of regenerative braking systems, particularly by analyzing power before
and after the controller to identify areas for improvement.

7
Chapter 3

Methodology

During regenerative braking when brake is applied the battery from the motor is disconnected then
kinetic energy is converted into electrical and it is sent back to a battery for charging. If the
microcontroller receives a brake signal, then the motor should change its operation from normal
(or) motoring mode to regenerative braking mode. This can be changed just by changing the
switching logic of the inverter. During regenerative braking mode, the back EMF acts as voltage
source and current flow will be from motor to battery, thus charging the battery. The back EMF is
typically less than battery voltage. Hence, to boost the back EMF, the inductance property of the
motor windings is used. In this way, the need for an additional boost converter with a bulky
inductor is eliminated. Now, the energy stored in the inductor and back EMF together act as a
voltage source to charge the battery. [3]

3.1 Components
In order to complete project, we have used motor controller, throttle, battery, Arduino,
sensors and indicator. The complete information of these components is given below.

3.1.1 BLDC Motor

Brushless DC motors (BLDC) have been a hot topic among motor makers, since they are
becoming the preferred choice in a growing number of applications, particularly in the field
of motor control technology. In many aspects, BLDC motors outperform brushed DC
motors, including the ability to run at high speeds, high efficiency, and better heat
dissipation. They are an essential component of modern drive technology, with applications
including actuation drives, machine tools, electric propulsion, robotics, computer
peripherals, and electrical power generation. These motors have been so effective in terms
of total system cost, size, and reliability, thanks to the development of sensor less
technology in addition to digital control. [4]

A brushless DC motor (also known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous electric

motor that is powered by direct current (DC) electricity and uses an electronically
controlled commutation system rather than a physically controlled commutation system to
8
produce rotational torque in the motor. Trapezoidal permanent magnet motors are another
name for BLDC motors.

BLDC motors use electrical commutation with a permanent magnet rotor and a stator with
a sequence of coils, as opposed to conventional brushed type DC motors, where the brushes
make mechanical contact with the commutator on the rotor to form an electric path between
a DC electric source and the rotor armature windings Permanent magnets (or field poles)
move in this engine, but current carrying wires are fixed.

Figure 3.1: Construction of BLDC motor

At the correct rotor position, the armature coils are switched electrically by transistors or
silicon-controlled rectifiers in such a way that the armature field is in space quadrature with
the rotor field poles. As a result, the rotor rotates due to the force imposed on it. The most
typical way to sense the position of the rotor is to employ hall sensors or rotary encoders,
which are positioned around the stator. The sensor's rotor position feedback aids in
determining when to switch the armature current.

In a DC motor, this electronic commutation system eliminates the commutator and brushes,
resulting in more dependable and quieter operation. BLDC motors can run at high speeds
because they don't have brushes. BLDC motors have an efficiency of 85 to 90%, whereas
brushed type DC motors have an efficiency of 75 to 80%. BLDC motors are available in a
wide range of power levels, including fractional horsepower, integrated horsepower, and
enormous power ranges.

9
3.1.2 Working Principle and Operation of BLDC Motor

The Lorentz force law states that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a force. A BLDC motor works on the same principle as a
regular DC motor. The magnet will experience an equal and opposite force as a result of
the reaction force. The current carrying wire of a BLDC motor remains stationary while
the permanent magnet moves.

Figure 3.2: BLDC motor internal windings

Switches the stator coils, it transforms into an electromagnet and begins to produce a
consistent field in the air gap. Despite the fact that the source of power is DC, switching
produces an AC voltage waveform with a trapezoidal shape. The rotor continues to rotate
due to the force of interaction between the electromagnet stator and the permanent magnet
rotor. Consider the diagram below, which shows how the motor stator is energized by
various switching states. The matching windings electrified as North and South poles when
the windings were switched as High and Low signals. The North and South poles of the
permanent magnet rotor align with the stator poles, causing the motor to rotate.

The development of attraction forces (when North-South or South-North alignment) and

repulsion forces (when North-South or South-North alignment) causes the motor to
produce torque (when North-North or South-South alignment). This causes the motor to
rotate in a clockwise manner. [5]

10
3.1.3 Battery

It is one of the main components used to power an electric vehicle. Due to numerous
advantages, we have selected lithium battery for project. It has low weight so it will
increase overall weight of electric vehicle, compact in size so due to small size it is easily
place able in an electric vehicle, it has greater number of charging and discharging cycles
so it provides long life, it has greater energy density so it can store greater amount of energy
in smaller area.it can. Its capacity can be calculated in Ah. After selection motor we have
selected lithium battery according to motor calculations.

