FOUNDATION

Foundation is the lowest part of a

super-structure and transmit the
loads (live load, wind load) on the
structure including the dead
weight of the structure transmit
to the soil below.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION
• DEEP FOUNDATION
• SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Shallow foundation
Foundation is placed immediately lowest part of the super
structure, is termed as shallow foundation.
We use shallow foundation to distribute the structural loads
over a wide horizontal area at a shallow below the ground
level.

TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

➢ SPREAD FOOTING
➢ COMBINED FOOTING
➢ MAT OR RAFT FOUNDATION
➢ GRILLAGE FOOTING
➢ ECCENTRICALLY LOADED FOOTING
SPREAD FOOTINGS
SPREAD FOOTINGS ARE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
USED TO SUPPORT COLUMNS AND WALLS AND
TO TRANSMIT AND DISTRIBUTE THEIR LOADS TO
THE SOIL.

TYPES OF SPREAD FOOTING

• WALL FOOTING
• REINFORCED CONCRETE FOOTINGS
• INVERTED ARCH FOOTING
• COLUMN FOOTINGS

COMBINED FOOTINGS
USUALLY SUPPORT TWO COLUMNS, OR THREE COLUMNS
NOT IN A ROW.

COMBINED FOOTINGS ARE USED WHEN TOW COLUMNS

ARE SO CLOSE THAT SINGLE FOOTINGS CANNOT BE USED
OR WHEN ON COLUMN IS LOCATED AT OR NEAR A
PROPERTY LINE.
 Grillage foundation
Grillage foundations consist of a number of
layers of beams usually laid at right angles to
each other and used to disperse heavy point
loads from the superstructure to an
acceptable ground bearing pressure.

Raft foundation
Foundation which consists
of thick reinforced
concrete slab covering
the entire area of the
bottom of the structure
like a floor. This
foundation was invented
by John Root at Chicago
in 19th century.
• Why Raft Foundation?
• Base soil has low
bearing capacity or the column loads are so large that more
than 50% of the area is covered by
• conventional spread footings.
• Resist unequal settlement due to earthquake.
• Quickness of the construction work.

LIMITATIONS OF SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONs
• A huge amount of earthwork is to be done in Mat foundation.

• If the shoring system cannot resist the pressure of outside land,

then the structure surrounding the area may be damaged by
deflection of soil.

• Ground water may come out when the earthwork is done.

• Limited to dealing with point loads. foundation

ADVANTAGES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION

• It is a quick process compared to others in the construction work.

• This type of foundation is also economically cheaper than any

other foundations.

• Though there are some limitations in mat foundation still it is

economical in some cases.

•It can resist ground water absorption.

• The damage due to earthquake is lesser than any other type of

foundation.

• It consists of a reinforced concrete slab which is more thicker

than footing foundation.

• It prevents unequal settlements.

Deep Foundation:
A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers
building loads to the earth farther down from the surface
than a shallow foundation does to a subsurface layer or a
range of depth
Generally constructed depth over 3m.

Purpose:

Deep foundation is used for the following purposes:

• When the foundation is supposed to carry loads at depth.

• If the soil beneath structure to be constructed is weak

compressible soil.

• When the soil is non-suitable, Deep foundations are used to transfer

the load to a deeper strata containing strong soil or rock.

Types of Deep Foundation:

➢ Basement Foundation.
➢ Buoyancy Rafts Or Hollow Box Foundations.
➢ Well Foundation Or Caissons.
➢ Pier Foundation.
➢ Drilled Shaft Foundation.
➢ PILE FOUNDATION
 BASEMENT FOUNDATION
These are constructed when some space
below ground level is required. These
substructures provide working place
or storage space for various purpose.
Pile Foundations. These are constructed
when some space below ground level is
required. These substructures provide
working place or storage space for
various purpose. Designing method
depends on the purpose of structure
rather than resistance to external earth (Pressure of nearby soil)
and hydrostatic pressure.If they're built in correct way, they will
hold up better in longevity than the others types of foundation.

Advantages:

• More, Cheap Square Footage.

• Seasonal Living Space i.e., warm in winter and cool in summer.
• Easy-Access for Repairs.
• Storm Protection.

Disadvantages:

• Increased cost
• Potential FLOODING
• Note: The best scenario to prevent potential flooding is
ensuring a natural path for drainage.
• Lack of Natural Light.
Buoyancy Rafts
Foundation
This type of foundation is
constructed over soft and weak
soils. When loaded, it acts as a
floating (buoyant) structure and
designed in a way that it reduces the
intensity of load over the soil.
It is a type of Floating foundation.
• Also known as Hollow Box
Foundations, Compensated
Foundations or Deep Cellular Rafts.
• These are called Compensated foundations because the soil
below the foundation is
• removed during the construction process. The weight of
superstructure is equal to weight of soil and water removed.
Like this, the removed weight is compensated by the weight of
the superstructure.

Design Considerations for Buoyancy Raft:

❖ Depth of the excavation is determined initially, from the plan.

❖ Center of gravity to remove overburden that should be equal
to sustain the structural buoyancy.
❖ Basement design decided should be compared with the opinions
and needs of client.
❖ Water pressure calculation for checking the flotation.
❖ Finally design details for external walls, floors and
separating walls is prepared. The main design concern is earth
pressure, moments and the shear forces. Consideration of
special flotation design is must.

Advantages:

Elevation of a structure protects it from water levels .

Soil settlement chances are reduced due to the fact that the total
weight of structure is equal to the removed soil or water

Note that slight increases in loading will not bring any extreme
change in settlement limit.
Disadvantages:

• Due to larger depths of weak soils, excavation also increases,

hence increasing the project cost.
• Catastrophic movement can occurs if excavation beyond the
critical depth of stability is done.
• Earth pressure from surrounding soft soils may cause
settlement to the support of foundations.
• Space is wasted .
• There are possibilities of leakage of gasses into these hollow
cells. As these situations are unaware, they remain unventilated.
This would cause unexpected explosions, even if there are
smalls chances of ignition anywhere around.

Well foundation/caissons

Are box like, circular or

rectangular structures which are
sunk from the surface of either
land or water to desired/required
depth.
• From inside, they are hollow and
can be filled with sand and
plugged at the bottom.
• The have larger diameter that
pile foundation.

Purpose/suitability:
 • Deep sandy or soft soils.
• Heavy structures on low bearing capacity soils.

