CHAPTER 20

ROCKET TESTING

20.1. TYPES OF TESTS

Before rocket propulsion systems are put into operational use, they are sub-
jected to several different types of tests, some of which are outlined below in
the sequence in which they are normally performed.

1. Manufacturing inspection and fabrication tests on individual parts

(dimensional inspection, pressure tests, x-rays, leak checks, electric con-
tinuity, electromechanical checks, etc.).
2. Component tests (functional and operational tests on igniters, valves,
thrusters, controls, injectors, structures, etc.).
3. Static rocket system tests (with complete propulsion system on test
stand): (a) partial or simulated rocket operation (for proper function,
calibration, ignition, operation--often without establishing full thrust
or operating for the full duration); (b) complete propulsion system tests
(under rated conditions, off-design conditions, with intentional varia-
tions in environment or calibration). For a reusable or restartable rocket
propulsion system this can include many starts, long-duration endurance
tests, and postoperational inspections and reconditioning.
4. Static vehicle tests (when rocket propulsion system is installed in a
restrained, nonflying vehicle or stage).
5. Flight tests: (a) with a specially instrumented propulsion system in a
developmental flight test vehicle; (b) with a production vehicle.

711
712 ROCKETTESTING

Each of these five types of tests can be performed on at least three basic
types of programs:

1. Research on and development or improvement of a new (or modified)

rocket engine or motor or their propellants or components.
2. Evaluation of the suitability of a new (or modified) rocket engine or
motor for a specified application or for flight readiness.
3. Production and quality assurance of a rocket propulsion system.

The first two types of programs are concerned with a novel or modified
device and often involve the testing and measurement of new concepts or
phenomena using experimental rockets. The testing of a new solid propellant
grain, the development of a novel control valve assembly, and the measurement
of the thermal expansion of a nozzle exhaust cone during firing operation are
examples.
Production tests concern themselves with the measurement of a few basic
parameters on production propulsion systems to assure that the performance,
reliability, and operation are within specified tolerance limits. If the number of
units is large, the test equipment and instrumentation used for these tests are
usually partly or fully automated and designed to permit the testing, measure-
ment, recording, and evaluation in a minimum amount of time.
During the early development phases of a program, many special and un-
usual tests are performed on components and complete rockets to prove spe-
cific design features and performance characteristics. Special facilities and
instrumentation or modification of existing test equipment are used. During
the second type of program, some special tests are usually conducted to deter-
mine the statistical performance and reliability of a rocket device by operating
a number of units of the same design. During this phase tests are also made to
demonstrate the ability of the rocket to withstand extreme limits of the oper-
ating conditions, such as high and low ambient temperature, variations in fuel
composition, changes in the vibration environment, or exposure to moisture,
rain, vacuum, or rough handling during storage. To demonstrate safety, some-
times, intentional malfunctions, spurious signals, or manufacturing flaws are
introduced into the propulsion system, to determine the capability of the con-
trol system or the safety devices to handle and prevent a potential failure.
Before an experimental rocket can be flown in a vehicle it usually has to pass
a set ofpreliminaryflight rating tests aimed at demonstrating the rocket's safety,
reliability, and performance. It is not a single test, but a series of tests under
various specified conditions operating limits, and performance tolerances, simu-
lated environments, and intentional malfunctions. Thereafter the rocket may be
used in experimental flights. However, before it can be put into production, it
usually has to pass another specified series of tests under a variety of rigorous
specified conditions, known as the qualification test or preproduction test. Once a
particular propulsion system has been qualified, or passed a qualification test, it
is usually forbidden to make any changes in design, fabrication processes, or
 20.2. TEST FACILITIES AND SAFEGUARDS 713

materials without going through a careful review, extensive documentation, and

often also a requalification test.
The amount and expense of testing of components and complete propulsion
systems has decreased greatly in the last few decades. The reasons are more
experience with prior similar systems and more confidence in predicting a
number of failure modes and their locations. Validated computer programs
have removed many uncertainties and obviated needs for tests. In some appli-
cations the number of firing tests has decreased by a factor of 10 or more.

