Chapter 3

DC Motor
 CONTENTS
 Working principle of DC Motor
 Torque Equation of DC Motor
 Back emf and its significance in DC Motor
 Types of DC Motor and their characteristics
 Speed control of DC Motor
 DC Motor starter
 Three-point starter and four-point starter
 Working principle of DC Motor
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. The working of DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. The direction of
this force is given by Fleming's left-hand rule and its magnitude is given by
F = BIL Newton

Let us take a simple elementary model of dc

motor with single turn of armature conductor
placed between two opposite poles i.e. North
and South poles a shown in the figure aside.
The field coils are not shown here which are
excited by dc current to generate fixed
magnetic poles
Now, if it starts supplying dc through commutator system to the single turn of armature
coil, current starts flowing through it. At this position, the positive terminal of the
battery is connected to the left conductor A of the turn and negative terminal of the
battery is connected to the right conductor A' of the turn. Moreover, we see that the
south and north poles of the magnet are placed at the left and right sides respectively.
The current in the left side conductor A of the turn flows inward and the current in the
right side conductor A' of turn flows outward. As we see that the conductors are
carrying current and placed inside the magnetic field. Both of them experiences
mechanical force acting on them. The direction of these forces can be easily
determined by applying Fleming's Left Hand Rule. Clearly, we can see that the
direction of force is upwards in left hand conductor A and downwards in right hand
conductor A'. Due to these upward and downward forces on the armature turn, a torque
is produced which tends to rotate the turn in clockwise direction.
Initially considering the armature is in its starting point or reference position where the
angle α = 0°.
∴ τ = BIL w cos0° = BILw
Since α = 0, the term cos α = 1, or the maximum value, hence torque at this position is
maximum given by τ = BILw. This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial
inertia of rest of the armature and sets it into rotation.
Once the armature is set in motion, the angle α
between the actual position of the armature and
its reference initial position goes on increasing
in the path of its rotation until it becomes 90°
from its initial position. Consequently the term
cosα decreases and also the value of torque. The
torque in this case is given by
τ = BILwcosα
which is less than initial starting torque BILw
when α is greater than 0°.
In the path of the rotation of the armature a
point is reached where the actual position of the
rotor is exactly perpendicular to its initial
position, i.e. α = 90°, and as a result the term
cosα = 0. The torque acting on the conductor at
this position is given by τ = BILwcos90° = 0. At
this position there is no force acting on the
conductors but still the armature does not come
to a standstill due to moment of inertia, thus the
armature turn continues to rotate and comes again to horizontal position where the angle
between the actual position of the armature and the initial plane again decreases and
torque starts acting on it again. But this time the position of the conductors has been
interchanged that means the conductor A which was previously at left position comes to
right and the conductor A' which was at right position comes to left. At this position, the
direction of current is inward in left hand side conductor A' and the direction of current is
outward in right hand side conductor A. Both of these conductors experiences mechanical
forces whose direction is again determined by applying Fleming's Left Hand rule. Clearly,
the direction of force is upward in left hand
side conductor A' and downward in right hand
side conductor A. Due to these forces, the
armature turn still rotates in clockwise
direction.
From above explanation, we can come to
conclusion that in the above model whichever
conductor comes under South pole experience
upward force and whichever conductor comes
under north pole experience downward force.
Due to these forces, the single turn of armature
conductor continues to rotate in clockwise
direction until the battery is disconnected.
 Torque Equation of DC Motor
When armature conductors of a DC motor carry current in the presence of stator field
flux, a mechanical torque is developed between the armature and the stator. Torque is
given by the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.
Armature Torque, Ta = F × r (N − m)
Where, F = force and r = radius of the armature coil
Work done by this force in once revolution = Force × distance = F × 2πr
Where, 2πr = circumference of the armature
60
Time for one revolution = sec
N
Where, N is the speed of the armature in RPM
Net power developed in the armature, P = Rate of doing work
work done
=
time
F×2πr×N
= (Joules per second)
60
 2π×N×T a
P= watts … … … (1)
60
When the armature rotates, it cuts the magnetic field continuously. Therefore, emf will
be induced across the armature coil whose magnitude is given by
ZΦN P
Eb = × volts … … … (2)
60 A
Hence, the power developed by the armature can be written as
P = Eb × Ia … … … 3
Equating (1) and (3), we get
2π×N×Ta
= Eb × Ia
60
2π×N×Ta ZΦN P
or, = × × Ia
60 60 A
1 P
∴ Ta = × ΦIa × Z × (N − m)
2π A
This gives,
Ta ∝ ΦIa
 Back emf and its significance in DC Motor
When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque, the
armature conductors move through the magnetic field and hence, according to Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction, emf will be induced across the armature conductors as
in a generator. The direction of this induced emf is in opposite direction to the applied
voltage, V (Lenz’s law) and is known as back emf or counter emf. It is denoted by Eb
and its magnitude is given by
ZΦN P
Eb = × volts
60 A
The armature is under the pressure of two voltages namely- external
applied voltage (V) and back emf (Eb ). The applied voltage 'V' has to
force the current through the armature against the opposing voltage
'Eb '. The current through the armature is given by
V−Eb
Ia =
Ra
In this case, the magnitude of the back emf is always less than the applied voltage. The
difference between the two is nearly equal when the motor runs under normal conditions.
Significance of Back emf in DC Motor