Advantages:

• Economical.
• Environmental friendly.
• Can be reached to great depths.
• Minimum handling equipment is required.

Disadvantages:

• Expert engineers are required to design construction. You sent

• Workers may experience giddiness, breaking of eardrums,
bursting of blood vessels in the nose or ears and end up in
paralytic death which is known as caisson disease.
• Help of divers can be required.
• Not good for polluted sites.
• Construction process is difficult.

Pier foundation
A pier foundation is a collection of
large diameter cylindrical columns to
support the superstructure and transfer
large super-imposed loads to the firm
strata below. It stood several feet above
the ground.

Also known as "Post foundation".

Advantages:
• Less labor and materials required.
• Minimal disruption to soil environment.
• A lot of variety in designs.
• Saves money and time.
• As diameter of shafts is greater, inspection is possible.
• Design can be changed by Engineers is desired.
Drilled shaft
Drilled shafts are also called drilled piers, caissons or
bored piles.
These are used to support structures having large axial and
lateral loads.
• These foundations are constructed by drilling a borehole
within a deep excavation then concrete or some other pre-
fabricated load-bearing units is placed in it.
• Length and size can be changed easily.
• Shaft foundations can be constructed near existing structure
sand under low overhead conditions due to which they can be
used in numerous seismic retrofit projects.
• It can be difficult to install them in soils with boulders, soft
soil, loose sand, and sand under water.

Construction steps:

➢ Excavation of piers
➢ Providing supports
➢ Concreting

Pile foundation

Piles are relatively long, slender

members that Column transmit foundation
loads through soil strata of low bearing
capacity to deeper soil or rock strata
having a high bearing capacity.

• Pile Cap It is a type of foundation that is supported on piles. It

consists of a base called, pile cap Pile (RCC slab) support at
bottoms by piles.
• The load to the soil in contact is transferred by piles either
by friction only or by friction in combination with bearing at
their ends.
Purpose/suitability:

• When the soil is very soft and solid base is not available at
reasonable depth.
• When grillage and raft foundations prove to be very
expensive. High building with heavy concentrated loads.
• Construction of a building along river bed or sea shore.
• Can also be used to help resist uplift, overturning, and
lateral forces.

Type of pile foundation:

End bearing
• Piles which terminate in hard,
relatively impenetrable
material such as rock or very
dense sand and gravel.

• Most of carrying capacity is acquired from the resistance of

the stratum below pile at its toe
 Friction piles
• Most of carrying capacity is
acquired from the by skin friction
or adhesion.
• When piles do not reach an
impenetrable stratum at a
reasonable depth, but are driven
for some distance into a penetrable
soil. Their carrying capacity is
derived partly from end bearing and partly from skin
friction between the embedded surface of the soil and the
surrounding soil

Settlement reducing piles

• Beneath the central part of a raft

foundation, these piles are
incorporated in order to reduce
differential settlement to an
acceptable level.
• Such piles act as a reinforcement
beneath the soil below the raft and
prevent dishing of the raft in the
center.

Uses Of Pile Foundation:

• High groundwater beneath the structure.

• High and non-uniform load of superstructure.
• Presence of highly compressible soil at shallow depth.
• Location of the structure near the river bed or sea
shore.
• Passage of canal or deep drainage systems near the
structure.
Reference:

A Visual Dictionary Of Architecture : Francis D.K. Ching : Free

Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive

DIFFERENT TYPE OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION | PPT (slideshare.net)

Types of deep foundation | PDF (slideshare.net)

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
ARC 142 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 2

UP-FA1-BSAR3-03
MONDAY & WEDNESDAY (10:30AM - 12:30NN)

“COMPARATIVE OF FRAMING SYSTEMS –

CONCRETE, STEEL AND WOODEN FRAMING”

RESEARCH WORK NO. 2

26 AUGUST 2024

AR. MARIE ALYSSON MEJIA

i n s t r u c t o r

QUINTOS, JEREMIAH DAVE I.

s t u d e n t
FRAME
A Skeletal structure of relatively slender members designed to give shape and support to
a building or other construction.

FRAMING
The act, process, or manner of fitting and joining together relatively slender members to
give shape and support to a structure.

THREE (3) TYPES OF FRAMING SYSTEMS:

• Concrete Framing
• Steel Framing
• Wood Framing

CONCRETE
FRAMING
Concrete frame construction is a
construction method which comprises a
network of columns and beams to
transfer the loads coming onto the
structure to the foundation successfully.
Wholistically, it forms a structural skeleton
for the building which is used to support
other members such as Floors, Roof,
Walls, and Claddings.

TYPICAL RC FRAMING
 TYPE OF FRAME STRUCTURE

RIGID FRAME STRUCTURE

These frames are built at the site and may or may not be
poured monolithically. They provide more stability and
resist rotations effectively. The advantage of a rigid
frame is that they feature positive and negative bending
moments throughout the structure due to the interaction
of walls, beams, and slabs.

BRACED FRAME STRUCTURE

This frame structure resists lateral forces by the bracing
action of diagonal members used to resist the sideways
forces. The structure is braced by inserting diagonal
structural members into the rectangular areas of a
structural frame. Braced structural frames are more
efficient than the rigid structural frame.

MAJOR PARTS OF CONCRETE

FRAME CONSTRUCTION

COLUMNS IN FRAMED STRUCTURE

The loads carried may be
axial or eccentric. Design of
columns is more important
than the design of beams
and slabs. This is because, if
one beam fails, it'll be a local
failure of one floor, but if one
column fails, it can lead to
the collapse of the whole
structure.
 BEAMS IN FRAMED STRUCTURE

Beams are the horizontal load-

bearing members of the framed
structure. They carry the loads
from slabs and also the direct
loads of masonry walls and their
self-weights.

The beams may be supported on

the other beams or may be
supported by columns forming
an integral part of the frame.
These are primarily the flexural
members.

They are classified into 2 types:

1. Main Beams - Transmitting floor and secondary beam loads to

the columns.
2. Secondary Beams - Transmitting floor loads to the main beams

SLAB IN FRAMED STRUCTURE

A slab is a flat horizontal

place that is used for
covering the building from
the above and provide
shelter for the inhabitants.
These are the plate element
and carry the loads primarily
by flexure. They usually carry
vertical loads.

