PLOS SUSTAINABILITY AND TRANSFORMATION

REVIEW

Climate change resilient agricultural practices:

A learning experience from indigenous
communities over India
Amitava Aich1, Dipayan Dey1, Arindam Roy ID2*

1 South Asian Forum for Environment, India, 2 Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology), Lausanne, Switzerland

* arindam.roy@epfl.ch,arindamroy115@gmail.com

Abstract
The:impact
AU of climate change on agricultural practices is raising question marks on future
Pleaseconfirmthatallheadinglevelsarerepresentedcorrectly:
food security of billions of people in tropical and subtropical regions. Recently introduced, cli-
mate-smart agriculture (CSA) techniques encourage the practices of sustainable agricul-
ture, increasing adaptive capacity and resilience to shocks at multiple levels. However, it is
extremely difficult to develop a single framework for climate change resilient agricultural
a1111111111 practices for different agrarian production landscape. Agriculture accounts for nearly 30% of
a1111111111 Indian gross domestic product (GDP) and provide livelihood of nearly two-thirds of the popu-
a1111111111
a1111111111 lation of the country. Due to the major dependency on rain-fed irrigation, Indian agriculture is
a1111111111 vulnerable to rainfall anomaly, pest invasion, and extreme climate events. Due to their close
relationship with environment and resources, indigenous people are considered as one of
the most vulnerable community affected by the changing climate. In the milieu of the climate
emergency, multiple indigenous tribes from different agroecological zones over India have
OPEN ACCESS been selected in the present study to explore the adaptive potential of indigenous traditional
knowledge (ITK)-based agricultural practices against climate change. The selected tribes
Citation: Aich A, Dey D, Roy A (2022) Climate
change resilient agricultural practices: A learning are inhabitants of Eastern Himalaya (Apatani), Western Himalaya (Lahaulas), Eastern Ghat
experience from indigenous communities over (Dongria-Gondh), and Western Ghat (Irular) representing rainforest, cold desert, moist
India. PLOS Sustain Transform 1(7): e0000022. upland, and rain shadow landscape, respectively. The effect of climate change over the
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000022
respective regions was identified using different Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Editor: Ashwani Kumar, Dr. H.S. Gour Central Change (IPCC) scenario, and agricultural practices resilient to climate change were quanti-
University, INDIA
fied. Primary results indicated moderate to extreme susceptibility and preparedness of the
Published: July 28, 2022 tribes against climate change due to the exceptionally adaptive ITK-based agricultural prac-
Copyright: © 2022 Aich et al. This is an open tices. A brief policy has been prepared where knowledge exchange and technology transfer
access article distributed under the terms of the among the indigenous tribes have been suggested to achieve complete climate change
Creative Commons Attribution License, which
resiliency.
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding

for this work. 1 Introduction
Competing interests: The authors have declared Traditional agricultural systems provide sustenance and livelihood to more than 1 billion peo-
that no competing interests exist. ple [1–3]. They often integrate soil, water, plant, and animal management at a landscape scale,

