Dynamics of Structures

Dynamics of Structures (3-0-0)

1. Course Description:

 The aim of the course is to acquire the theoretical background and the tools to understand and
to solve important problems relevant to the linear and, in part, to the nonlinear dynamic
behavior of structures, especially under seismic excitation.
 The major objective of this course is to impart knowledge of the conventional engineering
solutions for the dynamic problems due to effects of earthquake, wind and impact.
2. Suggested Reading:

Text Books:
 Clough K. W., Penzien J. Dynamics of Structures, McGraw Hill. international Edition 1998
 Chopra Anil. Dynamics of Structures. McGraw-Hill International Edition, 1998.
Reference Books:
 Thomson W. T., Theory of Vibration with Applications, Prentice Hall, 5th Editon, 1997.
 Paz. Mario, Structural Dynamics Theory & Computation, Von Nostrad Reinhold Company,
Inc. Humour

1. Introduction:
1.1. Sources of Vibration:
1.2. Problems related to structural dynamics
1.3. Degrees of freedom
1.4. Types of Vibrations:

2. Single Degree of Freedom Systems

2.1. Simple harmonic motion
2.2. Equation of motion of discrete system,
2.3. Modeling of single degree of freedom (SDOF) structures
2.4. Free vibration response (damped and un-damped) of SDOF system
2.5. Forced vibration response of SDOF system to harmonic forces
2.6. Forced vibration response of SDOF system to periodic forces,
2.7. Forced vibration response of SDOF system to impulsive forces.
2.8. Forced vibration response of SDOF system to general dynamic forces,

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

2.9. Time domain analysis, Frequency domain analysis

3. Multi Degree of Freedom (MDOF) System

3.1 Modeling of MDOF system structures,

3.2 Equation of motion of MDOF system,
3.3 Concept of generalized coordinate, Lagrange's equations of motion,
3.4 Vibration absorption and orthogonality properties,
3.5 Free vibration response (un-damped and damped) of MDOF system,
3.6 Natural frequencies and mode shapes,
3.7 Normal coordinates and Normal Mode Theory,
3.8 Forced vibration response of MDOF system.
3.9 Practical methods to determine natural frequencies and mode shapes by Stodola's, Holzer's
and Transfer matrix methods
4. Dynamic Analysis for MDOF System
4.1 Frequency domain analysis for general dynamic forces and support motion for MDOF
4.2 Time domain analysis using numerical integration scheme for general dynamic loading for
MDOF system.
5. Continuous System of Structures
5.1. Partial differential equations of motion (for string, bar, beam),
5.2. Axial vibration of a bar, Transverse vibration of a beam,
5.3. Transverse vibration of an Euler beam,
5.4. Torsional vibration of a bar,
5.5. Approximate methods to determine natural frequencies and mode shapes in cases where
orthogonality conditions are not satisfied.
6. Introduction to Non-Linear Dynamic Analysis
6.1. Elastic and inelastic behavior,
6.2. Incremental equations of equilibrium, Step-by step integration method

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

1. Introduction:
1.1. Sources of Vibration:
1.2. Problems related to structural dynamics
1.3. Degrees of freedom
1.4. Types of Vibrations:

1. Introduction
This course is concerned with the analysis of structures subjected to dynamic loads. Dynamics
in this context means time varying. Both application of load and removal of load necessary vary
with time. Hence, the internal stresses and the resulting deflections are also time dependent or
dynamic in nature.

In the real world, no loads, that are applied to a structure are truly static. All bodies
possessing mass and elasticity are capable of vibration. Thus most engineering machines and
structures experience vibration to some degree and their design generally requires consideration
of oscillatory behavior.