Under the action of horizontal loads, due to a large moment of inertia, they can
carry large wind and earthquake forces, and then transfer them to the beam.
 FOUNDATION IN FRAMED STRUCTURE

The sole function of the

foundation is to transmit the
load coming from the above
columns and beams to the solid
ground.

SHEER WALLS IN FRAMED STRUCTURE

These are important structural

elements in high-rise buildings.
Shear walls are actually very large
columns because of which they
appear like walls rather than
columns. They take care of the
horizontal loads like wind
and earthquake loads.

Shear walls also carry vertical loads. It’s important to understand that they only work
for horizontal loads in one direction, which is the axis of the long dimension of the
wall.
 ELEVATOR SHAFT IN FRAME STRUCTURE

The elevator shaft is a vertical

concrete box in which the
elevator is provided to move
up and down. These shafts
help in resisting horizontal
loads and also carry the
vertical loads.

ADVANTAGES OF FRAMED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

• It is good in compression when compared to the other materials used for
construction. Besides, the structure is good in tension as well.
• Its resistance to fire is better than steel so it is capable of resisting fire for a longer
time.
• It has a long service life with low maintenance cost.
• In some structures like piers, dams, and footings, it is the most economical
structural material.
• It can be cast to any shape required, making it the most economical structural
material.
• It yields rigid members with minimum deflection.
• The yield strength of steel is about 15 times the compressive strength of structural
concrete and well over 100 times its tensile strength.
• By using steel in a concrete the cross-sectional dimension would get reduced.
• Less skilled labors are required for erection as compared to other structural
systems.
 DISADVANTAGES OF FRAMED CONCRETE STRUCTURE
• It needs meticulous mixing, casting and curing, all of which affect the final
strength of the member.

• The cost of formwork used to cast concrete is relatively high.

• It has low compressive strength when compared to steel which leads to large
sections of columns/beams in multistory buildings, cracks development in
concrete due to shrinkage and the application of live loads is high.

• If concreting is not done properly, the steel starts corroding thereby losing
strength and ultimately the life gets reduced. Also, the repairs are then very
expensive and difficult.

STEEL FRAMING
Steel framing systems typically refers
SYSTEMS to a building technique with a
“skeleton frame” of vertical steel
columns and horizontal I-beams,
created in an exceedingly
rectangular grid to support the floors,
roof and walls of a building that are
all hooked up to the frame. the
event of this system created the
development of the building
possible.

The rolled steel “profile” or cross section of steel columns takes the form of the letter
“I”. the 2 wide flanges of a column are thicker and wider than the flanges on a
beam, to higher stand up to compressive stress within the structure. sq. and spherical
hollow sections of steel can even be used, typically stuffed with concrete. Steel
beams are connected to the columns with bolts and rib fasteners, and traditionally
connected by rivets. The central “web” of the steel I-beams is commonly wider than
a column net to resist the upper bending moments that occur in beams.
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING SYSTEM
• Skeleton steel framing

• Wall bearing steel framing

• Long span steel framing

SKELETON STEEL FRAMING SYSTEM

Skeleton steel frame is composed

of steel beams and columns which
are connected using proper
connection. Steel beams around
perimeter of the structure is termed
as spandrel beams on which
masonry walls are placed.

TYPES OF BOLTED CONNECTION:

There are different types and

configurations of steel connections
which are used to connect steel
beams to columns in skeleton
frame structure, for example, bolt
connection and welded
connections.

➢ It should be known that all gravity loads in skeleton frame structure are
supported by beams and columns. The distance between columns can be
established according to the functions and requirements of the structure.
Therefore, there are no restrictions that limit the area of the floor and roof of the
building. Multistorey structures are possible to construct using skeleton framing.
 WALL BEARING STEEL FRAMING SYSTEM

In a wall bearing steel framing structure,

building wall whether it is interior or
exterior is used to carry the end of
structural members that support floor or
roof loads. Wall bearing should be
adequately strong to not only be able
to carry vertical reactions but also to
resist any imposed horizontal loads. Wall
bearing framing is suitable for the
construction of low-rise structure. This is
because the size of the bearing wall
must be increased significantly to
The end of steel beam, which support withstand considerably loads exerted in
floor loads, is installed on walls, the case of multistorEy buildings.
intermediary support (cylindrical steel
column) applied to support the beam
because the span is large

This problem might be solved to certain extent if the reinforced concrete walls are
applied. There are several cases in which wall bearing frame system is suitable to be
used. For example, single story house in which steel beams are used to carry wall
and floor loads and the end of the steel beams are placed on foundation walls, as
shown in Figure-6. A further application of wall bearing system application is the
utilization of steel beams known as lintels over wall openings like doors and windows.

Using Steel Beam to Support Using Steel Beam to Support

Masonry Lintels Masonry Lintels
 LONG SPAN STEEL FRAMING
Long span steel framing is considered when large clearance is required and such
long spanning cannot be realized using steel beams and columns. Long span steel
framing options can be categorized into different types, for instance, girders, trusses,
rigid frames, arches and cantilever suspension spans.

LONG SPAN STEEL FRAMING STYLES, THEIR APPLICATIONS AND

VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS

Long span framing Application condition Various types or

system types configuration of the
given long span framing
system class

Girders It is selected for the case Roller beams, Riveted

where depth of the girder, welded girder,
member is restricted over heavy girder, hybrid girder,
a large unobstructed area and a girder consist of two
in lower storeys. The girder girder fastened
should support loads from
above storeys across
cleared area.

It can be used for the case

where restriction on the
element depth is not
imposed. it an economical
Truss way of spanning long Pratt, warren, fink, scissor,
distances provided that bow string and Virendeel
depth limitation is not
existed. Trusses are better
compare with other option
in controlling deflections
due to better stiffness.

It is used to carry walls and Hinge less arches, two

roof with open or solid web hinged arches and three
Arches arches hinged arches
Long span framing Application condition Various types or
system types configuration of the
given long span framing
system class
It is used to span long
distances. it is aesthetically
pleasing that is why
Rigid Frames applied in the construction Single span rigid frame,
of churches, gymnasiums, welded rigid frame.
auditoriums, bowling alleys
and shopping centers

Different types of trusses used in steel structure construction

Types of Arches Used for Steel Structure Construction

Single Span Rigid

Frame
WHERE STEEL FRAMES STRUCTURES ARE USED
Steel construction is most often used in:

• High rise buildings because of its strength, low weight, and speed of
construction
• Industrial buildings because of its ability to create large span spaces at
low cost
• Warehouse buildings for the same reason
• Residential buildings in a technique called light gauge steel construction
• Temporary Structures as these are quick to set up and remove

ADVANTAGES
BUILDABILITY
In light gauge steel framing construction, structure and nonstructural members
are produced in factory. This would decrease works at project site, declines
waste, and enhance quality of construction.