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creating mosaics of different land uses. These landscape mosaics, some of which have existed
for hundreds of years, are maintained by local communities through practices based on tradi-
tional knowledge accumulated over generations [4]. Climate change threatens the livelihood of
rural communities [5], often in combination with pressures coming from demographic
change, insecure land tenure and resource rights, environmental degradation, market failures,
inappropriate policies, and the erosion of local institutions [6–8]. Empowering local commu-
nities and combining farmers’ and external knowledge have been identified as some of the
tools for meeting these challenges [9]. However, their experiences have received little attention
in research and among policy makers [10].
Traditional agricultural landscapes as linked social–ecological systems (SESs), whose resil-
ience is defined as consisting of 3 characteristics: the capacity to (i) absorb shocks and main-
tain function; (ii) self-organize; (iii) learn and adapt [11]. Resilience is not about an
equilibrium of transformation and persistence. Instead, it explains how transformation and
persistence work together, allowing living systems to assimilate disturbance, innovation, and
change, while at the same time maintaining characteristic structures and processes [12]. Agri-
culture is one of the most sensitive systems influenced by changes in weather and climate pat-
terns. In recent years, climate change impacts have been become the greatest threats to global
food security [13,14]. Climate change results a decline in food production and consequently
rising food prices [15,16]. Indigenous people are good observers of changes in weather and cli-
mate and acclimatize through several adaptive and mitigation strategies [17,18].
Traditional agroecosystems are receiving rising attention as sustainable alternatives to
industrial farming [19]. They are getting increased considerations for biodiversity conserva-
tion and sustainable food production in changing climate [20]. Indigenous agriculture systems
are diverse, adaptable, nature friendly, and productive [21]. Higher vegetation diversity in the
form of crops and trees escalates the conversion of CO2 to organic form and consequently
reducing global warming [22]. Mixed cropping not only decreases the risk of crop failure, pest,
and disease but also diversifies the food supply [23]. It is estimated that traditional multiple
cropping systems provide 15% to 20% of the world’s food supply [1]. Agro-forestry, intercrop-
ping, crop rotation, cover cropping, traditional organic composting, and integrated crop-ani-
mal farming are prominent traditional agricultural practices [24,25].
Traditional agricultural landscapes refer to the landscapes with preserved traditional sus-
tainable agricultural practices and conserved biodiversity [26,27]. They are appreciated for
their aesthetic, natural, cultural, historical, and socioeconomic values [28]. Since the beginning
of agriculture, peasants have been continually adjusting their agriculture practices with change
in climatic conditions [29]. Indigenous farmers have a long history of climate change adapta-
tion through making changes in agriculture practices [30]. Indigenous farmers use several
techniques to reduce climate-driven crop failure such as use of drought-tolerant local varieties,
polyculture, agro-forestry, water harvesting, and conserving soil [31–33]. Indigenous peasants
use various natural indicators to forecast the weather patterns such as changes in the behavior
of local flora and fauna [34,35].
The climate-smart agriculture (CSA) approach [36] has 3 objectives: (i) sustainably enhanc-
ing agricultural productivity to support equitable increase in income, food security, and devel-
opment; (ii) increasing adaptive capacity and resilience to shocks at multiple levels, from farm
to national; and (iii) reducing Green House Gases (GHG)AU emissions
: PleasedefineGHGinthesentenceTheclima
and increasing carbon
sequestration where possible. Indigenous peoples, whose livelihood activities are most respect-
ful of nature and the environment, suffer immediately, directly, and disproportionately from
climate change and its consequences. Indigenous livelihood systems, which are closely linked
to access to land and natural resources, are often vulnerable to environmental degradation and
climate change, especially as many inhabit economically and politically marginal areas in

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fragile ecosystems in the countries likely to be worst affected by climate change [25]. The liveli-
hood of many indigenous and local communities, in particular, will be adversely affected if cli-
mate and associated land-use change lead to losses in biodiversity. Indigenous peoples in Asia
are particularly vulnerable to changing weather conditions resulting from climate change,
including unprecedented strength of typhoons and cyclones and long droughts and prolonged
floods [15]. Communities report worsening food and water insecurity, increases in water- and
vector-borne diseases, pest invasion, destruction of traditional livelihoods of indigenous peo-
ples, and cultural ethnocide or destruction of indigenous cultures that are linked with nature
and agricultural cycles [37].
The Indian region is one of the world’s 8 centres of crop plant origin and diversity with 166
food/crop species and 320 wild relatives of crops have originated here (Dr R.S. Rana, personal
communication). India has 700 recorded tribal groups with population of 104 million as per
2011 census [38] and many of them practicing diverse indigenous farming techniques to suit
the needs of various respective ecoclimatic zones. The present study has been designed as a lit-
erature-based analytical review of such practices among 4 different ethnic groups in 4 different
agroclimatic and geographical zones of India, viz, the Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh, the
Dongria Kondh of Niamgiri hills of Odisha, the Irular in the Nilgiris, and the Lahaulas of
Himachal Pradesh to evaluating the following objectives: (i) exploring comparatively the vari-
ous indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK)-based farming practices in the different agrocli-
matic regions; (ii) climate resiliency of those practices; and (iii) recommending policy
guidelines.