20.2. TEST FACILITIES AND SAFEGUARDS

For chemical rocket propulsion systems, each test facility usually has the fol-
lowing major systems or components:
1. A test cell or test bay where the article to be tested is mounted, usually in
a special test fixture. If the test is hazardous, the test facility must have
provisions to protect operating personnel and to limit damage in case of
an accident.
2. An instrumentation system with associated computers for sensing, main-
taining, measuring, analyzing, correcting, and recording various physical
and chemical parameters. It usually includes calibration systems and
timers to accurately synchronize the measurements.
3. A control system for starting, stopping, and changing the operating con-
ditions.
4. Systems for handling heavy or awkward assemblies, supplying liquid
propellant, and providing maintenance, security, and safety.
5. For highly toxic propellants and toxic plume gases it has been required to
capture the hazardous gas or vapor (firing inside a closed duct system),
remove almost all of the hazardous ingredients (e.g., by wet scrubbing
and/or chemical treatment), allow the release of the nontoxic portion of
the cleaned gases, and safely dispose of any toxic solid or liquid residues
from the chemical treatment. With an exhaust gas containing fluorine,
for example, the removal of much of this toxic gas can be achieved by
scrubbing it with water that contains dissolved calcium; it will then form
calcium fluoride, which can be precipitated and removed.
6. In some tests specialized test equipment and unique facilities are needed
to conduct static testing under different environmental conditions or
under simulated emergency conditions. For example, high and low ambi-
ent temperature tests of large motors may require a temperature-con-
trolled enclosure around the motor; a rugged explosion-resistant
facility is needed for bullet impact tests of propellant-loaded missile sys-
tems and also for cook-off tests, where gasoline or rocket fuel is burned
with air below a stored missile. Similarly, special equipment is needed for
714 ROCKETTESTING

vibration testing, measuring thrust vector forces and moments in three

dimensions, or determining total impulse for very short pulse durations
at low thrust.

Most rocket propulsion testing is now accomplished in sophisticated facil-

ities under closely controlled conditions. Modern rocket test facilities are fre-
quently located several miles from the nearest community to prevent or
minimize effects of excessive noise, vibrations, explosions, and toxic exhaust
clouds. Figure 20-1 shows one type of an open-air test stand for vertically
down-firing large liquid propellant thrust chambers (100,000 to 2 million
pounds thrust). It is best to fire the propulsion system in a direction (vertical

Flashing red warning lights

signalling hazard prior to and
during run.
Green signals all clear; allows
reentry to test stand

Test stand steel beam

structure (5 stories high)

Working platforms for access

to propulsion hardware,
controls, and instruments

Video camera (4)

Thrust chamber
Water cooling sprays

Water sprays :i i:- ' q ] j 90 ° flame deflector bucket

~ [ ~ ~ ~ (with water cooling jacket)
• . ............ • .... . ...,...: , ...... ,.

i/it, ..
.. -... ............. " ......... .-: :.... ~.
:
Instrument
terminal
room
..... Exhaust gas
mixed with steam
and water

FIGURE 20-1. Simplified sketch of a typical static test stand for a large liquid propel-
lant thrust chamber firing vertically downward. Only a small part of the exhaust plume
(between the nozzle exit and flame bucket entrance) is visible. The flame bucket turns
the exhaust gas plume by 90 ° (horizontal) and prevents the flame from digging a hole in
the ground. Not shown here are cranes, equipment for installing or removing a thrust
chamber, safety railings, high pressure gas tank, the propellant tank pressurization
system, separate storage tanks for fuel, oxidizer, or cooling water with their feed sys-
tems, or a small workshop.
 20.2. TEST FACILITIES AND SAFEGUARDS 715

or horizontal) similar to the actual flight condition. Figure 20-2 shows a simu-
lated altitude test facility for rockets of about 10.5 metric tons thrust force
(46,000 lbf). It requires a vacuum chamber in which to mount the engine, a set
of steam ejectors to create a vacuum, water to reduce the gas temperature, and
a cooled diffuser. With the flow of chemical rocket propellant combustion
gases it is impossible to maintain a high vacuum in these kinds of facilities;
typically, between 15 to 4 torr (20 to 35 km altitude) can be maintained. This
type of test facility allows the operation of rocket propulsion systems with
high-nozzle-area ratios that would normally experience flow separation at
sea-level ambient pressures.
Prior to performing any test, it is common practice to train the test crew and
go through repeated dry runs, to familiarize each person with his or her respon-
sibilities and procedures, including the emergency procedures.
Typical personnel and plant security or safety provisions in a modern test
facility include the following:

1. Concrete-walled blockhouse or control stations for the protection of

personnel and instruments (see Fig. 20-3) remote from the actual rocket
propulsion location.