The effects of vibration are very common in our daily life. We live on the beating of our hearths.
Planetary motion is also another example of vibration. These motions are called periodic motions
(periodic motion is a motion that repeats itself regularly after certain interval of time). This interval
of time is known as the period pf the system or motion. In general, vibration has both good and
bad effects. In civil engineering, the good effect of vibration is harnessed by the compaction of
fresh concrete. The bad effects of vibrations on a structure are those produced by natural forces
such as wind, and earthquakes and by mechanical forces on a bridge.

Oscillatory systems can be broadly characterized as linear or nonlinear. In general, for linear
systems, the principle of superposition is valid, and the mathematical techniques available are well
developed. Techniques for the analysis of nonlinear systems are less well known and difficult to
apply, since changes in stiffness and damping characteristics occur during nonlinear inelastic
response.

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

In general, vibration can be classified as free vibration and forced vibration. Free vibration takes
place when a system oscillates under the actions of forces inherent in the system itself and external
forces are absent. The system under free vibration will vibrate at one or more of its natural
frequencies, which are properties of the dynamics system.

Vibration that takes place under the excitation of external forces is called forced vibration. If the
frequency of excitation coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the system, a condition of
resonance occurs, resulting in large oscillations in structures, which ultimately results in the failure
of the structure.

1.1. Types of dynamic loads:

Dynamic loads may be classified as “prescribed dynamic loading” and “Random Dynamic
Loading”. If the magnitude, point of application of the load and the variation of the load with
respect to time are known, the loading is said to be Prescribed dynamic loading and the analysis
of the system to such loads is defined as deterministic analysis/approach. On the other hand, if
the variation of load with respect to time is not known, the loading is referred to as random
or stochastic loading and the corresponding analysis is termed as non-deterministic
analysis/approach.

The prescribed dynamic loads may also be classified as periodic and non-periodic loadings.
When a loading repeats itself at equal time intervals then it is called periodic loading. A single
form of periodic loading is either a sine or cosine function as shown in Fig.1.1. below. A vibration
induced due to rotating mass is a periodic motion. This type of periodic loading is called simple
harmonic motion as shown in Fig.1.1. The type of load shown in Fig.1.2. is a periodic loading
but non-harmonic. Later on we will see that most periodic loads can be represented by summing
sufficient number of harmonic terms in a Fourier series. Any loading which does not come under
the category of periodic loading is termed as non-periodic. Blast loading shown in Fig.1.3.
and earthquake ground motion as shown in Fig.1.4. are the examples of non-periodic loads.

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

Fig.1.1. Simple harmonic Fig.1.2. Non-harmonic (periodic)

Fig.1.3. Non-Periodic (Short duration) Fig.1.4. Non-Periodic (Long duration)

1.2. Difference between dynamic loading and static loading?

The force associated with time is dynamic force. The dynamic analysis needs the analysis over
a specific interval of time. Hence the dynamic analysis is complex and computationally extensive
and expensive compared to static analysis.

The occurrence of inertia forces is the another difference in between static and dynamic
forces. In statics, we assume that the loading is done infinitely slowly. The induced acceleration
is so small that it can be neglected. However, when the loading is applied quickly enough, the
inertia force grows large enough to be comparable to the other forces so it cannot be neglected
in the equation of force equilibrium. Therefore, the inertia force, which is caused by acceleration,
must be taken into account in dynamics.

Consider a water tank as shown in fig 1.5. subjected to a load F at the top. The resulting deflection,
shear force, and bending moment can be calculated on the basis of static structural analysis
principles. On the other hand if the time varying load F(t) is applied at the top, the structure is set

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

to motion or vibration and hence experiences accelerations. According to newton’s second law of
motion, inertia force is proportional to acceleration.

Fig. 1.5. Water tank subjected to static and dynamic loads. (a) Static Load (b) Dynamic Load

There are several more things to be considered in dynamics, such as the damping force.

1.3. Dynamic analysis methodology:

Infinite number of degree of freedom exists in the real structure, which makes the structure more
complex to solve. In a mechanical model, infinite degrees of freedom are converted to finite
degrees of freedom, and for each degree of freedom, exhibiting the structure, there exists a natural
frequency at which the structure vibrates in a particular mode of vibration.