LIGHTWEIGHT
The weight of light weight steel framing system is considerably low which require
smaller size of foundation, and can be handled easily.

STRENGTH
The light gauge steel has great strength even though its weight is low. This is one
of the most crucial advantage of this construction material.

DESIGN FLEXIBILITY
The strength of light gauge steel frames permit longer spans, larger open spaces
without the need for intermediate columns or load bearing walls.
SPEED OF CONSTRUCTION
The structural steel frame can be erected quickly since the structural members
are prefabricated and can be easily handled due to their lightweight.

STRUCTURAL SAFETY
The strength and noncombustible properties of steel enables it to withstand fires,
earthquakes, and hurricanes.

QUALITY
Buildings constructed with light gauge steel frames have good quality which not
only durable but also its maintenance low. It neither rot, shrink, warp nor suffer
decomposition.

REMODEL EASILY
Light gauge steel frame construction can be modified at any point in its life
service. Non-load bearing walls can be readily relocated, removed or altered.

RECYCLABLE
All steel products are recyclable.

DISADVANTAGES
o It is non-combustible material, but it must be protected from fire with fire
rated sheeting since it loses its strength in fire.

o Light framed structures allow the passage of sound which is undesirable.

As a result, it requires soundproofing, and thermal insulation.
WOOD FRAMING
SYSTEM
Wood framing is a structural
building system where various
vertical and horizontal elements
are fitted together and
combined through mortise and
tenon joints to create a desired
structure and frame. The
components used in wood
framing are integral in supporting
and building internal and
external fixtures such as walls,
floors, and roofs.

Each frame comprises components such as studs, joists, and rafters that are
assembled to form a sheathed structure under stud-connecting sheets.

Wood frame construction is one of the most widely used methods to build residential,
commercial and industrial buildings. Wood frames are not only very economical to
build but are also resistant to extreme climatic variations, and offer residents a high
degree of comfort. Added to that, wood frames are sustainable and absorb carbon
and offset greenhouse gasses.

Wood frames can be used to construct different styles of buildings and there cannot
be any restriction on architectural possibilities when wood is the medium. In order for
a wood building to perform its expected functions, it is necessary to construct it
judiciously and this can be achieved by using sound construction and erection
practices. For instance, wood frames are light in weight and hence it does not
require cranes and other heavy machinery for the erection process therefore
contributing to the economic aspect of construction.

METHODS OF WOOD FRAME CONSTRUCTION

• Platform Frame Construction

• Balloon Frame Construction

• Plank and Beam Frame Construction

• Truss-Framed Construction
 PLATFORM FRAME
CONSTRUCTION
It is an easy method and mostly suitable
for the construction of houses. In this
technique, first-floor joists are covered
with sub-flooring to create a surface
upon which exterior walls and interior
partitions are erected.

In the platform system, wall framing can

be assembled on the floor and the
entire unit can be tilted into its place.

BALLOON FRAME
CONSTRUCTION
It is another method of wood frame
construction which although is a bit less
popular compared to platform frame
construction, but is utilized when the
conditions ask for it. In this method,
exterior wall studs and first-floor joists are
supported by anchored sill. The exterior
wall studs are continuous to the second
floor. The second-floor joists are
supported by ribbon strip which are
inserted into the inside edges of exterior
wall studs.
PLANK AND BEAM
FRAME CONSTRUCTION
In this framing method, beams, whose
ends are supported by posts, are
spaced at a maximum of 2.4m and
planks are used to cover floors and
roofs. The posts provide wall framing
and planks act as subflooring and roof
sheathing. Wall sheathing is attached
to supplementary framing between
posts. Roof and floor loads imposed
on beams, then get transferred to the
posts and are finally received by
foundations.

TRUSS-FRAMED
CONSTRUCTION
In this frame construction
method, roof truss, floor truss
and metal anchors are used
to build strong wood frames.
Outstanding advantages of
trussed frames are
substantial rigidity and wider
spacing of roof and floor
supporting members.
TYPES OF FASTENINGS FOR WOOD FRAME
There are various fastening means which can be selected based on the size of wood
elements and exerted loads used to attach different elements of wood frames
together. Most common fastening techniques are:

1. Nails or Combination of Nails, Anchor and Additives

Nails or combination of nails, metal framing anchor, and construction additives are
used to fasten framing lumber and sheathing panels.

2. Ring or Shank Nails

Ring or shank nails are used when high loads are to be supported

3. Nailed Joints
Nailed joints are used when loads act at right angles to nails, but it should be avoided if
loads act parallel to the nail.

WOOD PROTECTION MEASURES

Provision of proper means to protect wood is an indicator of good construction
practice. Wood frame elements, specifically all the foundation members, shall be
protected against decay and termites.

Basic protection measures include the removal of tree root in areas around the
structure prior to backfilling, carefully tamp loose backfill to decrease future settlement,
and provide certain degree of slopes at foundation and over the building to force
water away from the structure.

Finally, all wood structural elements shall be treated based on the exposure to weather
and closeness to ground.

MASS TIMBER
“Mass timber” refers to larger projects that are entirely or predominantly built using
wooden supports. These buildings include not only heavy timber and dimensional
lumber elements, but also new and innovative—and typically fire resistant—products
like Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT), Nail-Laminated Timber (NLT), and Glue Laminated
Beams (GLB). These materials as well as other design innovations have made mass-
timber constructions an increasingly popular—and safe—alternative to concrete and
steel designs.
Mass timber is a category of framing styles typically characterized by the use of large
solid wood panels for wall, floor and roof construction. It also includes innovative forms
of sculptural buildings, and non-building structures formed from solid wood panel or
framing systems of 6 feet or more in width or depth. Products in the mass timber family
include:

CROSS-LAMINATED
TIMBER
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a wood
panel typically consisting of three, five, or
seven layers of dimension lumber
oriented at right angles to one another
and then glued to form structural panels
with exceptional strength, dimensional
stability and rigidity. CLT can be
manufactured to customized dimensions
and panel sizes vary by manufacturer
while length is usually limited by
transportation restrictions.