2 Methodology
2.1 Systematic review of literature
An inventory of various publications in the last 30 years on the agro biodiversity, ethno botany,
traditional knowledge, indigenous farming practices, and land use techniques of 4 different
tribes of India in 4 different agroclimatic and geographical zones viz, the Apatanis of Aruna-
chal Pradesh, the Dongria Kondh of Niamgiri hills of Odisha, the Irular in the Nilgiris, and the
Lahaulas of Himachal Pradesh has been done based on key word topic searches in journal
repositories like Google Scholar. A small but significant pool of led and pioneering works has
been identified, category, or subtopics are developed most striking observations noted.

2.2 Understanding traditional practices and climate resiliency

The most striking traditional agricultural practices of the 4 major tribes were noted. A compar-
ative analysis of different climate resilient traditional practices of the 4 types were made based
on existing information available via literature survey. Effects of imminent dangers of possible
extreme events and impact of climate change on these 4 tribes were estimated based on exist-
ing facts and figures. A heat map representing climate change resiliency of these indigenous
tribes has been developed using R-programming language, and finally, a reshaping policy
framework for technology transfers and knowledge sharing among the tribes for successfully
helping them to achieve climate resiliency has been suggested.

2.3 Study area

Four different agroclimatic zones and 4 different indigenous groups were chosen for this par-
ticular study. The Apatanis live in the small plateau called Zero valley (Fig 1) surrounded by
forested mountains of Eastern Himalaya in the Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh.
It is located at 27.63˚ N, 93.83˚ E at an altitude ranging between 1,688 m to 2,438 m. Rainfall is

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Fig 1. Location and argo-ecological landscape of the study area (taken from USGS database). The base map is prepared using QGIS software.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000022.g001

heavy and can be up to 400 mm in monsoon months. Temperature varies from moderate in
summer to very cold in the winter months. Their approximate population is around 12,806 (as
per 2011 census), and Tibetan and Ahom sources indicate that they have been inhabiting the
area from at least the 15th century and probably much earlier (https://whc.unesco.org/en/
tentativelists/5893/).
The Lahaulas are the inhabitants of Lahaul valley (Fig 1) that is located in the western
Himalayan region of Lahaul and Spiti and lies between the Pir Panjal in the south and Zanskar
in the north. It is located between 76˚ 460 and 78˚ 410 east longitudes and between 31˚ 440 and
32˚ 590 north altitudes. The Lahaul valley receives scanty rainfalls, almost nil in summer, and
its only source of moisture is snow during the winter. Temperature is generally cold. The com-
bined population of Lahaul and Spiti is 31,564 (as per 2011 census).
The Dongria Kondh is one of the officially designated primitive tribal group (PTG) in the
Eastern Ghat region of the state Orissa. They are the original inhabitants of Niyamgiri hilly
region (Fig 1) that extends to Rayagada, Koraput, and Kalahandi districts of south Orissa.
Dongria Kondhs have an estimated population of about 10,000 and are distributed in around
120 settlements, all at an altitude up to 1,500 above the sea level [39]. It is located between 190
260 to 190 430 N latitude and 830 180 to 830 280 E longitudes with a maximum elevation of
1,516 meters. The Niyamgiri hill range abounds with streams. More than 100 streams flows