LH2 run tank

50m3
LOX run tank
,.-,,. 5m3

Float / Accumulators for steam

18 containers at 108 ma
q" each
I-I~ Isolation ] Sound muffling
~ [ EvacuationL~
~ valve / ~ / tower
C] I pump 1"

T II
i 1[~ ] T e l i ~ l : r """'J.~1~1~~ ~ I~] -
I measurement
, hthrus I
. . . .

~water
II
~" 7 8m ~'- 104m _l
II
FIGURE 20-2. Simplified diagram of a simulated altitude, horizontal firing test facility
for the LE-5 Japanese-designed thrust chamber (liquid oxygen-liquid hydrogen propel-
lants) showing the method of creating a vacuum (6 torr during operation and 13 torr
prior to start). The operating duration is limited to about 10 min by the capacity of the
steam storage. (Reproduced from Ref. 20-1 with permission of the AIAA.)
716 ROCKETTESTING

FIGURE 20-3. Control room (inside a reinforced concrete blockhouse) for test opera-
tors, instrument recorders, and controls. Note the control console, closed-circuit televi-
sion, radio and telephone, direct read-out meters, strip charts, high-speed tape
recorders, oscilloscope, air-quality alarm, and emergency lights. (Courtesy of U.S. Air
Force Phillips Laboratory.)

2. Remote control, indication, and recording of all hazardous operations

and measurements; isolation of propellants from the instrumentation
and control room.
3. Automatic or manual water deluge and fire-extinguishing systems.
4. Closed circuit television systems for remotely viewing the test.
5. Warning signals (siren, bells, horns, lights, speakers) to notify personnel
to clear the test area prior to a test, and an all-clear signal when the
conditions are no longer hazardous.
6. Quantity and distance restrictions on liquid propellant tankage and
solid propellant storage to minimize damage in the event of explosions;
separation of liquid fuels and oxidizers.
7. Barricades around hazardous test articles to reduce shrapnel damage in
the event of a blast.
8. Explosion-proof electrical systems, spark-proof shoes, and nonspark
hand tools to prvent ignition of flammable materials.
9. For certain propellants also safety clothing (see Fig. 20-4), including
propellant- and fire-resistant suits, face masks and shields, gloves, spe-
cial shoes, and hard hats.
 20.2. TEST FACILITIES AND SAFEGUARDS 717

....... i?<!:- i ::i::

~i~ ~,

FIGURE 20-4. Plastic safety suit, gloves, boots, and hood used by test personnel in
handling hazardous or corrosive liquid propellants. Safety shower, which starts auto-
matically when a person steps onto the platform, washes away splashed or spilled
propellant. (Official U.S. Air Force photograph.)

10. Rigid enforcement of rules governing area access, smoking, safety

inspections, and so forth.
11. Limitations on the number of personnel that may be in a hazardous
area at any time.

Monitoring and Control of Toxic Materials

Open-air testing of chemical rockets frequently requires measurement and con-
trol of exhaust cloud concentrations and gas movement in the surrounding
areas for safeguarding personnel, animals, and plants. A toxic cloud of gas
and particles can result from the exhaust gas of normal rocket operation,
vapors or reaction gases from unintentional propellant spills, and gases from
fires, explosions, or from the intentional destruction of vehicles in flight or
rockets on the launch stand. Environmental regulations usually limit the max-
718 ROCKETTESTING