Because of CLT’s structural properties and dimensional stability, this mass timber
product is well suited to floors, walls and roofs used in mid-rise construction. The wall
and floor panels may be left exposed in the interior which provides additional
aesthetic attributes. The panels are used as prefabricated building components
which can speed up construction practices or allow for off-site construction.

GLUE-LAMINATED
TIMBER (GLULAM)
Glue Laminated Timber (Glulam) is
composed of individual wood laminations
(dimension lumber), specifically selected
and positioned based on their
performance characteristics, and then
bonded together with durable, moisture-
resistant adhesives. The grain of all
laminations runs parallel with the length of
the member.
Glulam can be used in horizontal applications as a beam, or vertically as a column.
Glulam has excellent strength and stiffness properties (pound for pound, it is stronger
than steel, and is available in a range of appearance grades for structural or
architectural applications.

NAIL-LAMINATED TIMBER

NLT offers a consistent and attractive

appearance for decorative and
exposed to view applications.
Sheathing can be added to one top
side to provide a structural
diaphragm and allows the product to
be used as a wall panel element.

Nail Laminated Timber (NLT or Nail-lam) is created by fastening individual

dimensional lumber, stacked on edge, into one structural element with nails. In
addition to being used in floors, decks and roofs, nail-lam panels have been used for
timber elevator and stair shafts.

DOWEL-LAMINATED
TIMBER
Dowel-laminated timber panels are a
next-generation mass timber product
commonly used in Europe. Panels are
made from softwood lumber boards
(2-by-4, 2-by-6, 2-by-8, etc.) stacked
like the boards of NLT and friction-fit
together with dowels. Typically made
from hardwood lumber, the dowels
hold each board side-by-side, similar to
how nails work in an NLT panel, and
the friction fit lends some dimensional
stability to the panel.

Among the advantages of DLT, acoustic strips can be integrated directly into the
bottom surface of a panel. This can help a designer achieve acoustic objectives,
while keeping the wood exposed and allowing for a wide variety of surface finishes.
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITE
LUMBER
SCL is a family of wood products
created by layering dried and
graded wood veneers, strands, or
flakes with moisture-resistant
adhesive into blocks of material,
which are subsequently re-sawn
into specified sizes.

Two SCL products—laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and laminated

strand lumber (LSL)—are relevant to the mass timber category, as they can be
manufactured as panels in sizes up to 8 feet wide, with varying thicknesses and
lengths, depending on the product and manufacturer. Parallel strand lumber (PSL)
columns are also commonly used in conjunction with other mass timber products.

WOOD-CONCRETE
COMPOSITES
Mass timber systems vary widely, and
hybrids are an option for wood high-rises,
very long spans, or other project-specific
requirements. No material is perfect for
every job, and it’s important for designers
to choose a combination of materials that
effectively meets the performance
objectives.

ADVANTAGES OF WOOD CONSTRUCTION:

SIMPLICITY OF CONSTRUCTION The wood beams, joists, and studs can be cut to
size onsite and, unlike some other construction materials, no heavy equipment is
required.

SPEED OF CONSTRUCTION While the frame is generally built on site, some

elements can be prefabricated allowing for greater control of details and less time
in construction.
SUSTAINABILITY Wooden buildings are, unlike concrete and steel ones, made
from a renewable resource and one that is especially abundant in North America:
trees.

CARBON-CAPTURE BENEFITS Over the course of its life cycle, trees remove
carbon from the air, but they return that captured carbon into the soil and the
atmosphere when they eventually decompose. When wood is used in the
construction of a house, however, the carbon remains trapped, at least as long as
the building still stands.

INSULATION Compared to other materials like glass, concrete, and steel, wood
has low-thermal conductivity—in other words, it retains heat and makes for a more
energy efficient home.

IMPROVED AIR QUALITY Some studies indicate that the air quality in wood
buildings is better, with fewer toxic emissions compared to some other construction
materials.

DISADVANTAGES:
WOOD ROT While huge advances have been made in the treatment of wood to
extend its life span, it still remains more subject to rot than concrete. Mold and
mildew can also be concerns with wood construction, though they can also be
avoided if attention is paid to moisture control, properly sealing windows, and taking
other preventative measures.

STRUCTURAL LIMITATIONS Wood is an excellent choice for many traditional

houses, especially those in a timber frame style. Some design features found in more
contemporary houses, however, like cantilevered elements or large windows, can
be difficult to achieve relying on wood frame construction. Concrete and steel
structures may be more appropriate choices for some contemporary home
designs.

FIRE RISKS The application of fire retardants and the installation of sprinkler systems
can limit the risk of fire in completed wood-frame buildings, but builders should be
aware of the fire hazards in the early stages of construction, when the wood frame is
largely exposed and unprotected.

BUILDING COADE LIMITATIONS While the International Code Council has

become more accepting of wood construction, in general these buildings still
cannot be as tall as others. Recent changes to building codes have, however,
created more alternatives. For example, a 2015 update allows for construction of
wood structures atop concrete podiums, allowing mostly wood constructions to
reach new heights.
SUMMARY:
Frame is a skeletal structure of slender members designed to shape and support
buildings. Framing is the process of fitting together slender members to shape and
support structures. Types of Framing Systems are Concrete Framing, Steel Framing,
Wood Framing. Concrete Framing involves a network of columns and beams that
transfer loads to the foundation, forming a structural skeleton. Key structures include
rigid frames that resist rotation and braced frames that counter lateral forces with
diagonal members.

Major parts of concrete frame construction are columns, beams and slabs. Columns
are crucial load-bearing elements; their failure can lead to overall collapse. And beam
has a horizontal element that supporting loads from slabs and other structures. While
slabs are flat surfaces for shelter, carrying vertical loads. Foundations is the transfer loads
from columns and beams to the ground. Shear walls are important in high-rise buildings
for managing horizontal loads. Elevator Shafts are the vertical concrete structures
aiding in load resistance. The advantages of concrete framing are good in
compression and tension, fire resistance, low maintenance, and flexibility in design;
however, it requires careful construction practices and has higher costs for materials
and labor.

Steel framing systems employs a skeleton of steel columns and beams, allowing for
flexible design and substantial load-bearing capacity. Types include skeleton steel
framing, wall-bearing framing, and long-span steel framing options like trusses and
girders. The advantages of steel framing are good buildability, lightweight, strong,
versatile design options, rapid construction, durability, and recyclable. Disadvantages
include susceptibility to fire, sound transmission, and requirements for protection against
corrosion.