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from the Niyamgiri hills and 36 streams originate from Niyamgiri plateau (just below the
Niyam Raja), and most of the streams are perennial. Niyamgiri hills have been receiving high
rainfall since centuries and drought is unheard of in this area.
The Irular tribes inhabit the Palamalai hills and Nilgiris of Western Ghats (Fig 1). Their
total population may be 200,000 (as per 2011 census). The Palamali Hills is situated in the
Salem district of Tamil Nadu, lies between 11˚ 14.460 and 12˚ 53.300 north latitude and
between 77˚ 32.520 to 78˚ 35.050 east longitude. It is located 1,839 m from the mean sea level
(MSL) and more over the climate of the district is whole dry except north east monsoon sea-
sons [40,41]. Nilgiri district is hilly, lying at an elevation of 1,000 to 2,600 m above MSL and
divided between the Nilgiri plateau and the lower, smaller Wayanad plateau. The district lies at
the juncture of the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats. Its latitudinal and longitudinal loca-
tion is 130 km (latitude: 11˚ 12 N to 11˚ 37 N) by 185 km (longitude 76˚ 30 E to 76˚ 55 E). It
has cooler and wetter climate with high average rainfall.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Indigenous agricultural practices in 4 different agro-biodiversity
hotspots
Previous literatures on the agricultural practices of indigenous people in 4 distinct agro-biodi-
versity hotspots did not necessarily focus on climate resilient agriculture. The authors of these
studies had elaborately discussed about the agro-biodiversity, farming techniques, current sce-
nario, and economical sustainability in past and present context of socioecological paradigm.
However, no studies have been found to address direct climate change resiliency of traditional
indigenous agricultural practices over Indian subcontinent to the best of our knowledge. The
following section will primarily focus on the agricultural practices of indigenous tribes and
how they can be applied on current eco-agricultural scenario in the milieu of climate change
over different agricultural macroenvironments in the world.
3.1.1 Apatani tribes (Eastern Himalaya). The Apatanis practice both wet and terrace cul-
tivation and paddy cum fish culture with finger millet on the bund (small dam). Due to these
special attributes of sustainable farming systems and people’s traditional ecological knowledge
in sustaining ecosystems, the plateau is in the process of declaring as World Heritage centre
[42–44]. The Apatanis have developed age-old valley rice cultivation has often been counted to
be one of the advanced tribal communities in the northeastern region of India [45]. It has been
known for its rich economy for decades and has good knowledge of land, forest, and water
management [46]. The wet rice fields are irrigated through well-managed canal systems [47].
It is managed by diverting numerous streams originated in the forest into single canal and
through canal each agriculture field is connected with bamboo or pinewood pipe.
The entire cultivation procedure by the Apatani tribes are organic and devoid of artificial
soil supplements. The paddy-cum-fish agroecosystem are positioned strategically to receive all
the run off nutrients from the hills and in addition to that, regular appliance of livestock
manure, agricultural waste, kitchen waste, and rice chaff help to maintain soil fertility [48].
Irrigation, cultivation, and harvesting of paddy-cum-fish agricultural system require coopera-
tion, experience, contingency plans, and discipline work schedule. Apatani tribes have orga-
nized tasks like construction and maintenance of irrigation, fencing, footpath along the field,
weeding, field preparation, transplantation, harvesting, and storing. They are done by the dif-
ferent groups of farmers and supervised by community leaders (Gaon Burha/Panchayat body).
Scientific and place-based irrigation solution using locally produced materials, innovative
paddy-cum-fish aquaculture, community participation in collective farming, and maintaining

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agro-biodiversity through regular usage of indigenous landraces have potentially distinguished