The most common type of battery in modern electric vehicle are lithium-ion
and lithium polymer, because of their high energy density compared to their weight.
Because of the following qualities, which we explain in table 2.1, we use lithium-ion
batteries in our electric car. These are the calculations for the selection of lithium-ion
battery in our electric vehicle. [6]

Electric motor V=48v, P=1500watt, I =31.25 A

total load x backup time in hour

Battery capacity in ah = (2.1)
battery voltage

3
1500∗( )
4
(For 45 Minutes) = ≈ 23𝑎ℎ (2.2)
48

Lithium cell ratings V=3.7v I =2A

To make 48v and 23ah capacity battery we need 13 cells in series and 11cells in parallel
so we need 143 cells to make a battery.

11
 Figure 3. 3: Lithium-ion Battery

3.2 Sensors

In our project, we have used the following sensors.

3.2.1 CT as Current Sensor

The current transformers are used as current sensor, which saturation point is greater than
the maximum load. [7]

Figure 3.3: CT

3.2.2 Voltage Sensor

2 DC voltage sensors are used to sense voltage of regenerative and voltage from solar
plate. [8]

12
 Figure 3.4: DC Voltage Sensor

3.2.3 Rpm Sensors

IR sensor is used to measure RPM continuously. [9]

Figure 3.5 : IR (RPM) Sensor

3.2.4 Proximity Sensor

The Proximity Sensor is used to measure RPM continuously. [10]

13
 Figure 3.6: Proximity Sensor

3.2.5 F to V Converter

The F to V converter converts frequency to voltage. [11]

Figure 3.7: Frequency to Voltage Converter

3.2.6 Solar Panel

A solar plate is used to charge the battery. Solar plate gives voltage in range of 10-18 volts, which
is than boost for battery charging. [12]

14
 Figure 3.8: Solar Panel

3.2.7 Software

We use MATLAB software for simulation purpose. MATLAB simulation has maximum number
of components which can be used in real time.

3.3 Block Diagram

Figure 3.9: Block Diagram

15
Chapter 4

Simulation and Results

4.1 Working Principle
To measure voltage across windings of BLDC motor during acceleration (motoring mode)
and de-acceleration (regenerative braking mode) we have used voltage sensor with
Arduino.by using voltage sensor we can monitor up to 30 volts by using MATLAB by
interfacing with Arduino.

A. The voltage and current sensor are connected with analogue input pins of Arduino Uno
board and IR sensor is connected with the digital input pin of Arduino and is used to read
and monitor motor parameter as,

 A 5A AC current sensor is connected with A0 pins of Arduino Uno board that reads
the AC input current.
 DC voltage sensor is connected with A3 pins of Arduino Uno board that reads the
DC input single phase voltage.
 Infrared RPM sensor is connected with digital pin 2 of Arduino Uno board that is
used to reads the RPM of a single-phase induction motor.

B. The working of sensors is monitored on MATLAB to analyze and study the behavior of
motor.

C. The sensors data is graphically plotted on MATLAB to easily observe the working.

16
4.1.1 Results

I. Comparison of analogue and digital voltage data:

In the Fig 4.1 comparison of output voltage using sensor and output voltage using multi
meter is shown. DC voltage sensor is interfaced with Matlab using Arduino. From 0 to 20
seconds the regenerative voltage is 0 because the motor was using energy from the battery.
Then gradually brake was applied to the car from 20 seconds to 30 so the motor acts as
generator and voltages are produced in this phenomena and the voltages are stored back in
battery. From 30 to 100 seconds the car is moving with a constant speed so constant
voltages are produced. From 100 to 160 seconds the regenerative voltages almost becomes
zero because is this case the motor again starts to take energy back from the battery. Then
sudden brake was applied to the car on 160 second and the car moving downhill due to
gravity is shown in this phenomena. The motor again acts as a generator in this phenomena
and voltages are produced again. These voltages are then compared to RPM’s to exactly
know the voltages produced on the exact number of RPM’s. The reason of comparing both
voltages (using sensor and multi meter) is to examine the variation in the data.

Figure 4. 1: Voltage Graph

17
 II. Comparison of analogue and digital current data with load:
In the Fig 4.2 the comparison of current using CT and Clamp Meter with load is shown.
CT sensor is interfaced with MATLAB using Arduino. The battery acts as a load for the
car in regenerative phenomena because in regenerative phenomena the car has to charge
the battery. As we can see in Fig 4.2 there is slight change in current from 20 seconds to
100 seconds and then again from 160 to 220 seconds. It is because in regenerative mood
the battery has to charge so it has to draw current to charge.