Wood Framing involve in assembling vertical and horizontal elements through various
connections, widely used for its cost-effectiveness and sustainability. Common methods
include platform and balloon framing. The advantages of wood construction are easy
to construct, quick to build, sustainable, effective insulation, and improved air quality.
Disadvantages involve issues like rot, structural limitations, fire risks, and building code
restrictions. Mass Timber are larger projects with wooden supports that include
innovative materials such as Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) and Glue Laminated Timber
(Glulam). They enhance structural strength and aesthetic appeal.

CONCLUSION:
Each framing system has distinct advantages and disadvantages that provide a
specific construction needs, influencing the choice based on the project requirements.
REFERENCES:
A Visual Dictionary of Architecture - Second Edition Book

Light Gauge Steel Frame Building Construction – theconstructor.org

Concrete Frame Construction – Types and Major Components – theconstructor.org

What are the Types of Structural Steel Framing Systems? – theconstructor.org

Wood Frame Construction – theconstructor.org

Concrete Frame Construction | Concrete Frame Structures - Understand Building

Construction (understandconstruction.com)

A primer: CLT? Glulam? What is mass timber? - treesource

All About Wood Construction: Advantages & Disadvantages (mtcopeland.com)

The Basics Of Wood Frame Construction - US Framing

 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
ARC 074 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 2

UP-FA1-BSAR3-03
MONDAY & WEDNESDAY (10:30AM - 12:30NN)

“PLUMBING AND ELECTRICAL UTILITIES AND THEIR

IMPORTANCE IN THE INTEGRITY OF THE BUILDING”

RESEARCH WORK NO. 3

02 OCTOBER 2024

AR. MARIE ALYSSON MEJIA

i n s t r u c t o r

QUINTOS, JEREMIAH DAVE I.

s t u d e n t
 Plumbing and Electrical Utilities and their Importance
in the Integrity of the Building

Plumbing Utility System

A plumbing utility system is a network of pipes, fixtures, and equipment that facilitates
the distribution of water and the removal of waste in buildings.

In architecture, plumbing is a critical component of any building's functionality,

impacting not only its utility but also the health, safety, and sustainability of its
occupants. For architects, understanding plumbing materials and fixtures is essential to
designing efficient and durable systems. This guide explores the key materials and
fixtures used in plumbing, providing insight into their properties, applications, and design
considerations.

Different materials used in Plumbing Utility System

Pipes
➢ Pipes form the backbone of any plumbing system, carrying water, waste, and
gases in and out of buildings. Each material has its advantages and drawbacks.

PVC Pipes
Polyvinyl chloride pipes (PVC) are
commonly used as part of a sink,
toilet, or shower drain line. Its plastic
tubing is ideal for this kind of usage
because it protects the water from
rust and corrosion better than other
types of pipes. This capability also
makes PVC pipe incredibly durable.
Unless they are subject to some kind
of damage, PVC pipes will last
indefinitely.

PVC pipe is also able to handle high

water pressure. This is why it can also serve as your home’s main water supply line. It is
also a lighter-weight material, making it easier to work with than the more traditional
galvanized steel piping options. PVC pipes contain a smooth inner lining as well, which
protects against sediment buildup and makes them more resistant to blockages.

Drawbacks surrounding PVC pipe include limited size options, an inability to withstand
hot water, and concerns over toxicity. Though PVC piping meets all standards set by
the American National Standards Institute, there are concerns that it may introduce
polyvinyl chloride chemicals into drinking water, potentially causing respiratory and
reproductive issues. It is for this reason that some states have banned PVC plumbing
pipes from transporting drinking water.

PEX Pipes

PEX, or cross-linked polyethylene, piping also refers

to an affordable plastic tubing commonly used for
water supply lines. Similar to PVC piping, it prevents
rust or corrosion from leaching into the water.

Professionals remain drawn to PEX pipes because

they are flexible and easy to weave through walls,
ceilings, basements, and crawl spaces. At the
same time, they’re strong enough to withstand the
pressures of your water supply. Cross-linked
polyethylene pipe is also color-coded for hot and
cold water, making it easy for plumbers to identify
and organize when on the job.

ABS Pipes

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe is

similar to PVC pipes in nature but easy to
identify based on their black color.
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene is also
particularly resilient to cold temperatures. It
is predominantly used for vent and drain
lines.

Though this kind of plumbing pipe is easy to

install, it can warp when exposed to direct
sunlight. ABS pipes are also noisier than
other types of plumbing pipes, causing
disturbances among some homeowners.
 Copper Pipes

Copper pipe has been a staple within the

plumbing industry for decades. This type of
plumbing pipe can last upwards of 50 years
and is commonly found in sinks, showers,
tubs, and other fixtures in new and old
homes. Copper pipes remain popular among
plumbers and homeowners alike because
they are corrosion-resistant and best suited to
protect the quality of the water.

What is the best piping for plumbing?

PVC pipe is by far the most commonly used pipe in residential homes. This type of pipe is
affordable and available in a number of different fittings and sizes. It’s also a great
choice for most warm and cold water applications.

Sink

➢ Sinks are essential fixtures in bathrooms, kitchens, and laundry areas.

Porcelain sink

Porcelain is made from a type of ceramic that is

fired at high temperatures, making them resistant
to scratches and stains. Additionally, porcelain
sinks can come in various styles and colors,
allowing for a wide range of design options in
bathrooms and kitchens. Classic and durable;
used in many bathroom sinks.
 Stainless steel sink

A stainless steel sink is a sink that is

made by bending or molding steel
until it is seamless. The result is a sink
that is highly durable and can easily
withstand a great deal of punishment
while still lasting several lifetimes. Since
it is easily malleable compared to
other materials, stainless steel sinks can
be formed to fit into almost any shape
profile or mold you desire, so long as
you are willing to pay for it. Lastly,
since the surface is polished steel,
cleaning a stainless steel sink is quite a great deal easier when compared to other
materials such as granite or porcelain.