imum local concentration or the total quantity of toxic gas or particulates

released to the atmosphere. The toxic nature of some of these liquids, vapors,
and gases has been mentioned in Chapters 7 and 12. One method of control is
for tests with discharges of moderately toxic gases or products to be postponed
until favorable weather conditions are present.
In ground tests, the toxic cloud source is treated as a point source, and in
flight tests it is a ribbon source. The rate of exhaust cloud diffusion is influenced
by many propulsion variables, including propellant, rocket size, exhaust tem-
perature, and thrust duration; by many atmospheric variables, including wind
velocity, direction, turbulence, humidity, and vertical stability or lapse rate,
and by the surrounding terrain. Extensive analytical studies and measurements
of the environmental exposure from explosions, industrial smoke, and gases,
and exhausts from missile and space vehicle launchings give background useful
for predicting the atmospheric diffusion and downwind concentrations of
rocket exhaust clouds. Reference 20-2 describes hazards and toxic gas cloud
dispersals and concentrations. Reference 20-3 evaluates the environmental
impact of rocket exhausts from large units on the ozone in the stratosphere
and on the ground weather near the test site; it concludes that the impacts are
generally small and temporary. Reference 20-4 describes a test-area atmo-
spheric measuring network.
A widely used relationship for predicting atmospheric diffusion of gas
clouds has been formulated by O. G. Sutton (Ref. 20-5). Many of the most
modern equations and models relating to downwind concentrations of toxic
clouds are extensions of Sutton's theory. Given below are the Sutton equations
of primary interest to rocket and missile operators.
For instantaneous ground-level point source nonisotropic conditions,

_ Q y2 z2)l
exp[(-~t)n-2( x2 + ~ 2 + ~ 2 (20-1)
X(x,y,z,t) - 21.3/2 Cx Cy Cz(ut) 3(2-n)/2

For continuous ground-level point source nonisotropic conditions,

X - 7rCyC_~x2_,, exp --X n-2 Jr- -~ (20-2)

where X is the concentration in grams per cubic meter, Q is the source strength
(grams for intantaneous, grams per second for continuous); Cx,>z are diffusion
coefficients in the x, y, z planes, respectively; ~ is the average wind velocity in
meters per second, t is the time in seconds, and the coordinates x, y, z are in
meters measured from the center of the moving cloud in the instantaneous case
and from a ground point beneath the plume axis in the continuous case. The
exponent n is a stability or turbulence coefficient, ranging from almost zero for
highly turbulent conditions to 1 as a limit for extremely stable conditions, and
usually falling between 0.10 and 0.50.
 20.2. TEST FACILITIES AND SAFEGUARDS 719

A few definitions basic to the study of atmospheric diffusion of exhaust

clouds are as follows:

1. Micrometeorology. Study and forecasting of atmospheric phenomena

restricted to a region approximately 300 m above the earth's surface
and a horizontal distance of approximately 5 miles.
2. Lapse Rate. The rate of decrease in temperature with increasing height
above the earth's surface. The United States Standard Atmosphere has a
lapse rate of about 6.4°C per 1000 m. Lapse rate is also affected by
altitude, wind, and humidity.
3. Inversion, or Inversion Layer. Condition of negative lapse rate (tempera-
ture increases with increasing height). Usually formed near the ground at
night.

The following are a few general rules and observations derived from experi-
ence with the atmospheric diffusion of rocket exhaust clouds:

1. Inversion presents a very stable layer and greatly reduces the vertical
dispersion (the higher the lapse rate, the greater the vertical dispersion).
2. A highly stable atmospheric condition tends to keep the exhaust plume or
cloud intact and away from the earth's surface except when the exhaust
products are much heavier than the surrounding air.
3. High wind increases the rate of diffusion and reduces the thermal effects.
4. For short firings (< 500 sec) the approximate dosages downwind are
about the same as from an instantaneous point source.
5. When the plume reaches about one-fourth the distance to a given point
before emission is stopped, peak concentration will be about three-
fourths of that from a continuous source of equal strength.
6. The presence of an inversion layer significantly restricts the mixing or
diffusion capacity of the atmosphere in that the effective air mass is that
mass existing between the earth's surface and the inversion layer.
7. Penetration of the inversion layer due to the buoyance force of the hot
exhaust cloud seldom occurs.
8. Earth surface dosage drops rapidly when missiles or space launch vehi-
cles are destroyed in flight above a height of 1500 m as compared to lower
altitudes of 600 to 1000 m.

Interpretation of the hazard that exists once the concentration of the toxic
agent is known also requires knowledge of its effects on the human body,
plants, and animals. Tolerance limits for humans are given in Chapter 7 and
in Ref. 8-5. There are usually three limits of interest: one for the short-time
exposure of the general public, one for an 8-hr exposure limit, and an evacua-
tion concentration. Depending on the toxic chemical, the 8-hr limit may vary
from 5000 ppm for a gas such as carbon dioxide, to less than 1 ppm for an
extremely toxic substance such as fluorine. Poisoning of the human body by
720 ROCKET TESTING

exhaust products usually occurs from inhalation of the gases and fine solid
particles, but the solid residuals that sometimes remain around a test facility
for weeks or months following a test firing can enter the body through cuts and
other avenues. Also, certain liquid propellants cause burns and skin rash or are
poisonous when ingested, as explained in Chapter 7.