the Apatani tribes in the context of agro-biodiversity regime on mountainous landscape.
3.1.2 Lahaula (Western Himalaya). The Lahaul tribe has maintained a considerable
agro-biodiversity and livestock altogether characterizing high level of germ plasm conservation
[49]. Lahaulas living in the cold desert region of Lahaul valley are facultative farmers as they
able to cultivate only for 6 months (June to November) as the region remained ice covered
during the other 6 months of the year. Despite of the extreme weather conditions, Lahaulas are
able to maintain high level of agro-biodiversity through ice-water harvesting, combinatorial
cultivation of traditional and cash crops, and mixed agriculture–livestock practices. Indige-
nous practices for efficient use of water resources in such cold arid environment with steep
slopes are distinctive. Earthen channels (Nullah or Kuhi) for tapping melting snow water are
used for irrigation. Channel length run anywhere from a few meters to more than 5 km. Ridges
and furrows transverse to the slope retard water flow and soil loss [50]. Leaching of soil nutri-
ents due to the heavy snow cover gradually turns the fertile soil into unproductive one [51].
The requirement of high quantity organic manure is met through composting livestock
manure, night soil, kitchen waste, and forest leaf litter in a specially designed community com-
posting room. On the advent of summer, compost materials are taken into the field for
improving the soil quality.
Domesticated Yaks (Bos grunniens) is crossed with local cows to produce cold tolerant off-
spring of several intermediate species like Gari, Laru, Bree, and Gee for drought power and
sources of protein. Nitrogen fixing trees like Seabuckthrone (Hippophae rhamnoides) are also
cultivated along with the crops to meet the fuels and fodder requires for the long winter period.
Crop rotation is a common practice among the Lahaulas. Domesticated wild crop, local vari-
ety, and cash crops are rotated to ensure the soil fertility and maintaining the agro-biodiversity.
Herbs and indigenous medicinal plants are cultivated simultaneously with food crops and cash
crop to maximize the farm output. A combinatorial agro-forestry and agro-livestock approach
of the Lahaulas have successfully able to generate sufficient revenue and food to sustain 6
months of snow-covered winter in the lap of western Himalayan high-altitude landscape. This
also helps to maintain the local agro-biodiversity of the immensely important ecoregion.
3.1.3 Dongria Kondh (Eastern Ghat). Dongria Kondh tribes, living at the semiarid hilly
range of Eastern Ghats, have been applying sustainable agro-forestry techniques and a unique
mixed crop system for several centuries since their establishment in the tropical dry deciduous
hilly forest ecoregion. The forest is a source for 18 different non-timber forest products like
mushroom, bamboo, fruits, vegetables, seeds, leaf, grass, and medicinal products. The Kondh
people sustainably uses the forest natural capital such a way that maintain the natural stock
and simultaneously ensure the constant flow of products. Around 70% of the resources have
been consumed by the tribes, whereas 30% of the resources are being sold to generate revenue
for further economic and agro-forest sustainability [52]. The tribe faces moderate to acute
food grain crisis during the post-sowing monsoon period and they completely rely upon dif-
ferent alternative food products from the forest. The system has been running flawlessly until
recent time due to the aggressive mining activity, natural resources depleted significantly, and
the food security have been compromised [53].
However, the Kondh farmer have developed a very interesting agrarian technique where
they simultaneously grow 80 varieties of different crops ranging from paddy, millet, leaves,
pulses, tubers, vegetables, sorghum, legumes, maize, oil-seeds, etc. [54]. In order to grow so
many crops in 1 dongor (the traditional farm lands of Dongria Kondhs on lower hill slopes),
the sowing period and harvesting period extends up to 5 months from April till the end of
August and from October to February basing upon climatic suitability, respectively.