Cast Iron with Enamel Coating

A cast iron with enamel coating sink is

a type of sink made from cast iron that
has been coated with a layer of
enamel. This coating provides a
smooth and glossy finish, making the
sink resistant to staining and easy to
clean. The cast iron base gives it
excellent durability and strength,
allowing it to withstand heavy use
without cracking or breaking. The
enamel layer also adds an aesthetic appeal, as these sinks come in various colors and
designs, enhancing the overall look of a kitchen or bathroom. However, it's important to
note that while the enamel is durable, it can chip if heavy objects are dropped on it.
Overall, these sinks are a popular choice for their combination of beauty and
functionality.
Toilets

➢ Toilets are integral to a building’s sanitation system. Various designs are available,
each with unique features and water efficiency ratings.

A guide to different types of toilets:

• Toilets are integral to a building’s sanitation system. Various designs are available,
each with unique features and water efficiency ratings.

Gravity-Flush Toilets:

Rely on the force of gravity to clear the bowl.

Pressure-Assisted Toilets:

Use compressed air to improve flushing power.

Dual-Flush Toilets:

Provide two flushing options for liquid or solid waste, improving water efficiency.

Bathtubs & Showers

➢ These fixtures offer a range of materials and styles, affecting both functionality
and aesthetics.

These fixtures offer a range of materials and styles, affecting both functionality and
aesthetics.

Materials:

Acrylic:
o Lightweight and available in various shapes and sizes.

Fiberglass:
o Affordable but less durable than acrylic.

Cast Iron:
 o Heavy and durable, with excellent heat retention.

Stone Resin:
o Offers a luxury finish, durable but expensive.

Shower Types:

Standard Showers:
Basic fixed-head showers.

Rain Showers:
Provide a wider, softer spray from above.

Handheld Showers:
Allow for flexible, targeted use.
Conclusion

Understanding plumbing materials and fixtures is essential for designing functional,

efficient, and sustainable buildings. As architects, it is crucial to stay updated with the
latest innovations in the industry while ensuring that designs meet user needs and
comply with local regulations. By mastering the basics of plumbing, you can enhance
your architectural designs and contribute to healthier, more sustainable built
environments.

Different materials used in Electrical Utility System

An electrical system refers to a network of electrical components that work together to

generate, transmit, and use electrical energy. In electrical utility systems, various
materials are used for different components, each chosen for its specific properties and
functions. Here are some key materials:

Generator
• A machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Electric motor
• A machine that converts electric power into mechanical energy.
Transformer
• An electric device consisting of two or more winding wound on the same core,
which employs the principle of mutual induction to convert variations of
alternating current in a primary circuit into variations of voltage and current in a
secondary circuit.
Cable
• A single insulated conductor or a bound or sheathed combination of conductors
insulated from one another.
Conduit
• A tube, pipe, or duct for enclosing and protecting electric wires or cables.

Raceway
 • A channel expressly designed to hold and protect electric wires and cables.

Surface raceway
• A raceway designed for exposed installation in dry, nonhazardous, noncorrosive
locations.

Multi-outlet assembly
• A surface-mounted raceway designed to house the electrical wires for a circuit
and a series of receptacles.

Wire
• A pliable metallic strand or a twisted or woven assembly of such strands, often
insulated with a dielectric material and used as a conductor of electricity.

Insulator
• A material that is poor conductor of electricity, used for separating or supporting
conductors to prevent the undesired flow of current.

Junction box
• An enclosure for housing and protecting electric wires or cables that are joined
together in connecting or branching electric circuits.

Cable tray
 • An open metal framework for supporting insulated electrical conductors.

Switch
• A device for making, breaking, or directing an electric current

Air switch
• A switch in which the interruption of a circuit occurs in air.

Knife switch
• A form of air switch in which a hinged copper blade is placed
between two contact clips. float switch A switch controlled by a
conductor floating in a liquid.

Mercury switch
• An especially quiet switch that opens and closes an electric circuit by shifting a
sealed glass tube of mercury so as to uncover or cover the contacts.

Key switch
• A switch operated only by inserting a key.

Dimmer
• A rheostat or similar device for regulating the intensity of an electric light
without appreciably affecting spatial distribution. Also called dimmer
switch.

Rheostat
• A resistor for regulating a current by means of variable resistances.

Plug

• A male fitting for making an electrical connection to a circuit by insertion in a

receptacle.
Summary:

A plumbing utility system is a network of pipes, fixtures, and equipment that distributes
water and removes waste in buildings. It is crucial for architecture to understand
plumbing materials and fixtures to design efficient and durable systems. PVC pipes are
the most common type of plumbing, as they are durable, lightweight, and can handle
high water pressure. PEX pipes are flexible, color-coded, and resistant to rust or
corrosion. ABS pipes are similar to PVC but easy to identify due to their black color.
Copper pipes are corrosion-resistant and best suited for protecting water quality.

PVC pipe is the most commonly used pipe in residential homes due to its affordability
and availability in various colors. However, it can warp when exposed to direct sunlight
and is noisier than other types of pipes. Copper pipes are corrosion-resistant and best
suited for protecting water quality. Overall, understanding the different materials and
fixtures used in plumbing is essential for designing efficient and durable systems.

An electrical system is a network of electrical components that work together to

generate, transmit, and use electrical energy. Key materials used in these systems
include generators, motors, transformers, cables, conduits, raceways, surface
raceways, multi-outlet assemblies, wires, insulation, junction boxes, cable trays, switches,
dimmers, rheostats, and plugs. Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy, motors convert electric power into mechanical energy, transformers convert
alternating current into voltage and current, cables are insulated conductors, conduits
protect wires and cables, wires are pliable metallic strands, insulation is used to
separate or support conductors, junction boxes are enclosures for housing and
protecting wires, and cables are insulated frameworks. Switches, such as air, knife, float,
mercury, key, dimmer, rheostat, and plug, regulate the intensity of electric light and
ensure proper circuit operation.
References:

types of conduit material - Search Images (bing.com)

Plumbing Materials & Fixtures: A Comprehensive Guide for Architects

(architectsworldblog.com)

Types of Plumbing Pipes | Learn What the Top 5 Are in This Post | NEIT

Electrical conductor - Wikipedia

What Is A PEX Pipe And Why Is It Important? (housedigest.com)

A Visual Dictionary of Architecture - Second Edition.pdf

Foundation is the lowest part of a superstructure that transmits loads, including live and wind
loads, to the soil below. There are three types of foundations: shallow foundation, deep
foundation, and slab foundation. Shallow foundations are placed immediately at the lowest
part of the structure, distributing structural loads over a wide horizontal area below ground level.
There are various types of shallow foundations, such as spread foundation, combined
foundation, mat or raft foundation, grillage foundation, and eccentrically loaded foundation.