20.3. INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA MANAGEMENT

This section gives only a very brief discussion of this subject. For further study
the reader is referred to standard textbooks on instruments and computers
used in testing, such as Ref. 20-6. Some of the physical quantities measured
in rocket testing are as follows:

1. Forces (thrust, thrust vector control side forces, short thrust pulses).
2. Flows (hot and cold gases, liquid fuel, liquid oxidizer, leakage).
3. Pressures (chamber, propellant, pump, tank, etc.).
4. Temperatures (chamber walls, propellant, structure, nozzle).
5. Timing and command sequencing of valves, switches, igniters, etc.
6. Stresses, strains, and vibrations (combustion chamber, structures, pro-
pellant lines, accelerations of vibrating parts) (Ref. 20-7).
7. Time sequence of events (ignition, attainments of full pressure).
8. Movement and position of parts (valve stems, gimbal position, deflection
of parts under load or heat).
. Voltages, frequencies, and currents in electrical or control subsystems.
10. Visual observations (flame configuration, test article failures, explosions)
using high-speed cameras or video cameras.
11. Special quantities such as turbopump shaft speed, liquid levels in pro-
pellant tanks, burning rates, flame luminosity, or exhaust gas composi-
tion.

Reference 20-8 gives a description of specialized diagnostic techniques used

in propulsion systems, such as using nonintrusive optical methods, micro-
waves, and ultrasound for measurements of temperatures, velocities, particle
sizes, or burn rates in solid propellant grains. Many of these sensors incorpo-
rate specialized technologies and, often, unique software. Each of the measured
parameters can be obtained by different types of instruments, sensors, and
analyzers, as indicated in Ref. 20-9.

Measurement System Terminology

Each measurement or each measuring system usually requires one or more
sensing elements (often called transducers or pickups), a device for recording,
displaying, and/or indicating the sensed information, and often also another
 20.3. INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA MANAGEMENT 721

device for conditioning, amplifying, correcting, or transforming the sensed signal

into the form suitable for recording, indicating, display, or analysis. Recording
of rocket test data has been performed in several ways, such as on chart
recorders or in digital form on memory devices, such as on magnetic tapes or
disks. Definitions of several significant terms are given below and in Ref. 20-6.
Range refers to the region extending from the minimum to the maximum
rated value over which the measurement system will give a true and linear
response. Usually an additional margin is provided to permit temporary over-
loads without damage to the instrument or need for recalibration.
Errors in measurements are usually of two types: (1) human errors of im-
properly reading the instrument, chart, or record and of improperly interpret-
ing or correcting these data, and (2) instrument or system errors, which usually
fall into four classifications: static errors, dynamic response errors, drift errors,
and hysteresis errors (see Ref. 20-10). Static errors are usually fixed errors due
to fabrication and installation variations; these errors can usually be detected
by careful calibration, and an appropriate correction can then be applied to the
reading. Drift error is the change in output over a period of time, usually
caused by random wander and environmental conditions. To avoid drift
error the measuring system has to be calibrated at frequent intervals at stan-
dard environmental conditions against known standard reference values over
its whole range. Dynamic response errors occur when the measuring system fails
to register the true value of the measured quantity while this quantity is chang-
ing, particularly when it is changing rapidly. For example, the thrust force has
a dynamic component due to vibrations, combustion oscillations, interactions
with the support structure, etc. These dynamic changes can distort or amplify
the thrust reading unless the test strand structure, the rocket mounting struc-
ture, and the thrust measuring and recording system are properly designed to
avoid harmonic excitation or excessive energy damping. To obtain a good
dynamic response requires a careful analysis and design of the total system.
A maximum frequency response refers to the maximum frequency (usually in
cycles per second) at which the instrument system will measure true values. The
natural frequency of the measuring system is usually above the limiting
response frequency. Generally, a high-frequency response requires more com-
plex and expensive instrumentation. All of the instrument system (sensing
elements, modulators, and recorders) must be capable of a fast response.
Most of the measurements in rocket testing are made with one of two types
of instruments: those made under nearly steady static conditions, where only
relatively gradual changes in the quantities occur, and those made with fast
transient conditions, such as rocket starting, stopping, or vibrations (see Ref.
20-11). This latter type of instrument has frequency responses above 200 Hz,
sometimes as high as 20,000 Hz. These fast measurements are necessary to
evaluate the physical phenomena of rapid transients.
Linearity of the instrument refers to the ratio of the input (usually pressure,
temperature, force, etc.) to the output (usually voltage, output display change,
etc.) over the range of the instrument. Very often the static calibration error
722 ROCKET TESTING