1) In every energy converting system, an opposing agent is necessary without which

the system will not be able to convert the energy. In DC motor, back emf plays the
role of opposing agent. The back emf opposes the applied voltage so that the
applied 'V' has to force the current through the armature against the opposition of
back emf. The electric work done in overcoming this opposition is converted into
mechanical energy in the form of mechanical rotation of the armature.
2) Back emf protects the armature from short circuit during running condition. If there
was no back emf during running condition, the armature will draw a very high
V−Eb V
current (Ia = = ) which is just like a short-circuiting the applied voltage 'V'
Ra Ra
by a low resistance of armature R a . This high current will be beyond the designed
current capacity of armature conductors and armature winding will get damaged.
3) The back emf makes the DC motor self-regulating machine i.e. the back emf
develops the armature current according to the need of the motor. For this, let us
consider the load on a dc motor is suddenly reduced. This means the load torque
is decreased, so the speed of the motor will start increasing. Hence, being
proportional to the speed, magnitude of the back emf will also increase. With
increasing back emf, armature current will start decreasing. Torque being
proportional to the armature current, it will also decrease until it becomes
sufficient for the load. On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded which
means the external load torque is increased. This will cause decrease in the speed.
Due to decrease in speed, back emf will also decrease allowing more armature
current. Increased armature current will increase the torque to satisfy the load
requirement. Thus, back emf helps the motor to produce required amount of
torque according to increased or decreased external load torque. Hence, presence
of back emf makes a DC motor self-regulating.
 Types of DC Motor and their characteristics
Based on the type of construction and electrical connection, DC motor can be
categorized into following types as shown in the chart:

Among the types of DC motor

shown in the chart, the one which
we are going to study are listed
below:
1) DC Shunt Motor
2) DC Series Motor
3) DC Compound Motor
1) DC Shunt Motor
 The parallel combination of field winding and armature winding is connected across
a common dc power supply.
 The resistance of the shunt field winding is deliberately set to limit the field current
to that required for normal operation of the motor, and is much higher than that of
armature resistance. This is because the number of turns for the shunt field winding
is more than that of armature winding.
 The cross-sectional area of the wire used for shunt field winding is smaller than that
of the wire used for armature winding.
V
Here, Shunt field current, Ish =
Rsh
Armature current, Ia = I − Ish
On applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we have
V − Ia R a − Eb = 0
∴ Eb = V − Ia R a
Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
1) Torque versus Armature Current (𝐓𝐚 − 𝐈𝐚 )
We know that, Ta ∝ 𝜑Ia and φ ∝ If
In a DC Shunt Motor, the field flux remains constant because the field current is
constant provided that the applied voltage is constant. Therefore, Ta ∝ Ia
Though at heavy loads, 𝜑 decreases in a small amount due to increased armature
reaction. As we are neglecting the change in the flux 𝜑, we can say that torque is
proportional to armature current.