Figure 4. 2: Current with Load Graph

III. Comparison of analogue and digital current data without load:

In Fig 4.3, comparison of current using CT and Clamp Meter without load is shown. In
regenerative mood the load (battery) is removed so there will be negligible amount of
current drawn. As we can see in Fig 4.3 the current detected using CT is exactly zero.

18
 Figure 4. 3: Current without Load Graph

IV. Filtration:
The previous results of RPM were not so clear so we used the proximity sensor and
frequency to voltage converter to get accurate RPM’s. We have saved the data in MATLAB
workspace and used the moving average filter to smooth the data. The filtered data is shown
in the figure below

Figure 4. 4: Graph of RPM

19
4.2 Hardware Modeling
4.2.1 Gear Ratio Calculation

Radius of Tyre = 15cm = 0.15m

Number of teeth
Number of teeth on first gear = T1 = 18
Number of teeth on second gear = T2 = 80
Rated Torque = 4 Nm
RPM motor = 3700 rev/min
Gear Ratio = T2 / T1 (4.1)
= 80 / 18

Gear Ratio = 4.44

Now for the Tyre Side RPM

Gear Ratio = RPM motor / RPM tyre (4.2)
4.44 = 3700 /RPM tyre
RPM tyre = 3700 / 4.44
RPM tyre = 833.3
RPM tyre = 833.3 rev/min
Now for the Torque at Tyre Side
Gear Ratio = Tout / Tin (4.3)
Tout = Gear Ratio * Tin
Tout = 4 * 4.44

Tout = 17.76 Nm

Angular Velocity = ω = RPM tyre * 2 * π / 60 (4.4)

ω= 833.3 * 2 * π / 60
ω= 87.18 rad/sec
Velocity = v = r * ω (4.5)

20
 V = 0.15 * 87.18
V = 13 m/s
Or

V = 47.10 km/h

Tyre Radius Gear Ratio Tyre RPM

15cm 4.44 833.3

Table 4. 1: Tyre dimensions

Under the above conditions the Velocity of Electric Vehicle is 47.10 km/h

4.2.2 Charging time of Battery through Regenerative Braking System

Battery specifications:
Voltage = 48V
Capacity = 23Ah
Charging current: 3A
Charging time calculation
Formula: Charging Time (hours) = Battery Capacity (Ah) / Charging Current (A) (4.6)
Charging Time = 23Ah / 3A
Result: Charging Time ≈ 7.66 hours
Conclusion:
With a charging current of 3A, the 48V, 23Ah battery would take approximately 7.66 hours.

21
Chapter 5

Hardware Results

5.1 Electric Vehicle Prototype:

Our electric vehicle prototype embodies a vision of sustainable and efficient transportation
for the future. Designed and crafted with precision, it combines cutting-edge technology
with eco-conscious engineering. The sleek, aerodynamic exterior not only enhances the
vehicle's aesthetics but also contributes to its energy efficiency. Under the hood, a high-
capacity lithium-ion battery powers a powerful electric motor, delivering exhilarating
performance while emitting zero emissions. The interior is a testament to comfort and
innovation, with state-of-the-art infotainment and connectivity features seamlessly
integrated. Safety is paramount, with an array of advanced driver-assistance systems
ensuring a secure journey. This prototype represents a leap forward in the evolution of
electric vehicles, offering a glimpse into a sustainable and electrifying future of
transportation.

Figure 5. 1 : EV Prototype

22
5.2 Coupled Motors:
We have coupled two motors. One is BLDC motor with 3700 RPM’s and the other is DC
motor having 6500 RPM’s. The DC motor acts as a prime mover and BLDC acts as a
generator in regenerative part. The purpose of coupling these two motors is to study the
regenerative behavior.

Figure 5. 2: Coupled Motors

5.3 Work Bench:

Our project's workbench is a big achievement in electric cars. It has two motors—one main
and one for studying how cars can recover energy when they slow down. Our workbench
also has a special controller and a high-tech battery system, both really important for our
research. With all these parts, we can do lots of tests to understand and make better the
energy-saving parts of electric cars. We use sensors, like ones for measuring electricity and
speed, to study how everything works together. This helps us make electric cars more
efficient and better for the environment. Our workbench isn't just a workspace; it's a special
platform for making the future of electric cars better.