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Genomic profiling of millets like finger millet, pearl millet, and sorghum suggest that they
are climate-smart grain crops ideal for environments prone to drought and extreme heat [55].
Even the traditional upland paddy varieties they use are less water consuming, so are resilient
to drought-like conditions, and are harvested between 60 and 90 days of sowing. As a result,
the possibility of complete failure of a staple food crop like millets and upland paddy grown in
a dongor is very low even in drought-like conditions [56].
The entire agricultural method is extremely organic in nature and devoid of any chemical
pesticide, which reduces the cost of farming and at the same time help to maintain environ-
mental sustainability [57].
3.1.4 Irular tribes (Western Ghat). Irulas or Irular tribes, inhabiting at the Palamalai
mountainous region of Western Ghats and also Nilgiri hills are practicing 3 crucial age-old tra-
ditional agricultural techniques, i.e., indigenous pest management, traditional seed and food
storage methods, and age-old experiences and thumb rules on weather prediction. Similar to
the Kondh tribes, Irular tribes also practice mixed agriculture. Due to the high humidity in the
region, the tribes have developed and rigorously practices storage distinct methods for crops,
vegetables, and seeds. Eleven different techniques for preserving seeds and crops by the Irular
tribes are recorded till now. They store pepper seeds by sun drying for 2 to 3 days and then
store in the gunny bags over the platform made of bamboo sticks to avoid termite attack.
Paddy grains are stored with locally grown aromatic herbs (Vitex negundo and Pongamia pin-
nata) leaves in a small mud-house. Millets are buried under the soil (painted with cow dung
slurry) and can be stored up to 1 year. Their storage structure specially designed to allow aera-
tion protect insect and rodent infestation [58]. Traditional knowledge of cross-breeding and
selection helps the Irular enhancing the genetic potential of the crops and maintaining indige-
nous lines of drought resistant, pest tolerant, disease resistant sorghum, millet, and ragi
[59,60].
Irular tribes are also good observer of nature and pass the traditional knowledge of weather
phenomenon linked with biological activity or atmospheric condition. Irular use the behav-
ioral fluctuation of dragonfly, termites, ants, and sheep to predict the possibility of rainfall.
Atmospheric phenomenon like ring around the moon, rainbow in the evening, and morning
cloudiness are considered as positive indicator of rainfall, whereas dense fog is considered as
negative indicator. The Irular tribes also possess and practice traditional knowledge on cli-
mate, weather, forecasting, and rainfall prediction [58]. The Irular tribes also gained extensive
knowledge in pest management as 16 different plant-based pesticides have been documented
that are all completely biological in nature. The mode of actions of these indigenous pesticides
includes anti-repellent, anti-feedent, stomach poison, growth inhibitor, and contact poisoning.
All of these pesticides are prepared from common Indian plants extract like neem, chili,
tobacco, babul, etc.
The weather prediction thumb rules are not being validated with real measurement till now
but understanding of the effect of forecasting in regional weather and climate pattern in agri-
cultural practices along with biological pest control practices and seed conservation have made
Irular tribe unique in the context of global agro-biodiversity conservation.

3.2 Climate change risk in indigenous agricultural landscape

The effect of climate change over the argo-ecological landscape of Lahaul valley indicates high
temperature stress as increment of number of warm days, 0.16˚C average temperature and 1.1
to 2.5˚C maximum temperature are observed in last decades [61,62]. Decreasing trend of rain-
fall during monsoon and increasing trend of consecutive dry days in last several decades
strongly suggest future water stress in the abovementioned region over western Himalaya.

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Studies on the western Himalayan region suggest presence of climate anomaly like retraction
of glaciers, decreasing number of snowfall days, increasing incident of pest attack, and extreme
events on western Himalayan region [63–65].
Apatani tribes in eastern Himalayan landscape are also experiencing warmer weather with
0.2˚C increment in maximum and minimum temperature [66]. Although no significant trend
in rainfall amount has been observed, however 11% decrease in rainy day and 5% to 15%
decrease in rainfall amount by 2030 was speculated using regional climate model [67]. Increas-
ing frequency of extreme weather events like flashfloods, cloudburst, landslide, etc. and patho-
gen attack in agricultural field will affect the sustainable agro-forest landscape of Apatani
tribes. Similar to the Apatani and Lahaulas tribes, Irular and Dongria Kondh tribes are also
facing climate change effect via increase in maximum and minimum temperature and decrease
in rainfall and increasing possibility of extreme weather event [68,69]. In addition, the increas-
ing number of forest fire events in the region is also an emerging problem due to the dryer cli-
mate [70].
Higher atmospheric and soil temperature in the crop growing season have direct impact on
plant physiological processes and therefore has a declining effect on crop productivity, seedling
mortality, and pollen viability [71]. Anomaly in precipitation amount and pattern also affect
crop development by reducing plant growth [72]. Extreme events like drought and flood could
alter soil fertility, reduce water holding capacity, increase nutrient run off, and negatively
impact seed and crop production [73]. Agricultural pest attack increases at higher temperature
as it elevates their food consumption capability and reproduction rate [74].