Consider the real physical structure as shown in Fig.1.6(a). which manifests distributed mass and
stiffness characteristics along the height. A mechanical model can be categorized as either
continuous or discrete. The mathematical continuous model (Fig. 1.6(b)) incorporates distributed
mass and distributed stiffness to arrive at the response of the system, where the displacement (v)
is a function of space and time. The structure can be represented as the single degree of freedom
(SDOF) system as shown in Fig. 1.6(c), where the entire mass (m) of the structure is lumped at the
top of structure having constant stiffness (k) and the independent displacement V(t) here is a
function of time alone. The mass of the structure can be lumped in three different stories as m1,
m2, m3 with their own displacements V1(t), V2(t), V3(t) respectively, which represents the three
(multiple) degree of freedom (3-DOF) system, shown in Fig. 1.6(d). Practical dynamic analysis of

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

large complicated multiple-degrees-of-freedom (MDOF) is generally accomplished by computer-

implemented numerical analysis techniques such as the finite element method.

Fig.1.6. Different mechanical models of the structure (a) Physical representation (b) Continuum method
(c) SDOF discrete method (d) 3-DOF discrete method.

1.4. Vibration:
Vibration is an oscillatory motion of a structure due to dynamic loads or internal forces. Vibration
can occur is a structure imposing initial conditions, which generally manifest themselves as energy
input. If the initial input is imparting velocity to the system, kinetic energy is produced. If the
displacement is imparted to the system, potential energy is produced. If the structural vibration
occurs in the absence of external loads, it is termed free vibration. Free vibration usually occurs at
the fundamental natural frequency. Owing to damping present in the system, the free vibration
eventually dampens out. If the vibration takes place under the excitation of external force, it is
called forced vibration. If the source of vibration is periodic, the resulting vibration may constitute
both steady state and transient. Steady state response transpires at the frequency of excitation. The
transient response is due to the initial energy stored in the structure. A transient response may also
occur if the structure is subjected to blast loads.

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

Sources of Vibration:
a) Natural Sources:
- Seismic Events: Earthquakes induce ground motion, impacting buildings and
infrastructure.
- Wind Loads: Tall buildings and bridges are particularly sensitive to wind-induced
vibrations.
- Ocean Waves: Offshore structures experience continuous loading from waves.

b) Human-made Sources:
- Machinery and Equipment: Rotating or reciprocating machinery in factories can induce
vibrations.
- Traffic: Moving vehicles, especially on bridges, create dynamic loading.
- Construction Activities: Pile driving, blasting, and other construction activities produce
vibrations.
- Vibration Effects: Understanding vibration sources is essential for designing structures
that can withstand these forces without experiencing excessive movement or damage.

Understanding vibration sources is essential for designing structures that can

withstand these forces without experiencing excessive movement or damage.

1.5. Problems Related to Structural Dynamics

- Resonance: Occurs when an external force matches the natural frequency of a structure,
causing large amplitude oscillations. Can lead to structural failure.
- Fatigue: Repeated stress cycles can weaken materials over time, increasing the risk of
failure.
- Serviceability Issues: Excessive vibrations can be uncomfortable or disruptive, impacting
building usability, especially in sensitive areas like hospitals or labs.
- Safety and Design Considerations: Engineers must ensure structures can safely withstand
dynamic loads without significant degradation over time.

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

1.6. Degrees of Freedom (DOF)

- Concept: The number of independent ways in which a system can move. For example:
- A simple pendulum has one degree of freedom (DOF), as it can only swing back and
forth.
- A 3D object in space has six DOFs (three translational and three rotational).
- Structural Applications: Buildings often have multiple DOFs depending on the number of
floors, each floor being modeled as a mass with independent movement.