indicates a deviation from a truly linear response. A nonlinear response can

cause appreciable errors in dynamic measurements. Resolution refers to the
minimum change in the measured quantity that can be detected with a given
instrument. Dead zone or hysteresis errors are often caused by energy absorp-
tion within the instrument system or play in the instrument mechanism; in part,
they limit the resolution of the instrument.
Sensitivity refers to the change in response or reading caused by special
influences. For example, the temperature sensitivity and the acceleration sensi-
tivity refer to the change in measured value caused by temperature and accel-
eration. These are usually expressed in percent change of measured value per
unit of temperature or acceleration. This information can serve to correct
readings to reference or standard conditions.
Errors in measurement can arise from many sources. Reference 20-12 gives
a standardized method, including mathematical models, for estimating the
error, component by component, as well as the cumulative effect in the instru-
mentation and recording systems. Graphic recordings (error ranges i 0 . 2 to
4-0.5% of strip chart span) and oscillographs (error ranges -t-2.0 to i 3 . 0 % of
full scale), two of the analog-type recording devices, are used for giving quick-
look data and to record high-frequency data or transient conditions; these
transients are beyond the capability of digital recorders, which are usually
limited to 100 Hz or lower as compared to 5000 Hz or higher for oscillographs.
Electrical interference or "noise" within an instrumentation system, includ-
ing the power supply, transmission lines, amplifiers, and recorders, can affect
the accuracy of the recorded data, especially when low-output transducers are
in use. Methods for measuring and eliminating objectionable electrical noise
are given in Ref. 20-13.

Use of Computers
Computers have become commonplace in the testing and handling of data in
rocket propulsion. They are usually coupled with sensors (e.g., pressure trans-
ducers, actuator position indicators, temperature sensors, liquid level gauges,
etc.), which provide the data inputs, with controllers (valve actuators, thrust
vector controllers, thrust termination devices), which receive commands result-
ing from the computer outputs causing a change in the sensed quantity, and
with auxiliaries such as terminals, data storage devices, or printers. Computers
are used in one or more of the following ways:
1. The analysis of test data becomes a time-consuming difficult job without
computers, simply because of the huge volume of data that is generated
in many typical rocket propulsion system tests. All the pertinent data
need to be reviewed and evaluated. The computer will permit automated
data reduction, including data correction (e.g., for known instrument
error, calibration, or changes in atmospheric pressure), conversion of
analog data into digital form, and filtering of data to eliminate signals
 20.3. INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA MANAGEMENT 723

outside the range of interest. It can also include data manipulation to put
the test information into graphic displays or summary hard-copy read-
outs of selected, specific performance parameters.
On the basis of a careful evaluation of the test data the responsible
engineers have to decide whether the test objectives were met and what
changes to make or what objectives to set for the next test or the remain-
der of the current test. Reference 20-14 describes a software system that
allows automated test analysis and decision support in evaluating the 50
million bytes of test data that are generated in a typical SSME test; it is
based in part on the use of an expert knowledge system.
2. Modern testing systems use digital data bases for recording and docu-
menting test records. Often only a portion of the recorded data is actually
analyzed and reviewed during or after the test. In complex rocket pro-
pulsion system tests, sometimes between 100 or 400 different instrument
measurements are made and recorded. Some data need to be sampled
frequently (e.g., some transients may be sampled at rates higher than
1000 times per second), whereas other data need to be taken at lower
frequencies (e.g., temperature of mounting structure may be needed only
every 1 to 10 sec). Multiplexing of data is commonly practiced to simplify
data transmission. Most rocket test computer systems contain a config-
uration file to indicate data characteristics for each channel, such as
range, gain, the references, the type of averaging, the parameter charac-
teristics, or the data correction algorithms. Most of the data are not
analyzed or printed out as hard copy; a detailed analysis occurs only if
there is reason for understanding particular test events in more detail.
This analysis may occur months after the actual tests and may not even
be done on the same computer.
3. Sensing and evaluating failures or overlimit conditions (excessive local
temperature, vibration, or limiting local pressure) is aimed at detecting
an impending malfunction and at deciding whether it is a serious prob-
lem. If serious, it can cause either an automatic correction or an auto-
matic and safe shutdown of operation. Sensing of undesirable operating
conditions can be accomplished much more rapidly on a computer than
would be possible if a human operator were in the control loop. In some
engine designs a critical failure is sensed by several sensors and the com-
puter rapidly evaluates the signals from these sensors and causes a cor-
rection (or shutdown) only if the majority of sensors indicate an unsafe
or undesirable condition, thus eliminating the occasional failure of an
individual sensor as a cause for shutdown.
4. Simulation of tests can be accomplished by devising algorithms that allow
a computer to respond in a manner similar to a rocket propulsion unit.
The computer receives inputs from various sensors (valve position, thrust
vector control position, unsafe temperatures, etc.), processes the data in a
simulation algorithm, and then provides output of control signals (e.g.,
724 ROCKETTESTING