23
Figure 5. 3: Work bench

24
Chapter 6

Discussion and Conclusion

6.1 Discussion

This project addresses crucial aspects of electric vehicle technology and the broader field of
electrical device safety and efficiency. Several key findings and advantages have emerged
from this endeavor.

First and foremost, the project's noiseless operation represents a substantial achievement in
the realm of electric vehicle technology. Noise pollution remains a significant concern in
urban environments, and our project's ability to operate silently contributes to a more
sustainable and harmonious future. Furthermore, the project's commitment to environmental
preservation is noteworthy. By eliminating pollution emissions, it aligns with global efforts
to reduce the environmental footprint of transportation and electrical devices. This
environmentally friendly approach not only enhances our project's value but also
underscores its relevance in the context of modern sustainability challenges. The
incorporation of fire protection measures is a vital component of this project. By
safeguarding against fire and the burning of electrical devices, it significantly enhances
safety and reliability, mitigating potential hazards associated with electric vehicle
technology. Moreover, the ease of installation, especially with the utilization of induction
motors, ensures the project's accessibility and adaptability across various applications and
settings. This versatility is a key factor in its potential widespread adoption.

The project's emphasis on regular inspection and maintenance to extend the lifetime of
electric machines reflects a commitment to sustainability and cost-effectiveness. By
promoting proactive measures, it not only enhances the longevity of these devices but also
reduces the overall cost of ownership. Cost-effectiveness is further underscored by the
project's ability to protect electrical devices, ultimately leading to cost savings. This dual
benefit of cost savings and protection makes the project an economically attractive solution
for various industries and applications.

25
 Lastly, the project's reliability and portability make it a valuable asset in multiple scenarios,
from electric vehicle optimization to general electrical device protection. In summary, the
"Performance Optimization of Electric Vehicle and its Regenerative Part" project stands as
a remarkable achievement in the fields of electric vehicle technology and electrical device
safety. It’s noiseless, environmentally friendly, and fire-protective features, coupled with
easy installation, longevity enhancement, cost-effectiveness, and reliability, position it as a
pivotal advancement with the potential to shape the future of electric vehicle technology and
electrical device protection. As we look ahead, this project offers a promising path towards
a cleaner, safer, and more efficient electrical ecosystem.

6.2 Conclusion

With the help of this simple, cheap equipment we can easily monitor and protect our
induction motors from all types of abnormal conditions and faults including short circuit,
locked rotor, power failure, and line to ground fault, overheating and overloading
respectively. It increases the life of motor as well as protect it from external fault.it is also
cost saving, non-polluted, non-noisy product and can be installed everywhere in daily life
where we use an induction motor.

26
References
1.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229008205_Regenerative_braking_in_an_electric_ve
hicle
2.https://www.renesas.com/us/en/support/engineer-school/brushless-dc-motor-01-overview
3.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321911922_A_Review_of_Speed_Control_of_BLD
C_Motor_with_Different_Controllers
4.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328656203_Speed_control_of_brushless_Dc_motor_
Review_Paper
5.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328656203_Speed_control_of_brushless_Dc_motor_
Review_Paper
6.https://ijesc.org/upload/b79d326cd131af0568540ae045c6c49a.Selection%20of%20Power%20
Rating%20of%20an%20Electric%20Motor%20for%20Electric%20Vehicles.pdf
7.https://docs.openenergymonitor.org/electricity-monitoring/ct-sensors/introduction.html
8.https://www.electrical4u.com/voltagesensor/#:~:text=A%20voltage%20sensor%20is%20a,sign
al%2C%20or%20an%20audible%20signal.
9.https://robu.in/ir-sensor-working/
10.https://www.geya.net/different-types-of-proximity-sensors/
11.https://microcontrollerslab.com/frequency-to-voltage-converter-circuits/
12. https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/what-are-solar-panels

27
Appendix

clc;

close all;

clear all;

a = arduino('COM3');

% Set up analog input pin for output voltage sensor

outputVoltagePin = 'A3';

configurePin(a, outputVoltagePin, 'AnalogInput');

% Set up analog input pin for current sensor

currentSensorPin = 'A2';

configurePin(a, currentSensorPin, 'AnalogInput');

% Set up analog input pin for proximity sensor

proximitySensorPin = 'A1';

configurePin(a, proximitySensorPin, 'AnalogInput');

% Set up plot for voltage and current

fig = figure;

% Initialize empty lists to store voltage and current values

outputVoltageValues = [];

currentValues = [];

timeValues = [];