1.7. Types of Vibrations

- Free Vibration: Occurs when no external force is applied after initial disturbance (e.g., a
plucked string).
- Forced Vibration: Caused by continuous external forces (e.g., engines in a building
causing constant vibrations).
- Damped vs. Un-damped:
- Un-damped: No energy is lost in the system; vibrations persist indefinitely at the natural
frequency.
- Damped: Energy is dissipated (e.g., through friction), gradually reducing vibration
amplitude.

1.8. Damping:
- Damping is the property by virtue of which energy is absorbed.
- The property of material by virtue of which free vibration steadily diminishes in
amplitude is called damping.
- Damping force is assumed to be directly proportional to magnitude of velocity and
opposite to the direction of motion which is also called viscous damping.

1.9. Response of Structures to Vibration:

- Response means the effect after the application on a structural system.
- The main response of the structure due to vibration is displacement along the direction of
motion.
Displacement – v(t)

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

Velocity - 𝑣̇ (𝑡)
Acceleration - 𝑉̈ (𝑡)
a) Elastic Response: Hooke’s law is applicable (The applied force F equals a
constant k times the displacement or change in length x, or F = kx)

Fig.1.7. Elastic response of the structure.

b) Inelastic response: Hooke’s law is not applicable

Fig.1.8. Inelastic response of the structure.

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

1.10. Springs in Parallel and in Series:

Fig.1.9. Combination of springs (a) Parallel (b) Series

 It is necessary to determine the equivalent spring constant for a system in

which two or more springs are arranged in parallel or in series.
 Springs in Parallel – The total force required to produce a relative
displacement of their ends of one unit is equal to the sum of their spring
constants. Equivalent spring constant ke is given by: ke = k1 + k2
For n springs in parallel ke = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑘𝑖

 Springs in Series – The force required to produce a relative displacement of

their ends of one unit is equal to the sum of reciprocal of their spring constants.

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

For n springs in series

1.11. Free body Diagram:

For any dynamics analysis, it is instructed to draw a free body diagram of the system before making
the mathematical description of the system.

The free body diagram is a sketch of the body isolated from all other bodies, in which all the forces
external to the body are shown.

Figure below shows the FBD of the mass (m) of the system, displaced in the positive direction
with reference to coordinate (u) and acted upon the spring force (Fs = ku).

Fig. 1.10. FBD (a) SDOF system (b) Showing only external forces (c) Showing external and
inertial forces.

The weight of the body (mg) and the normal reaction (N) of the support surface are
shown for completeness, though these forces acting in vertical direction, donot enter
into the equation of motion written for the “u” direction.

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

2. Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) Systems

- Degree of freedom is the number of independent displacements of structure or element.

- Degree of freedom can also be defined as a set of independent displacements/rotations that
completely define the displaced position of the mass with respect to its initial position.

Ex: The building is idealized as shown in Fig.2.1. below. This mechanical model in which the
mass is allowed to move in only one direction, is called single degree of freedom. In any system,
the weight might be changed but the mass that is proportional to the weight does not change. (The
weight on the moon differs from the weight on the earth because of the difference in acceleration
due to gravity). The force caused by the acceleration and mass is called the inertia force.

The damping force is related to velocity, and the force caused by a spring when it deforms is called
restoring force of elastic resistance force.

Fig.2.1. Analytical model of SDOF systems.

2.1. Simple Harmonic Motion:

- Periodic motion where the restoring force is directly proportional to the initial
displacement and is opposite to the direction of displacement.
- Simply, the motion in which acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement is
called SHM.

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

2.2. Formulation of the equation of motion:

D’Alembert’s Principle: States that a system may be set in a state of dynamic equilibrium by
adding to the external forces a fictitious force that is commonly known as the inertial force.

The equation of motion is most important because the structural response is computed as the
solution of the equation. The equation of motion of a SDOF system can be given using
d’Alembert’s principle while considering the dynamic equilibrium. (Fig.2.2)

Fig.2.2. D’Alembert’s principle considering dynamic equilibrium.