Hence, the Ta − Ia characteristic of a dc shunt

motor is a straight line through the origin. The net
shaft torque is always less than the armature torque
because of loss of torque due to friction.
2) Speed versus Torque (𝐍 − 𝐓𝐚 )
Eb
We know that for a DC motor, N ∝
φ
And, φ is constant for DC shunt motor. Therefore, N ∝ Eb
With increase in load, the speed of the motor decreases. This causes decrease in back
V−Eb
emf which in turn leads to increase in armature current given by Ia = and finally
Ra
armature torque Ta is increased.
Hence, the N − Ta characteristic of a DC shunt motor is shown below:
But practically, φ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load.
Back emf Eb decreases slightly more than φ, therefore, the
speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed decreases only
by 5 to 15% of full load speed. Therefore, a shunt motor can be
assumed as a constant speed motor. Due to constancy of speed,
shunt motor is suitable for driving shaft of machine tools, lathe
machines, milling machines, conveyors, fans etc. where nearly
or approximately constant speed is required.
2) DC Series Motor

 The field winding is connected in series with the armature.

 The current passing through the series winding is same as the armature current .
Therefore, the series field winding has fewer turns of thick wire than the shunt field
winding.
 Also, the field winding will posses a low resistance then the armature winding.
 DC series motors are used where heavy starting torque is necessary such as electric
train, lifting hoists, trolleys, electric vehicles, etc.
Here, Armature current, Ia = I = If
On applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, we have
V − Ia (R a + R se ) − Eb = 0
∴ Eb = V − Ia (R a + R se )
Characteristics of DC Series Motor

1) Torque versus Armature Current (𝐓𝐚 − 𝐈𝐚 )

We know that torque is directly proportional to the product of armature current and field
flux Ta ∝ φIa . In DC series motors, field winding is connected in series with the
armature, i.e. Ia = If . Therefore, before magnetic saturation of the field, flux φ is directly
proportional to Ia i.e. φ ∝ If . Hence, before magnetic saturation, Ta ∝ Ia2 . Therefore, the
Ta − Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia .
After magnetic saturation of the field poles, flux φ is
independent of armature current Ia . Therefore, the torque
varies proportionally to Ia i.e. Ta ∝ Ia . Therefore, after
magnetic saturation, Ta − Ia curve becomes a straight
line. The shaft torque (Tsh ) is less than armature torque
(Ta ) due to stray losses. Hence, the curve Tsh vs Ia lies
slightly lower.
2) Speed versus Torque (𝐍 − 𝐓𝐚 )
Eb
We know that for a DC motor, N ∝
φ
For light load (i.e. at low Ta ), the armature current is low. Therefore, back emf Eb will
be comparatively high to allow low armature current. As we know, flux is directly
proportional to Ia , so flux per pole will also be low. Therefore, speed will be
significantly high at low torque. But at heavy load (i.e. at high Ta ), the armature current
is large. Therefore, back emf Eb will reduce to allow large armature current. As we
know, flux is directly proportional to Ia , so flux per pole will also be large. Therefore,
speed will be significantly low at high torque.
Hence, the N − Ta characteristic of a DC series motor is shown
below. From this characteristics curve, it is clear that at the starting
(where speed is very low), DC series motor develops a high
torque. On the other hand, at light load, the speed will be very
high. Hence, a DC series motor should never be started at light
load otherwise it may develop excessive speed and mechanical
failure may occur due to heavy centrifugal force.
3) DC Compound Motor
 A compound wound DC motor has both shunt and series field coils. The shunt field
coil is normally the stronger of the two and has more ampere turns.
 Compound wound motors are of two types: cumulative compound wound and
differential compound wound.
 If the two field windings i.e. series and shunt are wounded in such a way that the
fluxes produced by them add or assist each other, then the motor is said to be
cumulative compound wound motor.
 If the two field winding i.e. series and shunt are wounded in such a way that the fluxes
produced by them always try to oppose and try to cancel each other, then the motor is
said to be differential compound wound motor.
 Compound wound DC motors may be either long shunt connected or short shunt
connected.
 In long shunt connected compound wound motor, the series field winding is connected
in series with the armature winding and the shunt field winding is connected in
parallel with the armature connection.
 In short shunt compound wound motor, the series field winding is connected in
series to the parallel combination of armature and the shunt field winding. This is
done to get good starting torque and constant speed characteristics.
Characteristics of DC Compound Motor
(a) Characteristics of Cumulative compound wound motor
The operating characteristics of a cumulative compound wound motor are a combination of
those of the series motor and the shunt motor. When a load is applied, the increasing
current through the series winding increases the field flux. As a result, the torque for a
given current is greater than it would be for a shunt motor. However, this flux increase
causes the speed to decrease to a lower value than in a shunt motor. A cumulative
compound wound motor develops a high torque with any sudden increase of load.
Therefore, this type of motor has a higher starting torque than a shunt motor but a lower
starting torque than a series motor. At light loads, the series field has a very small effect, so
the motor behaves approximately as a shunt DC motor. As the load gets very large, the
series flux becomes quite important and the torque-speed curve begins to look like that of
series motor. Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt winding
prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly
removed. These motors have generally employed as a flywheel, where sudden and
temporary loads are applied like in rolling mills, punching and shearing machines, etc.
(b) Characteristics of Differential compound wound motor
In differential compound wound motor, the series field opposes the shunt field so that the
field flux is decreased as a load is applied. As a result, the machine runs at a higher speed
than it would do as a shunt motor. The decrease in flux with increase in load causes the
torque to be less than that of a shunt motor.
A differential compound motor has a tendency to speed instability. When starting a
differential motor, it's recommended that the series field be shorted since the great starting
current in this field may overbalance the shunt field and cause the motor to start in the
opposite direction. Differential motors are rarely employed in practice due to difficulties
during overloads and starting.
Figure: Characteristics of DC Compound Motor
 Speed Control of DC Motor
Speed control of a DC motor is either done manually by the operator or by means of an
automatic control device. This is different to speed regulation – where the speed is
trying to be maintained (or ‘regulated’) against the natural change in speed due to a
change in the load on the shaft.
The speed of a DC motor (N) is given by the relationship
V − Ia R a
N=
kφ
Hence the speed can be varied by changing the (i) applied voltage, (ii) resistance in
armature circuit, R a and (iii) flux per pole, φ