Spread foundations are structural members used to support columns and walls and distribute
their loads to the soil. They consist of multiple layers of beams laid at right angles to disperse
heavy point loads from the superstructure. Raft foundation, invented by John Root in the 19th
century, consists of a thick reinforced concrete slab covering the entire bottom of the structure.

Deep foundations transfer building loads farther down from the surface than shallow
foundations, transferring loads to a subsurface layer or a range of depth. They are used when
the soil beneath the structure is weak compressible soil or when the soil is non-suitable. Types of
deep foundations include basement foundations, buoyancy rafts or hollow box foundations,
well foundations, pier foundations, drilled shaft foundations, and pile foundation foundations.
They offer advantages such as more, cheaper square footage, seasonal living space, easy
access for repairs, and storm protection.

Buoyancy Rafts Foundation is a floating structure designed to reduce soil load intensity. It is
constructed over soft and weak soils and acts as a buoyant structure. The design considerations
include excavation depth, center of gravity, basement design, water pressure calculation, and
external walls, floors, and separating walls. Advantages include protection from water levels and
reduced soil settlement. Disadvantages include increased excavation costs, potential
catastrophic movement, space waste, and gas leakage.

Well foundations are box-like structures sunk from the surface to desired depth. They are suitable
for deep sandy or soft soils and heavy structures on low bearing capacity soils. Advantages
include economic, environmental, and environmental friendliness. Disadvantages include
expert engineering, worker injuries, divers assistance, and construction difficulties.

Pier foundations are large diameter cylindrical columns used to support the superstructure and
transfer large loads to the firm strata below. They have advantages such as less labor and
materials required, minimal soil disturbance, and a wide variety of designs. Drilled shafts, also
known as drilled piers, caissons, or bored piles, are used to support the superstructure.

Frame is a skeletal structure designed to give shape and support to a building or construction.
There are three types of framing systems: concrete, steel, and wood. Concrete frame
construction involves a network of columns and beams to transfer loads to the foundation. There
are two types of frame structures: rigid and braced.

Columns are the main parts of concrete frame construction, as they carry axial or eccentric
loads. Designing columns is more important than beams and slabs, as failure of one can lead to
the collapse of the entire structure. Beams are horizontal load-bearing members, carrying loads
from slabs and masonry walls. Sheer walls transmit load from columns and beams to the solid
ground, and are important structural elements in high-rise buildings. Elevator shafts are used to
lift the structure from the ground. Overall, the design of framed structures is crucial for ensuring
stability and resistance to external forces.

Framed concrete structure offers advantages such as good compression and tension, better fire
resistance, long service life, low maintenance cost, and cost-effectiveness. It can be cast to any
shape and yields rigid members with minimal deflection. Steel framing systems, on the other
hand, use a skeleton frame of vertical steel columns and horizontal I-beams to support floors,
roof, and walls. These systems are designed to resist horizontal loads and carry vertical loads.

However, there are disadvantages to framed concrete structures. It requires meticulous mixing,
casting, and curing, which affects the final strength of the member. The cost of formwork used to
cast concrete is relatively high, and it has low compressive strength compared to steel, leading
to large sections of columns and beams in multistory buildings. Additionally, improper concreting
can cause steel to corrode, reducing its strength and life.

There are three types of structural steel framing systems: skeleton steel framing, wall bearing steel
framing, and long span steel framing. Skeleton steel framing supports all gravity loads, while wall
bearing steel framing is suitable for low-rise structures.

A plumbing utility system is a network of pipes, fixtures, and equipment that distributes water and
removes waste in buildings. It is crucial for the functionality of a building, impacting its health,
safety, and sustainability. Understanding plumbing materials and fixtures is essential for designing
efficient and durable systems.

Pipes form the backbone of any plumbing system, carrying water, waste, and gases in and out
of buildings. PVC pipes are commonly used as part of sink, toilet, or shower drain lines due to
their durability and resistance to rust and corrosion. PEX pipes are flexible and easy to weave
through walls, ceilings, basements, and crawl spaces. ABS pipes, similar to PVC pipes, are
resistant to cold temperatures but can warp when exposed to direct sunlight and are noisier
than other types. Copper pipes, corrosion-resistant, and best suited to protect water quality, are
popular among plumbers and homeowners.

PVC pipe is the most commonly used pipe in residential homes due to its affordability and
versatility. Sinks are essential fixtures in bathrooms, kitchens, and laundry areas.

Porcelain sinks are durable and classic, with a wide range of styles and colors available. Stainless
steel sinks are made from bending or molding steel, making them highly durable and easy to
clean. Cast iron with enamel coating sinks are made from cast iron and coated with a layer of
enamel, providing a smooth and glossy finish. These sinks are popular for their combination of
beauty and functionality.

Toilets are integral to a building's sanitation system, with various designs and water efficiency
ratings. There are various types of toilets, including gravity-flush, pressure- assisted, and dual-flush
toilets. Bathtubs and showers offer a range of materials and styles, affecting functionality and
aesthetics. Materials include acrylic, fiberglass, cast iron, and stone resin. Shower types include
standard, rain, and handheld showers.
Understanding plumbing materials and fixtures is essential for designing functional, efficient, and
sustainable buildings. Architects must stay updated with industry innovations while ensuring
designs meet user needs and comply with local regulations. Mastering the basics of plumbing
can enhance architectural designs and contribute to healthier, more sustainable built
environments.

Throughout this semester, I have delved deep into the intricate components and processes
involved in the construction of structures and buildings. My understanding has been enriched as
I explored the nuances of how these elements interplay, particularly within the realm of the
structural system. The structural system, being both vast and pivotal, has significantly broadened
my knowledge base. I further honed my skills while working on my plates and translating
theoretical learning into practical applications.

Moreover, the framing system emerged as another critical facet in shaping the physical form
and integrity of a structure. It became evident that meticulous attention to the plumbing and
electrical systems is paramount, given their fundamental roles in ensuring the proper functioning
of water supply and electrical connections. This aspect of planning demands a high level of
precision to guarantee seamless operations post-construction. The realization of the myriad
details that must be meticulously considered during the construction process has been an eye-
opening experience for me. Each intricate detail carries weight and plays a crucial role in the
overall success of the project.