thrust change, shutdown) and also of simulated rocket performance (e.g.,

chamber pressure, specific impulse, side force, etc.). This computer simu-
lation can be very economical compared to running additional tests. This
can be a full off-line simulation (in a separate computer with simulated
inputs) or a partial on-line simulation where the computer is coupled to
an actual rocket engine or its components; this second type can be used
to check out an engine just prior to, or in the first second of, a test run or
test flight.
, Control of test operation by computer allows the attainment of the desired
test conditions in a minimum amount of time. This could entail a preo
programmed set of pulses for an attitude control thruster, a desired set of
different mixture ratios to be achieved for a short time (say, 1 sec each) in
a single test, or a planned variation of thrust vector control conditions. It
can provide a closed loop control to attain desired operating conditions,
including the paths along which these conditions should be achieved. It
also makes it possible to control several variables at the same time (e.g.,
thrust, mixture ratio, and several turbine inlet temperatures). For some
component tests programmable logic controllers are used to control the
test operation instead of a computer, which usually requires some soft-
ware development.
In a multiple-static-test facility there can be a group of network-con-
nected computers and databases to achieve some or all of the functions
above. Some of the computer hardware would be part of the test article,
some part of the test facility, and some can be located remotely and
linked by a communications network. Reference 20-15 describes the
engine control and computer system for the Space Shuttle main engine.

20.4. FLIGHT TESTING

Flight testing of rocket propulsion systems is always conducted in conjunction

with tests of vehicles and other systems such as guidance, vehicle controls, or
ground support. These flights usually occur along missile and space launch
ranges, sometimes over the ocean. If a flight test vehicle deviates from its
intended path and appears to be headed for a populated area, a range safety
official (or a computer) will have to either cause a destruction of the vehicle,
abort the flight, or cause it to correct its course. Many propulsion systems
therefore include devices that will either terminate the operation (shut off the
rocket engine or open thrust termination openings into rocket motor cases as
described in Chapter 13) or trigger explosive devices that will cause the vehicle
(and therefore also the propulsion system) to disintegrate in flight.
Flight testing requires special launch support equipment, means for obser-
ving, monitoring, and recording data (cameras, radar, telemetering, etc.),
equipment for assuring range safety and for reducing data and evaluating flight
 20.5. POSTACCIDENT PROCEDURES 725

test performance, and specially trained personnel. Different launch equipment

is needed for different kinds of vehicles. This includes launch tubes for
shoulder-held infantry support missile launchers, movable turret-type mounted
multiple launchers installed on an army truck or a navy ship, a transporter for
larger missiles, and a track-propelled launch platform or fixed complex launch
pads for spacecraft launch vehicles. The launch equipment has to have provi-
sions for loading or placing the vehicle into a launch position, for allowing
access of various equipment and connections to launch support equipment
(checkout, monitoring, fueling, etc.), for aligning or aiming the vehicle, or
for withstanding the exposure to the hot rocket plume at launch.
During experimental flights extensive measurements are often made on the
behavior of the various vehicle subsystems; for example, rocket propulsion
parameters, such as chamber pressure, feed pressures, temperatures, and so
on, are measured and the data are telemetered and transmitted to a ground
receiving station for recording and monitoring. Some flight tests rely on salva-
ging and examining the test vehicle.