In the fig.2.2. the entire mass (m) of the system is included in the rigid block, which is constrained
by rollers so that it can move only in simple translation (SDOF). The displacement coordinate v(t)
defines its position, the elastic resistance to displacement is provided by the weightless soring of
stiffness k, and the energy loss mechanism is represented by the damper c. The external dynamic
loading producing the response of this system is the time-varying force p(t).

The forces acting in the direction of displacement (applied force, p(t)), resisting forces resulting
from the motion: inertial force fI(t), damping force fD(t), and the spring force fS(t).

Under the action of external force p(t), the state of the system is described by displacement v(t),
velocity 𝑣̇(𝑡), and acceleration 𝑣̈ (𝑡) as shown in figure 2.3. Now the system can be visualized as
the combination of three pure components: Mass component (fI), damping component (fD), and
the stiffness component (fS).

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

(a) Displacement – v(t) (b) Velocity - 𝑣̇ (𝑡) (c) Acceleration - 𝑉̈ (𝑡)

Fig.2.3. (a) System (b) Stiffness component (c) damping component (d) Mass component

The equation of motion is an expression of the equilibrium of these forces/components:

fS(t) + fD(t) + fI(t) = p(t) (2-1)

The elastic force is the product of spring constant and the displacement.

fS(t) = k v(t) (2-2)

Assuming a viscous damping mechanism, the damping force is the product of the damping
constant (c) and the velocity.

fD(t) = c 𝑣̇(𝑡) (2-3)

In accordance with d’Alembert’s principle, the inertial force is the product of the mass and
acceleration.

fI(t) = m 𝑣̈ (𝑡) (2-4)

Therefore, the equation of motion for this SDOF system is found to be:

m 𝑣̈ (𝑡) + c 𝑣̇(𝑡) + k v(t) = p(t) (2-5)

This is the second order linear differential equation that describes the dynamic behavior of the
SDOF system.

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

Virtual Work Approach:

If the mass is given a virtual displacement dv compatible with the system’s constraints, the total
work done by the equilibrium system of forces in fig.2.2 must be equal to zero as:

-fI(t)dv - fD(t)dv - fS(t)dv + p(t)dv = 0 (2-6)

Here negative sign indicates that the associated forces act opposite to the virtual displacement.

From Eq. (2-5) and (2-6):

[- m 𝑣̈ (𝑡) - c 𝑣̇ (𝑡) - k v(t) + p(t)]dv = 0 (2-7)

dv is nonzero, so the quantity inside the bracket must be equal to zero, which gives the same
equation of motion as Eq. 2-5.

2.3. Free vibration:

If the structural vibration occurs in the absence of external loads, it is termed free vibration. Free
vibration usually occurs at the fundamental natural frequency.

The equation of motion can be expressed as:

m 𝑣̈ (𝑡) + c 𝑣̇(𝑡) + k v(t) = 0 (2-8)

The solution of the above equation is conventionally given as:

v(t) = G 𝑒 𝑠𝑡

𝑣̇(𝑡) = s G𝑒 𝑠𝑡

𝑣̈ (𝑡) = s2 G𝑒 𝑠𝑡

Where G is an arbitrary constant. From equation (2-8):

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

(ms2 + cs + k) G𝑒 𝑠𝑡 = 0. 2-9

The above equation must be always satisfied. G𝑒 𝑠𝑡 changes with time, so that the value inside the
bracket should be equal to zero.

ms2 + cs + k = 0. 2-10

Then, the roots of this equation are:

𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘 2-11
s1,2 = − 2𝑚 ± √(2𝑚) − 𝑚

The solution for Eq.2-8 is of the form:

v(t) = 𝐺1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐺2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡 2-12

In case the two roots are equal (s1 = s2 = s), we have

𝑐 2 𝑘
( ) =
2𝑚 𝑚

Then the solution of Eq. 2-8 is:

v(t) = (𝐺1 + 𝐺2 )𝑒 𝑠𝑡 2-13

Where G1 and G2 are arbitrary constants.