Therefore, there are three general methods of speed control of DC motor given by
1) Armature Resistance Control
2) Field Flux Control
3) Armature Voltage Control
 Speed Control of DC Shunt Motor
1) Field Flux Control
It is clear that that the speed of a dc motor is inversely proportional to the flux per
pole. Thus by decreasing the flux, speed can be increased and vice versa.
In this method of speed control, a variable resistance R v is added in series with the field
winding to regulate the field current thereby regulating the flux per pole, as shown in
the circuit diagram. When R v is reduced to '0' position, full rated field current will flow
and the motor rotates with rated normal speed. When R v is connected at position '1', the
field current will reduce thereby reducing the flux per pole, then the motor rotates with
a speed higher than normal rated speed.
2
In shunt motors, as field current is relatively very small, Ish R loss is small. Therefore,
this method is quite efficient. Though speed can be increased above the rated value by
reducing flux with this method, it puts a limit to maximum speed as weakening of field
flux beyond a limit will adversely affect the commutation.
2) Armature Resistance Control
Speed of a dc motor is directly proportional to the back emf, Eb and Eb = V - IaRa. That
means, when supply voltage V and the armature resistance Ra are kept constant, then the
speed is directly proportional to armature current Ia. But, in this method, a variable series
resistance R v is added in the armature circuit, as shown in the diagram. As the field
winding is directly connected across the full supply voltage, the field current will remain
constant/unaffected. Therefore, the flux per pole also remains constant. As we know that
the armature torque is directly proportional to both of the flux per pole and armature
current. If the armature variable resistance R v is increased keeping the load torque
constant, the armature current remains constant but the voltage across the armature will
decrease. Hence, the speed of the armature will decrease. This method is used when the
speed below the normal rated speed is required.
3) Armature Voltage Control
Speed control of a dc shunt motor can be obtained by varying the applied voltage to
the armature. Ward-Leonard method of speed control of dc shunt motor is based on
this principle and is shown in the figure below.
In this method, M2 is the main motor whose speed control is required. G is a separately
excited dc generator directly coupled to three phase driving motor M1. M1 may be
any AC motor with constant speed. The combination of ac driving motor and the dc
generator is called the motor-generator set.
By changing the generator field current, the generator voltage is changed. This voltage
when applied direct to the armature of the main dc motor M2 changes its speed. The
motor field current Ifm is kept constant so that the motor field flux φm also remains
constant. The motor armature current Ia is kept equal to the its rated value during the
speed control. The generator field current Ifg is varied such that the armature voltage
Vt changes from zero to its rated value. The speed will change from zero to the base
speed. Since, speed control is carried out with rated current Ia and with constant motor
field flux φm , a constant torque, τ upto base (rated) speed is obtained. Since the power
P is proportional to speed, it increases with speed. Hence, with armature voltage control
method, constant torque and variable power is obtained from speed below the rated
speed.
For speed control above the base speed, field flux control is used. In this mode of
operation, the motor armature current Ia is maintained constant at its rated value and
the generator voltage Vt is kept constant. The motor field current Ifm is kept decreased
and therefore, the motor field flux φm is decreased. That is, the field is weakened to
obtain the higher speeds. Since, Vt Ia remains constant and τ ∝ φm Ia , the
electromagnetic torque τ decreases with decrease in field flux φm . Therefore, the torque
decreases as the speed increases. Thus, in field control method, constant power and
variable torque is obtained for speeds above base speed.
When speed control over a wide range is required, combination of armature voltage
control and filed flux control is used. This system is used where very sensitive speed
control of motor is required (e.g. electric excavators, elevators etc.).
 Speed Control of DC Series Motor
1) Flux Control Method
The speed of DC series motor can be controlled by variation of flux using any
one of the following methods:

a) Field diverter method

In this method, a variable resistance R v is connected in
parallel to the series field as shown in figure below. This
variable resistor is called as a diverter. When R v is
connected, some of the field current will get diverted and
pass through R v . Any desired amount of current can be
passed through field winding by adjusting the value of R v
because Thus, flux can be decreased to the desired amount
and speed can be increased.
b) Armature diverter method
In this method, a variable resistance R v is connected in parallel to the armature winding as
shown in figure below. When R v is connected, some of the armature current will get
diverted and pass through R v . For a given constant load torque, if armature current is
reduced due to R v , then the flux must increase, as Ta ∝ φIa . This will result in an increase
in current taken from the supply and hence flux φ will increase and subsequently speed of
the motor will decrease.
c) Tapped field control method
In this method, the series field coil is provided with
number of tappings as shown in the figure below. Thus,
we can select different value of φ by selecting different
number of field turns with the help of tap changer.
When all field turns are in circuit, the motor runs at the
lowest speed and speed increases with cutting out some
of the series field turns.

d) Paralleling field coils method

In this method, several speeds can be obtained by
regrouping of field coils (usually used in fan motors) as
shown in the figure below.
2) Armature Control Method
Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by armature control may be done by any one
of the following methods:
a) Armature Resistance Control Method
In this method, a variable resistance R v is inserted in series with the armature circuit,
as shown in the diagram. By varying the armature circuit resistance, the current and
flux both are affected. The voltage drop in the variable resistance reduces the voltage
applied to the armature, and as a result, the speed of the motor is reduced.
b) Shunted Armature Control Method
The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a rheostat in series with the
armature is involved in this method of speed control. The voltage applied to the armature
is varied by varying series rheostat R1 . The exciting current can be varied by varying the
armature shunting resistance R 2 for the same armature current Ia . For a given constant
load torque, if armature current Ia is reduced due to R 2 , then the flux must increase, as
Ta ∝ φIa . This causes increase in current drawn from the supply main, so increase in flux
and decrease in speed.
This method of speed control is not economical due to
considerable power losses in speed controlling
resistances. Here speed control is obtained over wide
range but below normal speed.
 Necessity of a DC motor starter
Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as V = Eb + Ia R a and hence,
V − Eb
Ia = . Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, the back emf Eb = 0. Hence,
Ra
V
armature current at the instant of starting will be given by Ia = . In practical DC
Ra
machines, armature resistance is basically very low, generally about 0.5 Ω. Therefore, a
large current flows through the armature during starting. This current is large enough to
damage the armature circuit. Due to this excessive starting current,
1) the fuses may blow out and the armature winding or commutator brush arrangement
may get damaged.
2) very high starting torque will be produced (as torque is directly proportional to the
armature current), and this high starting torque may cause huge centrifugal force
which may throw off the armature winding.
3) other loads connected to the same source may experience a dip in the terminal voltage.
A large DC motor will pick up speed rather slowly due to its large rotor inertia. Hence, the
back emf builds up slowly causing the level of high starting current to be maintained for
quite some time. This may cause severe damage. To avoid this, a suitable DC motor
starter must be used. Very small dc motors, however, may be started directly by
connecting them to the supply with the help of a contactor or a switch. It does not result in