3.3 Climate resiliency through indigenous agro-forestry

Three major climate-resilient and environmentally friendly approaches in all 4 tribes can
broadly classified as (i) organic farming; (ii) soil and water conservation and community farm-
ing; and (iii) maintain local agro-biodiversity. The practices under these 3 regimes have been
listed in Table 1.
Human and animal excreta, plant residue, ashes, decomposed straw, husk, and other by-
products are used to make organic fertilizer and compost material that helps to maintain soil
fertility in the extreme orographic landscape with high run-off. Community farming begins
with division of labour and have produced different highly specialized skilled individual expert
in different farming techniques. It needs to be remembered that studied tribes live in an area
with complex topological feature and far from advance technological/logistical support. Farm-
ing in such region is extremely labour intensive, and therefore, community farming has

Table 1. Indigenous agricultural practices of different tribes.

Types of practices Apatani Irular Dongria Lahaulas
p p p p
1. Indigenous methods of farming practice
p p p p
2. Conserving agro-biodiversity/wild crops
p p p
3. Mixed cropping/crop rotation
p p p p
4. Agro-forestry
p p p p
5. Compost application
p p
6. Soil conservation and management
p p
7. Integrated practices (with fish/livestock)
p p
8. Recycling of water
p
9. Biopesticides
p
10.Weather forecasting
p p
11. Heirloom seeds
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000022.t001

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Fig 2. Heat map representing climate change resiliency of different indigenous tribe.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pstr.0000022.g002

become essential for surviving. All 4 tribes have maintained their indigenous land races of dif-
ferent crops, cereal, vegetables, millets, oil-seeds, etc. that give rises to very high agro-biodiver-
sity in all 4 regions. For example, Apatanis cultivate 106 species of plants with 16 landraces of
indigenous rice and 4 landraces of indigenous millet [75]. Similarly, 24 different crops, vegeta-
bles, and medicinal plants are cultivated by the Lahaulas, and 50 different indigenous landraces
are cultivated by Irular and Dongria Kondh tribes.
The combination of organic firming and high indigenous agro-biodiversity create a perfect
opportunity for biological control of pests. Therefore, other than Irular tribe, all 3 tribes
depend upon natural predator like birds and spiders, feeding on the indigenous crop, for pre-
dation of pests. Irular tribes developed multiple organic pest management methods from
extract of different common Indian plants. Apatani and Lahaulas incorporate fish and live-
stock into their agricultural practices, respectively, to create a circular approach to maximize
the utilization of waste material produced. At a complex topographic high-altitude landscape
where nutrient run-off is very high, the practices of growing plants with animals also help to
maintain soil fertility. Four major stresses due to the advancement of climate change have
been identified in previous section, and climate change resiliency against these stresses has
been graphically presented in Fig 2.
Retraction of the glaciers and direct physiological impact on the livestock due to the tem-
perature stress have made the agricultural practices of the Lahaula’s vulnerable to climate
change. However, Irular and Dongria Kondh tribes are resilient to the temperature stress due
to their heat-resistant local agricultural landraces, and Apatanis will remain unaffected due to
their temperate climate and vast forest cover. Dongria Kondh tribe will successfully tackle the
water stress due to their low-water farming techniques and simultaneous cultivation of multi-
ple crops that help to retain the soil moisture by reducing evaporation. Hundreds of perennial