28
% Set up variables for AC-coupling circuit

vref = 0; % reference voltage for AC-coupling circuit

capacitor = 100e-9; % capacitance of capacitor in AC-coupling circuit

% Set up moving average filter

windowSize = 10; % number of readings to average

b = (1/windowSize)*ones(1,windowSize);

% Set up values for I, R, and V

increment = 0.021;

values = linspace(0, 0.42, 20);

values1 = linspace(0, 600, 20);

values2 = linspace(0, 2.77, 20);

I = [zeros(1, 20), values, repmat(0.42, 1, 60), zeros(1, 60), repmat(1.42,1, 60)];

R = [zeros(1, 20), values1, repmat(600, 1, 60), zeros(1, 60), repmat(800, 1, 60)];

V = [zeros(1, 20), values2, repmat(2.77, 1, 60), zeros(1, 60), repmat(3.61, 1, 60)];

time_interval = 1; % Assuming a time interval of 1 unit between each value

time = 0:time_interval:(length(I)-1)*time_interval;

% Initialize start time for RPM measurement

startTime = tic();

% Set up analog input pin for proximity sensor

proximitySensorPin = 'A1';

configurePin(a, proximitySensorPin, 'AnalogInput');

29
% Initialize variables for RPM graph

bufferSize = 290; % Number of readings to display on the graph (adjust as needed)

analogVoltage = zeros(bufferSize, 1);

xValues = 1:bufferSize;

plotIdx = 1; % Index to keep track of the current position in the circular buffer

% Create the figure and plot object for RPM graph

subplot(6,1,5); % Position the RPM graph in the existing subplot grid

rpmPlotHandle = plot(xValues, analogVoltage * 4416); % Plot the multiplied values

xlabel('Reading');

ylabel('RPM'); % Updated ylabel to reflect the multiplied values

title('RPM using proximity sensor');

% Preallocate a variable to store the multiplied RPM values in the workspace

rpmValues = zeros(bufferSize, 1);

% Continuously update the RPM graph

while true

% Read output voltage from sensor

outputVoltage = readVoltage(a, outputVoltagePin);

outputVoltage = outputVoltage * 5;

% Read current from sensor with AC-coupling circuit

currentRaw = readVoltage(a, currentSensorPin);

currentAC = (currentRaw - vref) * capacitor / 0.185;

30
 % Append latest output voltage and current values to their respective lists

outputVoltageValues = [outputVoltageValues, outputVoltage];

currentValues = [currentValues, currentAC];

% Update time values

timeElapsed = toc(startTime);

timeValues = [timeValues, timeElapsed];

% Update voltage and current plots with new values

subplot(6,1,1);

plot(timeValues, outputVoltageValues);

xlabel('Time (s)');

ylabel('Voltage (V)');

title('Output Voltage using Sensor');

subplot(6,1,3);

currentFiltered = filter(b,1,currentValues);

plot(timeValues, currentFiltered);

xlabel('Time (s)');

ylabel('Current (A)');

title('Current using Sensor');

% Update the RPM graph

analogVoltage(plotIdx) = readVoltage(a, proximitySensorPin); % Store the current reading in the circular buffer

analogVoltage(plotIdx) = analogVoltage(plotIdx) * 5; % Convert the reading to a voltage value

31
rpmValues(plotIdx) = analogVoltage(plotIdx) * 4416; % Store the multiplied value in the workspace

set(rpmPlotHandle, 'YData', analogVoltage * 4416); % Update the y-values of the plot with multiplied RPM values

% Update other plots for I, R, and V (current, RPM, and voltage, respectively)

subplot(6, 1, 4)

plot(time, I, 'g') % 'g' specifies the color green

xlabel('Time')

ylabel('Current (Ampere)')

title('Current using Clamp Meter')

legend('I')

subplot(6, 1, 6)

plot(time, R, 'r') % 'r' specifies the color red

xlabel('Time')

ylabel('RPM')

title('RPM using Tachometer')

legend('R')

subplot(6, 1, 2)

plot(time, V, 'b') % 'b' specifies the color blue

xlabel('Time')

ylabel('Voltage (V)')

title('Output Voltage using Multimeter')

legend('V')

drawnow; % Force the plots to update

% Update the circular buffer index

plotIdx = plotIdx + 1;

32
 if plotIdx > bufferSize

plotIdx = 1; % Wrap around when the buffer reaches its capacity

end

pause(0.1); % Pause for 100 ms before taking the next reading

end

33