any harm because they gather speed quickly due to small rotor inertia. In this case, the
large starting current will die down quickly because of the fast rise in the back emf.
A DC motor starter is a variable resistance connected in series with the armature winding
during the starting period only so that a safe value of the motor is maintained and to limit
the starting current until the motor has attained its stable speed. The series resistance is
divided into sections which are cut out one by one, as the speed of the motor rises and
develops back emf which in turn reduces the armature current. When the armature rotates
with full rated speed, the starting resistance will completely cut out. The extra resistance is
cut out when the speed of the motor builds up to its normal value.
 Three Point Starter
When the connected dc motor is to be started, the starting arm is turned gradually to the
right. When the arm touches point 1, the field winding gets directly connected across the
supply, and the armature winding gets connected with resistances R1 to R 5 in series.
During starting, full resistance is added in series with the armature winding.
As the motor speeds up, the arm is moved further and the starting resistance is gradually
cut out from the armature circuit. Now, as the arm reaches to position 6, all the resistance
is cut out from the armature circuit and armature gets directly connected across the
supply. At the same time the motor will have full rated speed thus producing normal
value of back emf to set the armature current to normal value. The arm moves over
various positions against a strong spring force which tends to pull back the arm to the
OFF position. But there is a soft iron piece attached to the arm which in the ON position
is attracted and hold by an electromagnet 'E' (also known as hold-on coil or no-volt coil)
energized by the shunt field coil. When the motor is switched off by the main switch, this
hold-on coil or electromagnet gets demagnetized and the starting arm is thrown back to
OFF position under the action of spring force. The electromagnet also releases the arm
when there is low supply voltage or break in field winding.
When the motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, the motor will draw high
current and the 'overcurrent release electromagnet' D gets activated, which short-circuits
the electromagnet E and, hence, electromagnet E get de-energized and it will releases
the starting arm and the motor is turned off.

The fact that the no-volt coil E is magnetized by the field current represents the
drawback of three-point starter. The speed of motor is controlled by change in current
affected by the field rheostat because the no-volt coil relies on the constant supply of
field current, change in speed may result in the demagnetization of the NVC, the release
of the starter arm/handle, and the unintentional cutting of the motor. Four-point starter
overcomes this problem by adding an additional terminal.
 Four Point Starter
The main difference between a three-point starter and a four-point starter is that the no
voltage coil (electromagnet E) is removed from the shunt field circuit and is connected
directly across the line with a current limiting resistance R in series .
Such an arrangement forms three parallel circuits as follows:
1) Armature, starting the resistance and the shunt field winding.
2) A variable resistance and the shunt field winding.
3) Holding coil and the current limiting resistance.
With this arrangement, there will be no effect on the current through the holding coil if
there is any variation in speed of the motor or any change in field current of the motor.
This is because the two circuits are independent of each other. These starters are
typically employed in applications where the motor is expected to operate above normal
speed.
Power Flow Diagram
 Efficiency of DC Motor
Mechanical power developed Eb Ia
Electrical efficiency, ηe = =
Total electrical power input VIL
Useful mechanical power output
Mechanical efficiency, ηe =
Total electrical power input
BHP of motor ∗ 735.5
=
Eb Ia
Commercial or Overall efficiency, ηM = ηm ηe
Useful mechanical power output
=
Total electrical power input
BHP of prime mover ∗ 735.5
=
VIL