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streams of Nyamgiri hills are also sustainably maintained and utilised by the Dongria Kondhs
along with the forests, which gives them enough subsistence in form of non-timber forest
products (NTFPs). However, although Apatani and Lahuala tribe extensively reuse and recir-
culate water in their field but due to the higher water requirement of paddy-cum-fish and
paddy-cum-livestock agriculture, resiliency would be little less compared to Dongria Kondh.
Presence of vast forest cover, very well-structured irrigation system, contour agriculture
and layered agricultural field have provided resiliency to the Apatani’s from extreme events
like flash flood, landslides, and cloud burst. Due to their seed protection practices and weather
prediction abilities, Irular tribe also show resiliency to the extreme events. However, forest fire
and flash flood risk in both Eastern Ghat and Western Ghat have been increased and vegeta-
tion has significantly decreased in recent past. High risk of flash flood, land slide, avalanches,
and very low vegetation coverage have made the Lahaulas extremely vulnerable to extreme
events. Robust pest control methods of Irular tribe and age-old practices of intercropping,
mixed cropping, and sequence cropping of the Dongria Kondh tribe will resist pest attack in
near future.

3.4 Reshaping policy

Temperature stress, water stress, alien pest attack, and increasing risk of extreme events are
pointed out as the major risks in the above described 4 indigenous tribes. However, every tribe
has shown their own climate resiliency in their traditional agrarian practices, and therefore, a
technology transfers and knowledge sharing among the tribes would successfully help to
achieve the climate resilient closure. The policy outcome may be summarizing as follows:
a. Designing, structuring and monitoring of infrastructural network of Apatani and Lahaul
tribes (made by bamboo in case of Apatanis and Pine wood and stones in case of Lahaulas)
for waster harvesting should be more rugged and durable to resilient against increasing risk
of flash flood and cloud burst events.
b. Water recycling techniques like bunds, ridges, and furrow used by Apatani and Lahaul
tribes could be adopted by Irular and Dongria Kondh tribes as Nilgiri and Koraput region
will face extreme water stress in coming decades.
c. Simultaneous cultivation of multiple crops by the Dongria Kondh tribe could be acclimated
by the other 3 tribes as this practice is not only drought resistance but also able to maximize
the food security of the population.
d. Germplasm storage and organic pest management knowledge by the Irular tribes could be
transferred to the other 3 tribes to tackle the post-extreme event situations and alien pest
attack, respectively.
e. Overall, it is strongly recommended that the indigenous knowledge of agricultural practices
needs to be conserved. Government and educational institutions need to focus on harvest-
ing the traditional knowledge by the indigenous community.

3.5 Limitation
One of the major limitations of the study is lack of significant number of quantifiable litera-
ture/research articles about indigenous agricultural practices over Indian subcontinent. No
direct study assessing risk of climate change among the targeted agroecological landscapes has
been found to the best of our knowledge. Therefore, the current study integrates

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PLOS SUSTAINABILITY AND TRANSFORMATION

socioeconomic status of indigenous agrarian sustainability and probable climate change risk in
the present milieu of climate emergency of 21st century. Uncertainty in the current climate
models and the spatiotemporal resolution of its output is also a minor limitation as the study
theoretically correlate and proposed reshaped policy by using the current and future modeled
agro-meteorological parameters.

4. Conclusions
In the present study, an in-depth analysis of CSA practices among the 4 indigenous tribes
spanning across different agro-biodiversity hotspots over India was done, and it was observed
that every indigenous community is more or less resilient to the adverse effect of climate
change on agriculture. Thousands years of traditional knowledge has helped to develop a
unique resistance against climate change among the tribes. However, the practices are not well
explored through the eyes of modern scientific perspective, and therefore, might goes extinct
through the course of time. A country-wide study on the existing indigenous CSA practices is
extremely important to produce a database and implementation framework that will success-
fully help to resist the climate change effect on agrarian economy of tropical countries. Perhaps
the most relevant aspect of the study is the realization that economically and socially backward
farmers cope with and even prepare for climate change by minimizing crop failure through
increased use of drought tolerant local varieties, water harvesting, mixed cropping, agro-for-
estry, soil conservation practices, and a series of other traditional techniques.

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