20.5. POSTACClDENT PROCEDURES

In the testing of any rocket propulsion system there will invariably be failures,
particularly when some of the operating parameters are close to their limit.
With each failure comes an opportunity to learn more about the design, the
materials, the propulsion performance, the fabrication methods, or the test
procedures. A careful and thorough investigation of each failure is needed to
learn the likely causes and identify the remedies or fixes to prevent a similar
failure in the future. The lessons to be learned from these failures are perhaps
the most important benefits of testing. A formalized postaccident approach is
often used, particularly if the failure had a major impact, such as high cost,
major damage, or personnel injury. A major failure (e.g., the loss of a space
launch vehicle or severe damage to a test facility) often causes the program to
be stopped and further testing or flights put on hold until the cause of the
failure is determined and remedial action has been taken to prevent a recur-
rence.
Of utmost concern immediately after a major failure are the steps that need
to be taken to respond to the emergency. This includes giving first aid to
injured personnel, bringing the propulsion system and/or the test facilities to
a safe, stable condition, limiting further damage from chemical hazards to the
facility or the environment, working with local fire departments, medical or
emergency maintenance staff or ambulance personnel, and debris clearing
crews, and quickly providing factual statements to the management, the
employees, the news media, and the public. It also includes controlling access
to the facility where the failure has occurred and preserving evidence for the
subsequent investigation. All test personnel, particularly the supervisory peo-
ple, need to be trained not only in preventing accidents and minimizing the
726 ROCKETTESTING

impact of a potential failure, but also how to best respond to the emergency.
Reference 20-16 suggests postaccident procedures involving rocket propel-
lants.

REFERENCES

20-1. K. Yanagawa, T. Fujita, H. Miyajima, and K. Kishimoto, "High Altitude

Simulation Tests of LOX-LH2 Engine LE-5," Journal of Propulsion and
Power, Vol. 1, No. 3, May-June 1985, pp. 180-186.
20-2. "Handbook for Estimating Toxic Fuel Hazards," NASA Report CR-61326,
April 1970.
20-3. R. R. Bennett and A. J. McDonald, "Recent Activities and Studies on the
Environmental Impact of Rocket Effluents," AIAA Paper 98-3850, July 1998.
20-4. R. J. Grosch, "Micro-Meteorological System," Report TR-68-37, Air Force
Rocket Propulsion Laboratory, November 1968 (AD 678856).
20-5. O. G. Sutton, Micrometeorology, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1973, Chapter 8.
20-6. D. Ramsey, Principles of Engineering Instrumentation, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1996.
20-7. K. G. McConnell, Vibration Testing: Theory and Practice, Wiley Interscience,
New York, 1995.
20-8. Y. M. Timnat, "Diagnostic Techniques for Propulsion Systems," Progress in
Aerospace Sciences, Vol. 26, No. 2, 1989, pp. 153-168.
20-9. R. S. Figliola and D. B. Beasley, Theory and Design for Mechanical
Measurements, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1991, 516 pages.
20-10. R. Cerri, "Sources of Measurement Error in Instrumentation Systems," Preprint
19-LA-61, Instrument Society of America, Research Triangle Park, NC.
20-11. P. M. J. Hughes and E. Cerny, "Measurement and Analysis of High-Frequency
Pressure Oscillations in Solid Rocket Motors," Journal of Spacecraft and
Rockets, Vol. 21, No. 3, May-June 1984, pp. 261-265.
20-12. Handbook for Estimating the Uncertainty in Measurements Made with Liquid
Propellant Rocket Engine Systems, Handbook 180, Chemical Propulsion
Information Agency, April 30, 1969 (AD 855130).
20-13. "Grounding Techniques for the Minimization of Instrumentation Noise
Problems," Report TR-65-8, Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory,
January 1965 (AD 458129).
20-14. R. C. Heim and K. J. Slusser, "The Measure of Engine Performance,"
Threshold, The Boeing Company, Rocketdyne Propulsion & Power, Summer
1994, pp. 40-48.
20-15. R. M. Mattox and J. B. White, "Space Shuttle Main Engine Controller," NASA
TP-1932, 1981.
20-16. D. K. Shaver and R. L. Berkowitz, Post-accident Procedures for Chemicals and
Propellants, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1984.