The application of Eqs. (2-12) and (2-13) will be discussed in the following section:

1) Undamped Free Vibration

If the system is undamped, i.e the damping coefficient c = 0, let us introduce the notation:

𝑘 (2-14)
𝑤𝑛 2 =
𝑚

We understand that 𝑤𝑛 is the undamped natural frequency and now Eq. (2-10) becomes:

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

𝑐
s2 + 𝑚 s + 𝑤𝑛 2 = 0. 2-15

The two values of “s” that satisfy the quadratic expression depend on the value of “c” relative to
the values of k and m; thus the type of motion given by Eq. 2-13. Depends on the amount of
damping in the system.

Considering now the undamped system for which c = 0, it is evident that the two values given by
solving Eq. 2-15 is given by:

s1,2 = ±𝑖𝑤𝑛 2-16

Then Eq. 2-12 will be:

v(t) = 𝐺1 𝑒 𝑖𝑤𝑛𝑡 + 𝐺2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑤𝑛𝑡 2-17

By introducing Euler’s formula, i.e

2-18

and noting that G1 and G2 can be complex, let:

G1 = a + ib

G2 = c + id

Then:

v(t)

Here if we let, A = (a + c) + i(b + d)

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

B = (d – b) + i(a – c)

Thus, Eq. 2-17 becomes:

v(t) = 𝐴 cos 𝑤𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝑤𝑛 𝑡 2-19

Note that v(t) is real. Therefore, the imaginary parts of A and B should be zero. Then, c = a, d = -
b

Therefore, the constant G2 is the complex conjugate of G1. A and B will be determined by the
initial conditions.

For example, in case v(0) and 𝑣̇ (0) are already given, by substituting these into Eq. (2-19) and
into its derivative.

𝑣̇(𝑡) = −𝑤𝑛 𝐴 sin 𝑤𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑤𝑛 𝐵 cos 𝑤𝑛 𝑡

We obtain: v(0) = A and 𝑣̇(0) = 𝑤𝑛 𝐵

Thus equation 2-19 becomes:

𝑣̇(0) 2-20
v(t) = 𝑣(0) cos 𝑤𝑛 𝑡 + sin 𝑤𝑛 𝑡
𝑤𝑛

and referring to the right triangle in Fig. 2.4., Eq. 2-20 can be written in the form:

𝑣̇(0)
𝑣(0) 𝑤𝑛
v(t) = ρ{ cos 𝑤𝑛 𝑡 + sin 𝑤𝑛 𝑡}
ρ ρ

= ρ{cos 𝛳 cos 𝑤𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 sin 𝑤𝑛 𝑡}

(2-21)
= ρ cos(𝑤𝑛 𝑡 − 𝛳)

𝑣̇(0) (2-22)
Where: ρ = √{𝑣(0)}2 + { }2
𝑤 𝑛

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

𝑣̇ (0) (2-23)
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛳 =
𝑤𝑛 𝑣(0)

Where ρ is amplitude and 𝛳 is the phase angle.

Note: It is evident that 𝑤𝑛 is the circular frequency or angular velocity (measured in radians per
unit of time) of the motion for undamped systems. The frequency of the motion is given by:

𝑤𝑛
𝑓𝑛 =
2𝜋

The reciprocal of the frequency is called the period 𝑇𝑛

1 2𝜋
𝑇𝑛 = =
𝑓𝑛 𝑤𝑛

Fig.2-20. Right angled triangle interpreting eq. 2-20.

The equation (2-21) represents the simple harmonic motion and can be represented graphically as:

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)

 Dynamics of Structures

Fig. 2- 21. Graphical representation of undamped free vibration response.

By: Prakash Devkota, PhD. (HOD, MSc. S.E, OCEM)